In any social system, including in the family, the phenomenon of power exists in an explicit or implicit form. The presence of this phenomenon as a necessary condition for the existence of all social systems is not denied by the majority of representatives of the humanitarian fields of scientific knowledge. Exception in this case are represented only by supporters of anarchist ideas. However, on the question of the genetic nature and essence of power, scientists differ sharply in their views. In the future, the author will proceed from a fairly widespread point of view, according to which any power is, first of all, a harmony, that is, an order. To confirm this statement, one can bring not only philosophical and social, but also philological arguments. Etymologically, in the Russian language the very word "power" does not come from the word "will". The root in this case is "fret", which is most clearly manifested in such a Belarusian word as "ulada"
So, any power is, first of all, harmony, that is, order. Order in this case means that all subjects of a certain society must occupy a certain place in its structure. Moreover, the most important for social systems is not a single-level horizontal, but a hierarchical-vertical order. Thus, it is the presence of a pronounced hierarchy that is a necessary condition for the existence of any stable social system. Of course, in a certain sense, it will be true that such a system itself in its development builds a certain socio-hierarchical ladder, but still to a greater extent true is the statement about order as a primary, necessary ontological condition for building a stable society. In the family as a specific social system, the phenomenon of power, along with general generic properties, has a number of its specific features. First, the construction of the traditional family hierarchical ladder is based not on social, but mainly on physiological criteria, such as gender and age. Scientists often draw an analogy between family and state.
Taking this comparison as a starting point for further reasoning, we can come to the conclusion that hierarchical relationships in the family are analogous to similar relationships in this form government controlled like a monarchy. As is known, in monarchies (at least in most of them) there is a phenomenon of heredity of the highest power, and such heredity is carried out not according to social, but according to purely physiological criteria. A person becomes the bearer of this power not as a result of the so-called "free democratic elections", but only due to the fact of his birth. Likewise, traditionally, in most families, only a man who is the father of a given family could become the head of a family, that is, the supremacy of family power was rigidly determined by the age and physiological characteristics of its bearer. Of course, this phenomenon can be given some social explanation, but it will also be closely interconnected with the psycho-physiological characteristics of the sexes. The fact is that the results of numerous modern studies in the gender field indicate the presence of a phenomenon of completely different perceptions by men and women of any social object significant for them. For a man, first of all, this object is a kind of organic social integrity, within the framework of which personal relations between elements of society (that is, specific people) are, although significant, but secondary, auxiliary.
For a woman, on the other hand, society is perceived primarily not as something supra-individual, but as a set of personal relationships between members of the society. Naturally, a person should build his life not on the basis of advice from Washington or Brussels, but relying primarily on the objective laws of being. Thus, in relation to the topic of our research, we can come to the conclusion that the male role in the family should mainly be expressed in activities to change (as well as preserve) the entire system of family relations, and female influence in the most positive form can be realized in the process of personal relationships of individual family members. That is why some gender inequality in the family is not a manifestation of gender discrimination. Moreover, it is not a restriction for a woman to realize her potential "I". In our opinion, on the contrary, it is thanks to the existence of this hierarchical inequality that women are provided with the most favorable opportunities to realize this “I” within the family. Secondly, the most important specific feature of the manifestation of harmony in family relationships is the existence of love between all family members.
Thus, the true harmony is not just any order based, for example, on purely formal principles, but some kind of organic harmony that has love as its primary source. It is not for nothing that our ancestors called their loved ones "ladoy". Note that the famous Irish thinker K.S. Lewis considered love to be one of the original and natural laws of all human existence. “Man,” he believed, “cannot but obey the laws that he shares with other bodies and organisms. But the law that is inherent only in human nature and which does not apply to animals, plants or inorganic bodies - such a law can be violated by a person at his choice. This law was called "natural" because people think that everyone knows it instinctively and therefore no one needs to be taught it. " Of course, for the existence of some hierarchical social systems, the presence of love between its subjects is not a necessary condition. But for a family, love is really necessary. Otherwise, the family order will be established with the help of totalitarian violence, and held on by universal fear. Moreover, in this case, it does not fundamentally matter whether this violence is carried out with the help of brute physical force, or through deception. We have already noted the existence of an essential analogy between the family and the state.
That is why the thought of the outstanding Russian philosopher of the 20th century I.A. Ilyin, who believed that any state can exist either as a corporation or as an institution. In his opinion, the corporate state is built "from the bottom up", and the institutional state, on the contrary, "from the top down." Of course, in this case we are talking about an extreme manifestation of the principle state structure... Moreover, such extremes lead to the state of the ontological disease of this device. “The state in its healthy implementation,” stressed Ilyin, “always combines the features of a corporation with the features of an institution: it is being built - both from above and from below, and according to the principle of power guardianship, and according to the principle of self-government.
There are state affairs in which corporate self-government is appropriate and useful; and there are cases in which it is decidedly inappropriate and unacceptable. " Accordingly, any family in its healthy implementation should be built on the principles of both a corporation and an institution. It is love between all its members that serves as the very beginning, which, on the one hand, will not allow the corporate principles to be absolutized and bring the family to a state of continuous universal competition, and on the other hand, it will prevent the transformation of the family hierarchy into an absolute dictatorship of the head of the family over the rest of its members.
Literature
1.Lewis, C.S. Suffering. Hope: Proverbs. Treatises. - Moscow, 1992.
2. Ilyin, I.A. What is the state - a corporation or an institution // Sobr. Op. in 10 t, v. 2, book. 2. - Moscow, 1993.
Outline of an open summary-generalizing lesson in the discipline "Social Studies" in the section "Economics"
Objectives: purposeful orientation of learners towards perception, and collective decision difficult issues based on maximum mental stress; understanding the main characteristics of economic systems; improving the ability to analyze, compare and generalize; continuation of work on the development of students' abilities for integrative thinking, which helps them to see new sides of the phenomenon, forms a holistic vision of the world, which means that it makes it easier to find their place in it. Lesson type: final-generalizing lesson, seminar.
Basic concepts: economics, economic systems, private property.
Organization of work: the work of the seminar participants includes 5 main parts, containing different kinds activities:
Choice of topic, question.
Organizational and methodological preparation of work.
Self-preparation of students for work.
The work itself.
Generalization of the results of the work.
Course of the lesson
I. Introductory speech of the teacher.
Nowadays, the concept of "economics" denotes a wide area in the life of society, which includes the economy of enterprises, industries, countries, as well as finance, money circulation, etc. The economic sphere is the main system-forming sphere that directly affects all spheres in life of society. In this area, the satisfaction of a person and society with material benefits occurs: food, clothing, housing.
A high level is very important for economic prosperity economic education because well-being and the level of economic education are related to each other.
The word "economy" itself has two meanings:
- the way of managing or organizing the activities of people aimed at creating material goods necessary to meet the needs of society;
is a science that explores the laws by which people interact in the process of housekeeping.
II. Students are divided into groups. There are 3 rounds. At the end of each round, points are awarded to the whole group.
1st round. Oral questioning, updating of knowledge.
Economy is any activity of people related to the material provision of living conditions and the creation economic benefits(goods and services).
A need is an objectively existing need, a person's need for something, which is expressed by the desire to satisfy it.
Economic goods are goods and services.
The social environment of human management is the conditions in which, first, property relations develop (private property creates conditions for free competition and encourages proactive, creative and more productive work); secondly, the level of development of state and public organizations is being formed.
Distribution is the process of determining the share (quantity, proportion) of each economic object in the produced product.
Exchange is a process that allows producers to exchange the products of their labor.
Consumption is the process of using the created goods to meet the needs of people.
Economic agents - subjects economic relations participating in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.
Economic activity is any activity of economic entities aimed at obtaining economic benefits.
An economic system is a way of organizing society to solve the economic issues facing it: what to produce, how to produce, for whom to produce.
The consumer budget is the balance of family income and expenses; it characterizes the standard of living of various segments of the population.
The standard of living is a set of living conditions for the population of a country that correspond to the achieved level of its economic development.
The subsistence minimum is the level of income that ensures the acquisition of material goods and services necessary to ensure human life at a certain level of socio-economic development of the country and the existing needs of the population.
Consumer basket is the minimum set of food products, non-food products and services necessary to preserve human health and ensure his life.
Labor force is physical and mental capabilities, as well as skills that allow a person to perform certain types of work, while ensuring the required level of labor productivity and quality of manufactured products.
Salary is a value monetary reward, which is paid by the employer to the employee for the performance of a certain amount of work or the performance of his official duties for a certain time.
Nominal wages are the remuneration for work that is assigned to an employee in the form of a certain amount of money.
Unemployment is a situation in the economy in which some of the able and willing to work for hire cannot find a job that matches their abilities.
A budget is a collection of all income and expenses for a certain period of time (month or year).
2nd round. Each group deals with a specific problem: to give the most complete description of the models of the economy (traditional, command, market models)
l-th group: Traditional model of the economy (pre-capitalist; feudal).
2nd group: Market model of the economy (capitalist).
3rd group: Command model of the economy (socialist).
Each of the groups receives worksheets in which they answer the following questions:
What to produce?
How to produce?
For whom to produce?
A method of coordinating the economic activities of people, firms, states.
By what models and when did Russia develop?
In the course of joint creative work, there is a stringing of ideas, provisions, facts that characterize the economic sphere.
Economy models
1. Traditional economic system: land and capital are communally owned. Resources are allocated according to tradition. Traditional occupations. The main economic issues do not stand. The economic system is ineffective.
2. Market economic system: land and capital are in private property... Resources are allocated by market mechanisms. The main issues are decided by the manufacturer himself, acting in accordance with the laws of the market.
The advantages of this system are: private economic initiative, entrepreneurship, based on the right of private property and on the market organization of the distribution of organic resources.
H. Command, or planned, economy: an economy in which land, capital, means of production are owned by the state, limited resources are allocated by the state in accordance with plans. The main issues of the economy are also decided by the state, namely, certain state organizations, governing bodies.
In a planned system, people are more socially protected. Prices are stable here. However, right there: a shortage of goods, equalization in wages, low entrepreneurship and initiative of producers. Everything that the state gives, it first takes.
The command economic system was introduced and during its heyday it spread to more than a third of the entire population of the Earth.
Question to all groups after completing the assignment:
By what models and when did Russia develop?
Round 3. Work with documents.
Each group receives a document and completes the assignment.
1) Reading the document.
2) Answers to questions.
The most complete answers of students are evaluated.
III. Lesson summary.
Students deliberately draw conclusions based on the done robots.
Conclusion: in our time, there are different economic systems. In economics modern Russia elements of the command, market and even traditional model can be observed. However, in general economy modern Russia is recognized as a market one.
Choice, approval, implementation of one or another economic model depend on many factors (on the historical, political, socio-economic situation in the country and in the world, on natural, geographical resources, on the characteristics of the national culture, the mentality of the people, etc.).
Annex 1
Document
On the role of the state in a market economy. From the work of the modern Russian economist A.N. Porokhovsky "Russian market model: the way of implementation."
All agents of the economy are united by a single market space of the country, where the same rules of the game are monitored and supported by special state institutions ... The market itself is not able to maintain competition. Maintaining and stimulating competition in the economic sphere is the function of the state. Fighting the monopoly, support competition, the state is both within the market model and outside it, guaranteeing stability market system generally. Maintaining stability is as important as protecting competition. Both a favorable social climate in the country and sustainability depend on the verified, active role of the relevant state institutions. financial system, and ... the expansion of the production of public goods, especially in the sphere of services, education, science, health care, culture, the creation of a legal field in the entrepreneurial sphere ... Therefore, even in the theoretical market model, the state belongs crucial role the preservation of the market system itself through the expression of common, or public, interests. Not a single private business, no matter how gigantic it has reached, by its nature can ignore its own interests and assume the interests of the whole society. However, the state can cope with such responsibilities only if it is part of a democratic society. In such a society, along with the market mechanism, there is a democratic mechanism for the control of voters over the state apparatus, and the judicial system provides legal protection to all citizens in accordance with the law.
Assignments to the document:
How does the author of the document characterize the role of state institutions in a single market space? What, according to the scientist, economic functions states contribute to the stable development of the market system?
A.N. Prokhorovsky names a number of socio-economic phenomena in the life of society that are directly dependent on the active role of the state in their regulation. List these phenomena and, based on known facts, illustrate one of them with an example.
The author of the document emphasizes the role of the state in the preservation and development of competition. Using the text and knowledge of the social studies course, explain the importance of competition for a market economy.
Why, according to the economist, the presence of a democratic society is a condition for the state to perform its functions in market economy? Is there a connection between the market and democracy? Try to give examples to support this.
Appendix 2
Document
From the work of the Russian scientist-economist I. Zaslavsky "On the characteristics of labor in modern Russia."
In Russia, the transition from full and unconditional employment in social production, corresponding to the universality and compulsory nature of labor under socialism, to a system of economic activity that meets the criteria of a market economy has taken place. More than half of the economically active population does not work for government agencies, but for themselves, work in enterprises and in private-corporate organizations. Moreover, 15% are employed in small business. About 9% are classified according to the ILO methodology as unemployed ...
The proportions of the distribution of employed have changed in favor of those industries whose business activity has increased due to market transformations: trade and public catering, logistics and trade intermediation, lending, finance and insurance ... our country has almost caught up with Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden.
The visible metamorphosis of employment reflected changes in the character and content of “directly social labor". From collectively compulsory activity for the production of planned products and services of a given quantity and assortment, labor becomes a way of existence for economically independent commodity producers. Public and collective labor is being replaced by private individual labor.
The revolution in property and the accompanying institutional transformations in the economy led to the fact that millions of people who were previously engaged in systematically organized professional work for the state tested their strengths and abilities in the hitherto persecuted entrepreneurship and in small business, where labor, property and management are fused together ( control). Almost 1/4 of those employed in the private sector are not wage earners. In their activities, professional and innovative work is combined in various proportions and, at the same time, management work with performing work.
Assignments to the document:
What problems of the social and labor sphere of life of Russian society does the author highlight and consider?
Name the changes that have occurred in the content and nature of social labor, the position of an employee as a result of market reforms.
What does I. Zaslavsky mean when he says: “In Russia, the transition from full and unconditional employment in social production ... to a system of economic activity that meets the criteria of a market economy has taken place”? Based on the text, find an explanation for this statement.
What changes have occurred in sectoral structure employment of Russians during the development of market relations in the economy? Provide, based on knowledge of the facts of social life, examples of these changes.
Appendix 3
Document
How to manage your capital. From the work of the Scottish economist A. Smith "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations."
When the stocks that a person owns do not exceed the amount sufficient only to keep him for several days or weeks, he rarely thinks about extracting any income from them ... In this case, his income comes exclusively from his labor ... If this person has reserves sufficient to keep it for several months or years, it naturally tries to extract income from most of these reserves. Therefore, the reserves are divided into two parts. The part from which he expects to receive income is called capital. The other part is the one that goes to direct consumption ...
Capital can be used in two different ways to deliver income, or profit, to its owner. First, it can be used for the production, processing or purchase of goods for the purpose of resale at a profit ... This kind of capital is correctly called working capital. Secondly, capital can be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines and tools or other items that generate income or profit without transferring from one owner to another or without further circulation. Such capitals can be called fixed capital.
... That part of the farmer's capital that is spent on agricultural implements is fixed capital, and that part that is used for wages and the maintenance of its workers will be circulating capital. He derives profit from the first, keeping it in his possession, and from the second parting with it.
... In all countries where there is a fairly stable order, every person with common sense tries to use the reserves at his disposal in order to get himself satisfaction of his needs in the present or profit in the future.
Assignments to the document:
What types of income of citizens does the text of the document introduce?
What portion of income is equity? How is working capital different from fixed capital?
The scientist believed that "a stable order" is a necessary condition for each person with "common sense" to extract income from available savings. Can I agree with him? Describe the conditions in modern Russian economy stimulating or hindering the ability of consumers and producers to earn income from their capital
How to maintain and increase your income? Formulate your suggestions.
Appendix 4
Task number 1
_______________________ economy.
Ownership of economic resources.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The way to solve the main economic issues:
What to produce?
How to produce?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
For whom to produce?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
What coordinates economic activity people, firms, states .____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Countries in which this or that economic model has been developed.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Subgroup list:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Purpose: to get acquainted with the main indicators of the rational behavior of subjects of economic relations.
Subject: social studies.
Class: 11.
Date of the event: "____" ____. 20___
Teacher: Khamatgaleev E.R.
I. Communication of the topic and purpose of the lesson.
II. Presentation (with elements of conversation) of program material.
Is the competition of manufacturers beneficial to the consumer? Why do people use credit? Is it good to live in debt? How can we make sure that our expenses do not exceed our income?
This paragraph concludes the chapter "Man and the Economy", building on the previous material and generalizing it to a certain extent.
From the materials of §1 you learned about the main types of human activity in the economy - production, distribution, exchange, consumption. Production is the basis of the economy, a means of solving its main task - the creation of material goods to meet the needs of people. Therefore, the fulfillment of the role of a producer by a person was the subject of consideration of almost all paragraphs of the chapter. In solving a key problem for society effective use of limited resources, not only producers but also consumers are actively involved.
Starting to consider the rules of rational behavior used by the main participants in the economy, we will try to pay much more attention to the consumer.
Recall what it means to behave rationally. Rational behavior - it is, first of all, deliberate behavior, involving the comparison of the results of actions with costs.
Rational consumer behavior
Production is organically linked to consumption, it is carried out for consumption and determines its structure. In turn, the consumer, choosing goods and services, actively influences production, stimulating its development. The influence of consumers on producers in a free market and competition is so great that sometimes they even speak of "consumer dictate".
Consumers - these are those who purchase and use goods, order works and services for personal household needs, not related to making a profit. Each of us is a consumer, wanting to satisfy our needs in some way. The consumer is a firm, an organization, and the state as a whole.
The consumer's goal is to extract the maximum benefit from the consumption of goods and services. On the way to this goal, the consumer has such restrictions as family budget, prices, range of products and services offered. Therefore, the consumer, like the manufacturer, is influenced by disabilities... He also faces the problem of rational choice.
In countries with a command economy, consumer actions are usually regulated. In the USSR, for example, the consumer was deprived of the freedom to choose housing, medical institutions, and some expensive goods (cars, furniture, etc.). In a market economy, freedom of economic behavior predetermines consumer sovereignty, that is, the right of the owner of any kind of resources to independently make decisions related to the disposal of these resources and their use.
Remember the diverse needs of a person: physiological, social, spiritual, needs for self-realization, for safety. These needs can be met by different types markets. For example, the need for goods and services - in the market for goods and services, the need for self-realization - in the labor market. In order to competently and rationally make consumer choices, everyone must have certain knowledge and skills.
A consumer interested in satisfying his needs with the least cost of limited funds has to think about the following questions: what to spend his income on in the first place? How to choose a product or service of the desired quality and corresponding to its purchasing capabilities? How to reduce financial losses? How to save existing income? How to behave rationally in different markets?
Let us consider these issues using the example of consumer behavior in the market for goods and services. The consumer is one of the main actors in this market, he creates demand, through which the assortment, quality and price of goods are determined. But is he that strong in this market? How to choose the right product? Quite often, consumer information about a product is limited to knowledge of its function or the perceived benefits of using it.
Let's say you want to buy a modern washing machine. Where to begin? It is necessary to assess the market for this product. First of all, study advertisements: what is the assortment of goods, where and at what price it can be bought. Then choose a specialized store where you can get information about the properties and quality of the goods from a qualified specialist (commodity expert, manager). You should be interested in the store where the goods are sold with the maximum warranty period of service, delivery and installation, after-sales service are provided. Do not forget to pay attention to the announcements about the days of sales, discounts on goods. An analysis of all factors will help you make a rational, that is, with the greatest benefit for yourself, purchase.
As you can see, the rational behavior of the consumer when choosing a product or service presupposes, as a rule, a certain sequence of actions: awareness of the need to purchase, search for information about a product or service, assessment possible options purchases, making a purchase decision.
So you've made your choice. But can we always buy what we want? Alas, we often come across such a limitation of our possibilities as the level of available income.
You already know that a person can generate income from several different sources. The main sources of consumer income are wages, social payments state to individual citizens in the form of benefits, pensions, scholarships, income from entrepreneurial and other activities, income from property (payment received for renting your apartment or summer house, interest on money capital, dividends on securities).
In many households, the income generated falls into two parts: one is earmarked for buying goods and paying for services necessary to meet the personal needs of people; the other part of the income comes from savings. This division does not depend on the forms and sources of income, but depends on its size. The more income the consumer receives, the more large amount he is able to spend money on consumption. As income rises, so does the amount of savings. These dependencies are obvious. But economists have established other dependences of income and expenses: how more income families, the lower the share of spending on food and more on durable goods, as well as the greater the share of savings.
A person's standard of living depends not only on the size of his salary or savings, but also on how wisely he spends money. Economists divide consumer spending into mandatory and optional. Obligatory expenses can be considered as the minimum necessary - these are the costs of food, clothing, fare, payment utilities etc. If your personal income does not exceed the obligatory expenses, then you can hardly afford arbitrary expenses(for example, for a tourist trip, purchase of books, paintings, cars, etc.).
Analyzing consumer spending data different countries, scientists concluded: the richer the country, the smaller part of the personal income of its citizens goes to the compulsory expenses. The German researcher and statistician E. Engel (1821-1896) was the first to establish a logical connection between the income of the population and the structure of consumption. According to Engel's Law, the higher the family's income level, the lower the share of its expenses on food products. Accordingly, the demand for industrial consumer goods increases, and with a further increase in the level of income, the costs of high-quality goods and services increase significantly. As you can see, the structure of consumption expenditures changes in direct proportion to the amount of income.
By the share of family spending on food, one can judge the level of well-being of different groups of the population of one country and compare the well-being of citizens of different countries. In the United States, the share of spending on food varies between 10-15%, and a significant number of Russian families spend on food from 40 to 48% of their income. (Think how economic situation in the country affects this indicator.)
Spend money today or save it for the future? How to save and increase your income? These questions are of concern to all consumers, be they family or business.
It is important for a rational consumer not only to skillfully spend money, but also to allocate their savings correctly. For these purposes, the consumer uses savings account in the bank, receiving income on the deposit, or acquires securities(shares, bonds), receiving dividends on them. (Note that the above is true under conditions of economic stability.)
One more reliable way placement of savings, especially in a situation of economic and financial instability in the country, with a high level of inflation, is the acquisition of real estate (apartment, house, dacha), the prices of which are growing faster than money depreciates.
Life, health and property insurance is also a form of placing savings. Today in Russia there is a growing number of insurance companies and funds (mainly commercial) that provide the following types of insurance: voluntary health insurance, insurance against accidents, insurance of business risks, auto insurance, etc. Insurance is beneficial both for the producers of this service and for its consumers.
Insurance means protecting you from potential damage through periodic premiums to insurance companies that pay you monetary compensation in the event of such damage. Consider this position at specific example.
Suppose you live and relax in the summer in a village built up with the same type of garden houses. average price house 120 thousand rubles It is known from past practice that, on average, one house is destroyed by fire once a year. This allows the insurance company to calculate how much money the victim will need to pay in the event of a fire (in our case, up to 120 thousand rubles), and add to them some amount to cover administrative costs and profits (for example, another 30 thousand). Received total amount(150 thousand rubles) is divided among all the owners of the houses, and each one contributes his share, or insurance premium, to the general fund (if the owners are 100 people, then each pays 1.5 thousand rubles). In the event of a fire, the owner of the burned-out house will receive compensation from the insurance company (in the amount of up to 120 thousand rubles), and the company will receive profit. Thus, sharing the risk of possible damage with other people through insurance gives the consumer the opportunity to protect himself from financial losses.
Savings, if properly allocated, allow the consumer not only to generate additional income, but also to make high-value purchases; savings are also necessary in case of disability, payment for education and professional development, etc. (Give examples of savings in the household, confirming their need.)
When choosing options for placing savings, the consumer needs to compare them in terms of reliability, interest on income, liquidity (the possibility of easy conversion of savings into cash).
Rational manufacturer behavior
Producers are people, firms, enterprises, that is, all those who manufacture and sell us goods and provide services. What a manufacturer gets by selling his product is called his revenue or gross income. What the manufacturer spends on purchasing production resources, forms its costs, or costs. The difference between income and costs is profit.
The goal of a manufacturer in a market economy is to make the greatest possible profit. To do this, he seeks to reduce production costs, because the lower the costs, the higher the profit. Cost reduction is facilitated by a more economical combination of resources, implementation new technology, saving raw materials and energy and much more. The problem of limited production resources forces an individual producer, firm, society as a whole to solve the problem of what, how and for whom to produce.
What to produce? Manufacturers decide how to allocate resources between the production of different products; which of the necessary for society and consumers in this moment time to produce goods and in what quantity; Whether to give priorities, for example, to the production of military equipment or household appliances.
How to produce? The production of a selected volume of products can be carried out in different ways. It is possible to cultivate the land, to harvest the crops manually, involving a significant number of workers, or to get by with a smaller number of them, using agricultural machinery. The use of new equipment and technology can provide a larger volume of products using available resources. However, the manufacturer should remember that this is beneficial only if the income from the use of new equipment and technology exceeds the costs associated with their implementation.
For whom to produce? Since society brings together people with different incomes, different purchasing power, producers have to decide which strata of society to focus on in the production of goods and services, who will be their potential consumer.
By identifying ways to efficiently use resources, economics proceeds from the rational behavior of subjects economic activity, that is, their desire to achieve a certain result at the lowest cost.
The rational organization of economic activity requires the manufacturer to solve a number of questions: how, having limited resources, to achieve the goals of his production? How to combine production resources to keep costs to a minimum? How to increase the volume of production with the available resources?
So, to solve the last problem, as we noted earlier, there are two ways: to expand the volume of production due to a quantitative change in resources (an increase in production capacity, the number of used natural resources, the number of employed workers) and by improving their productivity or productivity.
Most countries today, faced with the problem of depletion of raw materials or their rise in prices, focus on the second method of expanding the boundaries of production opportunities. This leads to growth of labor productivity. Recall that this economic indicator the efficiency of using production resources is characterized by the number of products produced per unit of time by one worker.
The factors that determine the growth of labor productivity can at the same time be considered as factors of an increase in the volume of output. What are these factors?
First of all, this is the division of labor, or the specialization of producers in any kind of activity. The worker can become a virtuoso in the execution of a single product or minor operation, and as a result, his productivity increases.
Technological progress as a factor presupposes the use of new, more productive equipment or technology in production, allows an increase in the volume of production over the same period of time, as a rule, with a smaller number of employees.
And, finally, the level of education and professional training of workers. Skilled labor is more productive not only because it contributes to the production of more products. The higher the level of professional skill of workers, the higher the quality of the manufactured products, which means that they are stronger, more durable, which will save resources associated with its production, and switch them to the manufacture of other economic benefits.
Scientist of the Brooklyn Institute (USA) Edward Denison made an attempt to quantitatively correlate the impact of various factors of increasing labor productivity on the growth of production volumes. According to his estimates, 28% of the increase in real national income in the period from 1929 to 1982 in the United States occurred due to technological progress, 19% - due to capital expenditures (use of material and Money for the organization of production), 14% - due to the growth of educational and professional training of workers.
III. Practical conclusions.
The consumer's ability to satisfy their needs for goods and services to the maximum extent depends not only on the amount of income, but also on their rational use. We advise you to plan your purchases. This will allow you to better comprehend your needs and exclude what you can do without at the moment. Compare the conditions offered by manufacturers and the possibilities of purchasing the necessary goods and services.
It is advisable, if possible, to set aside some of your income as savings. It is important to place them in such a way as to get great benefit from this, that is, to facilitate their growth. It should be remembered that keeping savings in cash during the period high inflation irrational. If the inflation rate is higher interest rates then it will destroy all savings income.
When choosing the type of savings, it is important to accumulate and analyze information on the profitability and liquidity of the place and methods of savings ( bank deposit, securities, investments). This will help to ensure the competence and reliability of those to whom you want to entrust your money.
In the long term, the use of various ways to reduce costs will help to ensure the profitability of your production (if you do this): the introduction of technical innovations and modern technologies, saving raw materials and materials, improving their professional skills.
IV. Document.
How to manage your capital. Out of work Scottish economist A. Smith"Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations."
When the stocks that a person owns do not exceed the amount sufficient only for keeping him for several days or weeks, he rarely thinks about extracting any income from them ... In this case, his income comes exclusively from his labor ... If the person in question has reserves sufficient to keep it for several months or years, it naturally tries to extract income from most of these reserves. Therefore, the reserves are divided into two parts. The part from which he expects to receive income is called capital. The other part is the one that goes to direct consumption ...
Capital can be used in two different ways to deliver income, or profit, to its owner. First, it can be used for the production, processing or purchase of goods for the purpose of resale at a profit ... This kind of capital can be correctly called working capital. Secondly, capital can be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines and tools, or other items that generate income or profit without transferring from one owner to another or without further circulation. Such capitals can be called fixed capital.
... That part of the farmer's capital that is spent on agricultural implements is fixed capital, and that part that is used for the wages and maintenance of his workers will be circulating capital. He makes a profit from the first, keeping it in his possession, and from the second - parting with it.
... In all countries where there is a fairly stable order, every person with common sense tries to use the reserves at his disposal in order to get himself satisfaction of his needs in the present or profit in the future.
Questions and tasks to the document
What types of income of citizens does the text of the document introduce?
The author offers the owners of capital ways to generate income, or profit. Name these methods.
How much of the income is equity?
The scientist believed that "sustainable order" is a necessary condition for each person with "common sense" to extract income from available savings. Can you agree with him? Describe the conditions in the modern Russian economy that stimulate or hinder the ability of consumers and producers to earn income from their capital.
How to maintain and increase your income? Formulate your suggestions.
V. Questions for self-examination.
What kind economic problems have to deal with limited resources rational manufacturer and the consumer?
Is it possible to protect your income from inflation? If so, how?
How to spend money rationally? How are mandatory expenses different from arbitrary expenses?
What factors affect labor productivity?
By what means can you increase the volume of production with the available limited resources?
Vi. Tasks.
Technological progress affects the change in production costs and the manufacturer's profit. Give examples of use in modern production achievements of scientific and technological progress as a factor in increasing labor productivity.
According to a survey of American enterprises, the use of a group (brigade) method of labor organization (production by a team of a product from start to finish) has increased productivity from 60 to 600%. Explain the reasons for the incident. What are the factors that affect employee productivity?
V economic development In Russia, there is a tendency towards a decrease in the amount of material benefits received by citizens free of charge from the state, and a transition to paid consumption of services of housing and communal services, health care, education, culture, and the sphere of leisure. Discuss this trend in socio-economic processes and explain its impact on the structure and behavior of consumers.
Russia has a relatively high level of savings of the population, which can be considered as a potential source of economic development. However, there is a lot of savings, and there is not enough investment (investing money in organizing one's own business, developing production). What, in your opinion, are the reasons for this situation?
Vii. Thoughts of the wise.
"A person with many merit will add two more to them if he can earn and spend a lot of money wisely."
E. Servus (b. 1948), Russian writer
VIII. Brief conclusions for the chapter.
Economics as a science studies the use of limited resources of society for the production of material goods in the context of constantly growing needs of people. Economic activity is aimed at solving the key problem for society, the efficient use of limited resources. The rational behavior of the main subjects of the economy - producers and consumers - is one of the conditions for the successful solution of this problem. The use of various indicators to measure economic activity allows you to get an idea of the state, quality and results of economic processes in society.
Economic growth is the most important criterion for the progress of the economy and society, its rates make it possible to judge the level and quality of people's life. It is possible to narrow the gap between rich and poor countries if the latter are aware of the goals and methods of economic development, the need for changes in economic life and the structure of the economy. When analyzing the factors and ways to achieve economic growth, as well as forecasting economic processes, it is important to take into account the cyclical nature of the development of a modern market economy.
The market is an important regulator of economic processes in society. Economic laws market, competition contribute to increasing production efficiency, rational use of limited resources. The modern economy is a socially oriented mixed economy in which the state and market mechanism s regulation of economic life.
Free enterprise - important factor effective development of the economy and social production. The state is interested in creating favorable legal and social conditions for supporting and developing entrepreneurial activities of citizens. The success of an entrepreneur is facilitated by the availability and rational use of various sources of business financing, knowledge of the basics of management and marketing.
The state performs important economic functions in modern society, influencing economic processes in order to ensure the stable development of the economy, its efficiency and the achievement of economic growth. To do this, it uses, in particular, the methods of fiscal and monetary policy, redistributing the social product produced in the country and national income reducing Negative consequences inflation. The role of the state is significant in those areas where the market mechanism shows its inconsistency: regulation of employment and the fight against unemployment, production of public goods, compensation for external effects, social protection of the population.
Individual countries are linked to each other by the system of international economic relations. Uniting countries into a single world economy along with other factors contributes to international trade... The state uses various methods of its regulation, applying the policy of protectionism or free trade. Currently, the transition of many countries to an open market economy contributes to the strengthening of the free trade policy and the deepening of the process of globalization of the world economy.
IX. Questions for the final review.
What is the role of economic activity in the life of society?
Why is economic growth one of the criteria for the progress of the economy and society?
What are the features of market regulation of the economy?
How to make production efficient?
What is required for business success?
What economic tasks does the modern state solve?
Who and how regulates cash flows in the economy?
Why does the economy need a labor market?
Why are countries forced to trade with each other?
How can a manufacturer and a consumer make rational economic choices?
X. The final part.
Grading student responses.
Homework: read §11 "Man in the system of economic relations" (pp. 125-134); Answer the questions of the final repetition in writing (p. 136).
Document.
How to manage your capital. From the work of the Scottish economist A. Smith "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations."
When the stocks that a person owns do not exceed the amount sufficient only for keeping him for several days or weeks, he rarely thinks about extracting any income from them ... In this case, his income comes exclusively from his labor ... If the person in question has reserves sufficient to keep it for several months or years, it naturally tries to extract income from most of these reserves. Therefore, the reserves are divided into two parts. The part from which he expects to receive income is called capital. The other part is the one that goes to direct consumption ...
Capital can be used in two different ways to deliver income, or profit, to its owner. First, it can be used for the production, processing or purchase of goods for the purpose of resale at a profit ... This kind of capital can be correctly called working capital. Secondly, capital can be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines and tools, or other items that generate income or profit without transferring from one owner to another or without further circulation. Such capitals can be called fixed capital.
... That part of the farmer's capital that is spent on agricultural implements is fixed capital, and that part that is used for the wages and maintenance of his workers will be circulating capital. He makes a profit from the first, keeping it in his possession, and from the second - parting with it.
... In all countries where there is a fairly stable order, every person with common sense tries to use the reserves at his disposal in order to get himself satisfaction of his needs in the present or profit in the future.
Questions and tasks to the document
1) What types of income of citizens does the text of the document introduce?
3) What part of income is capital?
4) The scientist believed that "stable order" is a necessary condition for each person with "common sense" to extract income from available savings. Can you agree with him? Describe the conditions in the modern Russian economy that stimulate or hinder the ability of consumers and producers to earn income from their capital.
- The consumer's ability to satisfy his needs for goods and services to the maximum extent depends not only on the amount of income, but also on their rational use. Try to plan your purchases. This will allow you to better comprehend your needs and exclude what you can do without at the moment. Compare the conditions offered by manufacturers and the possibilities of purchasing the necessary goods and services.
- Set aside some of your income as savings whenever possible. Try to place them in a way that will greatly benefit from it, that is, to facilitate their growth. Remember that keeping your savings in cash during a period of high inflation is irrational. If inflation is higher than interest rates, then it will wipe out all savings income.
- When choosing the type of savings, try to accumulate and analyze information on the profitability and liquidity of the place and methods of savings ( Bank loan, securities, investments). This will help you make sure of the competence and reliability of those to whom you want to entrust your money.
- In the long term, the use of various ways to reduce costs will help to ensure the profitability of your production: the introduction of technical innovations and modern technologies, saving raw materials and materials, improving your professional skills.
Document
How to manage your capital. From the work of the Scottish economist A. Smith "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations."
When the stocks that a person owns do not exceed the amount sufficient only to keep him for several days or weeks, he rarely thinks about extracting any income from them ... In this case, his income comes exclusively from his labor ... If a given person later possesses reserves sufficient to support him for several months or years, he naturally endeavors to extract income from most of these reserves. Therefore, the reserves are divided into two parts. The part from which he expects to receive income is called capital. The other part is the one that goes to direct consumption ...
Capital can be used in two different ways to deliver income, or profit, to its owner. First, it can be used for the production, processing or purchase of goods for the purpose of resale at a profit ... This kind of capital is correctly called working capital. Secondly, capital can be used to improve the land, to buy useful machines and tools or other items that generate income or profit without transferring from one owner to another or without further circulation. Such capitals can be called fixed capital.
That part of the farmer's capital which is spent on agricultural implements is fixed capital, and that which is used for the wages and maintenance of his workers will be circulating capital. He derives profit from the first, keeping it in his possession, and from the second - parting with it.
In all countries where there is a fairly stable order, every person with common sense tries to use the reserves at his disposal in order to obtain for himself satisfaction of his needs in the present or profit in the future.
Questions and tasks to the document
- What types of income of citizens does the text of the document introduce?
- The author offers the owners of capital ways to generate income, or profit. Name these methods.
- What portion of income is equity? How is working capital different from fixed capital?
- The scientist believed that "sustainable order" is a necessary condition for each person with "common sense" to extract income from existing savings. Can you agree with him? Describe the conditions in the modern Russian economy that stimulate or hinder the ability of consumers and producers to earn income from their capital.
- How to maintain and increase your income? Formulate your suggestions.
Self-test questions
- What economic problems does a rational producer and consumer have to solve in conditions of limited resources?
- Is it possible to protect your income from inflation? If so, how?
- How to spend money rationally? How are mandatory expenses different from arbitrary expenses?
- What factors affect labor productivity?
- By what means can you increase the volume of production with the available limited resources?
Tasks
- Technological progress affects the change in production costs and the manufacturer's profit. Give examples of the use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in modern production as a factor in increasing labor productivity.
- According to a survey of American enterprises, the use of a group (brigade) method of labor organization (production by a team of a product from start to finish) has increased productivity from 60 to 600%. Explain the reasons for the incident. What are the factors that affect employee productivity?
- In the economic development of Russia, there is a noticeable tendency towards a decrease in the amount of material benefits received by citizens free of charge from the state, and a transition to paid consumption of services of housing and communal services, health care, education, culture, and the sphere of leisure. Discuss this trend in socio-economic processes and explain its impact on spending patterns and consumer behavior.
- Russia has a relatively high level of savings of the population, which can be considered as a potential source of economic development. However, there is a lot of savings, and there is not enough investment (investing money in organizing one's own business, developing production). What, in your opinion, are the reasons for this situation?
Thoughts of the Wise
"A person with many virtues will add two more to them if he is able to earn and spend a lot of money wisely."
E. Sevrus (b. 1948), Russian writer
