2 Public division of labor. Second division of labor. What happens in the case of non-equilibrium in terms of orthodox theory

The primitive-free model of economic development: the main stages of formation and features.

Signs:

Low level Development of productive forces and slow improvement

Collective assignment natural resources and production results

Equalization distribution, social equality

Absence private property, exploitation, classes and states

Low pace of development of society.

Stages:

Paleolithic (ancient stone age) - 3 million - 12 thousand years BC

Mesolithic (middle stone) - 12 - 8 thousand years BC

Neolithic (new stone age) - 8 - 3 thousand years BC

1 early Paleolithic (up to 100 thousand years BC). Petecantrop, Sinantrophop, Neanderthals - gathering, fishing and picked hunting.

2-medium Paleolithic (40 thousand years ago ended). Cryanonian man along with Neanderthals. Directoral speech. Extraction of fire. Stone technique.

3-late Paleolithic (ended in XII thousand BC). Matriarchy. Public bans. Simple assigning farm - Hunting, fishing and gathering. Stone equipment level increased. Work as simple cooperation without separation. All in collective property. Labor distribution of production. Exchange between communities.

4-mesolithic (XII-VIII thousand BC). Individual hunting. Improving weapons, the appearance of Luke. New techniques in fisheries. Lightweight and reduce the volume of stone guns. Assigning the economy of lower hunters, collectors and fishermen. Principle of collectivization. Use of boats. Molding new lands. Several days of childbirth began to unite into the tribe. Patriarchate.

5-neolithic (VIII-IV thousand BC). The first public division of labor on agricultural and cattle breeding. The second public division of labor is then the selection of crafts from agriculture - the individualization of labor, the emergence and development of private property. The first craft is pottery. "Neolithic revolution" - the emergence of new techniques, forms of production and lifestyle, the development of new territories and their effective use. The generation of exchange is because There were surplus of agricultural and craft production. Transition to a settled lifestyle.

6-Eneithic (4-3 thousand BC). The appearance of metal - copper, gold, bronze. The system of irrigated and plow agriculture, strengthening property inequality.

The first and second public division of labor: causes, essence and consequences.

The first division of labor:

Backgrounds:

The emergence and distribution of agriculture in fertile districts, then domestication of animals, which often gave greater income than agriculture. Some tribes even turned to livestock.

Essence:

In the total mass of primitive tribes, 2 groups were distinguished: cattle and agricultural.

Effects:

1. Transition to a settled lifestyle

2. Rising labor productivity

3. Ability to accumulate stocks (wealth)

4. Narquate Trade (Natural Exchange)

5. Development of religion, art.

Second division of labor:

The reasons:

The appearance of free time due to the growth of labor productivity (less time and energy costs was required to produce food), the emergence and development of crafts.

Essence:

Selection of crafts from agriculture.

Effects:

1. Individualization of labor

2. Private property development

RESULT:

Transition to a manufacturing farm:

Variety of products intended for exchange

Deployed Exchange System

The need to enter the universal equivalent.

⚡ Division of labor ⚡ is a separation different species labor activity. The beginning of this process laid a natural division of labor on the floor and age, which was developed in the household. Outside this economy, the public division of labor began to grow. The modern system includes the following types of such a division of labor:

1. Individual specialization is the concentration of human activity at a special occupation, mastering a certain profession, specialty.
2. Division of labor at the enterprise (allocation in the labor collective different species works, operations).
3. Separation of creative activities across the industries, type of production (for example, electric power industry, oil production, automotive industry, etc.).
4. Separation of national production on large childbirth (industry, agriculture and etc.).
5. Territorial division of labor within the country (with the specialization of the production of some products in different economic areas).
6. International division of labor (specialization of the production of individual countries in certain types of products with which these countries exchange).

The continuous development of the division of labor is objectively due to the progress of technology and the human production factor, as well as the conditions for the improvement of complex work cooperation. These conditions appeared already in the transition from simple labor cooperation of artisans in the capitalist enterprise to manufactory - the union of workers who perform separately many small operations.

Naturally, the subsequent transition from a manual-based manufactory, which has repeatedly increased the efficiency of division of labor to the industrial production.

So, the specialization of creative activities is the most important means of increasing labor productivity (increase in the production of people). This is the consequence of what:

• first, the specialization of workers multiplies the clearer, involves the acquisition of more advanced knowledge and skills
• secondly, it is ensured by working time saving, because, focusing efforts, a person stops moving from one lesson to another
• thirdly, specialization gives an impetus to the invention and the use of machinery, making production mass and highly efficient

Of great importance is the training in secondary vocational and higher educational institutions specialists in various sectors of scientific, technical and economic activities.

Modern state educational standards of higher vocational educationAdopted in our country in 2000, provide students with student:

1. common humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines (domestic history, cultural studies, political science, philosophy, economics, etc.)
2. common mathematical and natural science disciplines
3. common-Professional Disciplines
4. disciplines specialization

Thus, all students receive wide vocational training in conjunction with a narrow specialization, which improves the quality of professional training and their in demand for practical activities.

Second public division of labor

A person's difference is physical, mental, spiritual. Axiom number 2.

A man like all living on Earth is primarily divided by sexual sign, and this is his first difference from each other. But other people are also characteristic of the sexual difference. These are differences based on other physical, physiological, natural, social and other reasons.

For example, in a primitive society, some better run and possibly were the swollen, the other more accurately metali stones or darts and were the main hunters, the third better than others were able to extract the fire, someone better than others handled the skins, someone better caught fish, etc .

After the first public division of labor on sexual basis, the second intrafectural division of labor began, and the second intrafectural division, already in the ability. As already noted, the second division of labor was held on the basis of the level of skill when performing a particular work. In the process of development, for example, good runners became penalties already on a permanent basis, able to catch fish well - fishermen, etc. Inside the genus, in addition to the female-male division of labor, the division of labor appeared, similar to the professional. Some "specialists" became manufacturers of instruments of labor, and they were already attracted little to other works, the hunters began to practice only the hunt. In the future, this division of labor began to be maintained by already using a certain selection and, even if primitive, but already preparation. The man began to accumulate and transmit professional experience, learning, more experienced relatives transferred their knowledge and ability to young people. Inside the community on an ongoing basis, the separation of responsibilities appeared not only by sexual difference, but also depending on the skill and preparedness.

With the development of the division of labor in the form of determining each of its duties, both permanent and temporary, when performing certain group (collective) works, a distribution system developed. Over time, among the fellow, the performance of some works requiring more abilities and preparedness has become valued more than others. Perhaps it could be reflected on the increase or decrease in the resulting part from total mining, probably no.

As already noted above, every person, from his birth is already different in relation to others in its physical and mental abilities. This difference is added the degree of its development in the process of upbringing, preparation and continued life. As a result, each person in his work has various preparedness in various areas of economic activity in accordance with its skills, skills, experience, knowledge, etc. This difference gave rise to the difference in the skill in the production of something, any product, i.e. Each person in the production of something has become its own defined level of performance.

To understand the essence of the division of labor, and then the exchange, it is necessary to clearly understand the basis modern economy, This is axiom number 2.

Axioma 2. All people are different in their physical, mental, spiritual and other abilities and development. This difference manifests itself in the fact that every person, making something, performs this action faster or slower in comparison with other people, better or less efficient. That is, every person, due to its total preparedness, at one time or another, has a certain level of individual productivity in the production of a certain product or its part.

Second public division of labor (inside sex)

That's the basis of these differences in the ability, as already mentioned, and the second public division of labor began.

This division of labor, as well as the previous one, has brought the possibility of further growth of public labor productivity. The principle of cost savings is similar to the first division of labor. In real life, of course, everything is more complicated and not so pronounced, but for ease of understanding, the following example is offered.

Suppose that three peasants, a fisherman from some kind of clay and process fish. Everyone in itself cares and processes for 1 day of 10 Rybin, taking into account the manufacture and preparation of the fishing gun, finding the place and their installation, direct log and production processing. But each of the three men has a different skill when performing all these three components of fishing. Let it be so. A man and makes a fishing gun in 2 hours, to find a place and installation - 4 hours, and the fishing and handling of the catch of 4 hours. In a man, the costs are distributed as follows: the manufacture of the shaft of Lov is 4 hours, the installation is 2 hours, catch and processing 4 hours. A man in respectively spends 4 hours on the manufacture of the shaft of fishing, to find the place and install 4 hours and fishing with processing 10 Rybin 2 hours. For the convenience of perception, we will make such a sign.

Table 1.6.

Such is a picture with a separate hunt for men. But here, men gathered and thought, "And whether we do not want to work together." Based on the existing experience and ability of everyone, they determined that the weapons of Lov are the best of all of them make a man a, which means that he makes them at all. To search for places and installing fishing tools will be a man b, it turns out better than others. But to engage in direct fishing and her to handle a man V.

In this case, with other things being equal, of course, taking into account the immutability of the ability in terms of the ability of each individual process, 3 shafts of the owner of a man A will produce in 6 hours, a man would put them in 6 hours, and a man in, respectively, will catch in 6 hours And the entire catch of 30 Rybin will treat. Imagine now tables on this new situation of fishermen costs.

Table 1.6.B.

As we see from the table, in the case of such a separation of responsibilities, under similar conditions, each of the men in the end saves 4 hours, and together they will spend 12 hours for 5 hours less than when catching the first option when each carried out the whole process of fishing in itself.

In addition, if each of them, after the transition to this streaming method, could use this economy to put on additional production, even the same direction. If you assume that in the future, everyone will also work, as in the first version, it will work for 10 hours, it will turn out that a man and in 10 hours will produce 5 fish guns, a man would install it all during the same time, and a man will be able to Catch and process no longer 30, 50 Rybin. Consequently, with this division of labor and the same time of time, men could jointly extract 20 Rybin.

It is in this that there is an economic meaning of this, as well as many other, division of labor, separation of duties (specializations) based on a better ability to do anything within a group of people or community.

The division of labor inside the community on the second distinguishing feature of a person from each other, namely, by the ability he was the second public division of labor.

Over time, this difference in the ability has increasingly increased, especially after applying mankind of preliminary training, training, transmission of certain skills, acquisition of knowledge, experience. Inside the communities began to highlight craftsmen, that is, professionals.

Accounting for the ability, the duration of nested labor when mining overall production and during its distribution there is a vertex of the distribution system. After reaching distribution economic system This moment, which is a peak, this system can no longer develop, and is forced to grow into a different system, more perfect. No matter how cool the economy, and the distribution is always subjective. And if other reasons are added to the usual subjectivism, for example, the one who is closer to the distributor (leader, elders) is added, and not the one who works more and can, then such a system begins to collapse even faster. All sorts of switchgear systems generate such vices like a podhalimage, pleasing, hypocrisy, adaptability, etc., and most importantly camshaft systems generate humans by man. Many human defects originated in those distant times, the times of the end of the stade, and then during the period of generic communities. And as already noted, who believes that the period was the most fair in terms of economic relations for all people, shrieks, alas, it's not so. The struggle for survival, for the best distribution of total mining pushing people to everyone.

Strictly speaking, the division of labor in human societies could always be discovered. After all, people never existed alone, and cases of the emergence of society and the farm, consisting of one person (type of Robinson's farm Cruzo), were rather rare exception. People always lived at least family or tribe.

But the development of division of labor in the farm of any society passes several consecutive stages from the primitive state to an extremely difficult distribution scheme. Schematically, you can present this evolution as follows.

The first stage. This is a natural division of labor inside primitive society. In such a society, there was always some distribution of duties that determined partly by the nature of each person, partly by the customs, and partly known to you savings from scale. As a rule, men engaged in hunting and war, and women watched the hearth and nursing children. In addition, in almost any tribe, it was possible to discover such "professions" as the leader and priest (shaman, sorcerer, etc.).

Second stage. As the number of members of society increases, the need for each good increases and the possibility of concentrating individuals at the production of individual benefits. Therefore, in societies different appear professions (artisans, farmers, cattle products, etc.).

The process of allocating professions begins, of course, with the production of workers of labor. Even in the Stone Age (!) There were masters engaged in squeezing and grinding stone guns. With the opening of iron, one of the most common in the past professions appears blacksmith.

A characteristic feature of this stage is that the manufacturer makes everything (or almost all) possible products associated with its profession (as a rule, it is a processing of some kind of raw material). For example, a blacksmith does everything from nails and horseshoes to plows and swords, the joiner does everything from stools to cabinets, etc.

At this stage of the division of labor, part of the family members of the artisan family or even the whole family helps him in production, performing certain operations. For example, a blacksmith or joiner can help sons and brothers, and tissue or a bull \u003d wife and daughter.

Third stage. With increasing population and, accordingly, the size of the demand for individual products, artisans begin to concentrate on the production of any one good Some blacksmiths make horseshoes, others only knives and scissors, third only nails different sizes, fourth only weapons, etc.

In ancient Russia, for example, the following names of wood masters were existed: stands, Ship, Matchniks, Trees, Builders, Gains (strengthening cities), vicious (production of trumpent guns), linens, Cressing, Bochkari, Sanniki, Kolesnikov etc.

An important factoraffecting labor productivity is labor cooperation. The more deeply the division of labor and the specialization of production becomes narrower, the more than Manufacturers become interdependent, the greater the coherence and coordination of actions between different production. To act in conditions of interdependence, labor cooperation is necessary, both in the conditions of the enterprise and in the conditions of the whole society.

Labor cooperation - Form of labor organization, work, based on joint participation in a single workforce of a significant number of employees who perform different operations of this process.

The form of social labor organization, in which a large number of people together participate in the same labor process or in different, but related labor processes. Along with the division of labor, labor cooperation is a fundamental factor in productivity and efficiency growth in all spheres professional activity.

Labor cooperation is the unity, coherence of joint actions of manufacturers, various industries and sectors of the economy.

Labor cooperation allows you to avoid multiple errors, such as duplication of production, overproduction. On the other hand, the consistency and coordination of actions, the union of a plurality of effort makes it possible to do something that is not unable to one manufacturer or one enterprise. In case of simple work cooperation, which takes place, for example, in the construction of houses, hydrostations, the useful effect of cooperation is obvious. Labor cooperation takes place in all spheres economic activity, it takes a variety of forms .

World experience shows that labor and production cooperation is an objective historical process that is inherent in all methods of production, countries with any socio-economic system. In cooperation of production, advanced ideas are united and materialized, achievements in the branches of fundamental science, research and development and development works (R & D), industrial, design, managerial and information technologies.

Cooperation B. modern world It becomes the reproductive basis for the socio-economic and scientific and technical progress of the countries of the world, the core of world economic processes, regional economic integration, transnationalization (production, R & D, information and financial sector, etc.), international industrial cooperation, globalization of the global economy. This form of interaction has become an accelerator of the structural restructuring of the industry, its sectoral and interdepartmental complexes on a new technological basis, including on the basis of the widespread use of electronic and information technologies.

International specialization and production cooperation corresponds to a high level of development of productive forces and acts as one of the objective most important prerequisites for the further development of the internationalization of economic life, strengthening the relationship national farms. Now in the foreign market, hundreds of thousands of semi-finished products are circulated, the analogues of which one hundred and a half or two decades ago were also applied on the intra-revocative level.

It was the division of labor that caused a separation from each other in various professions and classes, which contributed primarily an increase in productivity and the higher the stage of the country's industrial development, the farther there is such a division. The fact that in the wild state of the Company is the work of one person, then in more developed - is performed by several. The work required for the production of some complete item is always distributed between a large number of people.

The division of labor, speaking in various types and forms of its manifestation, is the determining prerequisite for the development of trading production and market relations, T. K. The concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow circle of products or on its separate species forces commodity producers to enter into relations to the relationship in order to obtain the missing goods. -

Division of Labor: the concept and general characteristics. 1

Degree of division of labor- 2

Types of division of labor. 3.

Forms of manifestation of the division of labor. four

A. Smith on the division of labor. four

From the history of labor division- 5

Labor cooperation. 6.

Initially, people supported their existence solely with the help of primitive forms of ensuring vital activity (hunting, fisheries, gathering). At the same time, the problem of survival was directly binding to favorable (or, opposite, unfavorable) natural factors. Naturally, such a close dependence of a person from ambient influenced the process of the formation and development of society. Therefore, the allocation of agriculture and cattle products as the most important forms of life support is truly revolutionary importance.

Taming and domestication by a man of wild animals, as well as conscious cultivation of healthy plants, mean not only a person's victory in the struggle for physiological survival (since the direct dependence of a person from natural and climatic conditions), but also were the reason for the stratification of the Company, since as a result, a single social organization disintegrates several relative to independent subgroups: farmers, cattle breeders, hunters, etc. The labor process was gradually more complicated, demanded large physical and mental loads, and this queue led to acceleration social Development. The value of this phase of human evolution lies in the fact that people begin to produce more socially useful product than you should directly to maintain vital activity. There is a so-called redundant product, the right to order is possessed by its manufacturers. Therefore, there are prerequisites for occurrence property rights, which is understood as the right to own, use and dispose of certain property and is one of the most important subjective rights.

The next major division of labor is considered to be the appearance of crafts and the separation of human society on those who produce tools of labor, and those who use these guns. The transition from a universal life support system to specialized is interesting, first of all, by the fact that people begin to produce such things that are directly not important for the manufacturers themselves, but are made with the sole purpose of exchange to other labor items necessary. In this case, the exchange process turns from episodic to systematic. The need for people to exchange products of their work, on the one hand, meant the need to create an estimated equivalent to carry out this operation In a certain proportional ratio, and on the other, it led to the allocation of a special group of people from the social environment, which their main occupation elected mediation activities between producers of labor tools and their users. The process of commercial exchange represented a whole branch of socially useful activities. It was the third major division of labor.

Thus, three large separation Labor are the following social transformations: the transition from hunting and gathering to animal husbandry and farming; selection of crafts; The emergence of commodity exchange relations and, as a result, a social group of professional intermediaries - changed (subsequently - merchants).

General law. WITH G, which are characterized by the following basic relations: 1) economic development Societies due to objective reasons reaches a certain level, in which the complicated forms of organization of the economic and economic process of social survival can no longer be provided by a tribal organization; By virtue of the development of productive forces, the possibility of assignment with the subsequent accumulation of the part of the companies produced was appeared. The work of the product by individual groups of persons, a private property appeared. 2) Social property separation of society (the division of society into classes) leads to a conscious desire of economically dominant classes to consolidate in their hands of accumulated private property, consolidation economic influence Out ofeconomic, political (through the state. The device of society). It leads to class struggle for general in society and for the state. power; 3) the emergence of the need for a special siep - the state, towering on the society as an intermediary for the occasion of the clash of classes and solving economic and other organizational issues; 4) non-uniformity of social development (Question 4). Signs g: Public power - System state. authorities, consisting of the actual authority, management and control, and judicial bodiesproviding the execution of the authority commands of this apparatus; Special bodies providing fiscal interests of the state (i.e. concerning the treasury). The presence of special public authorities is the most significant sign of the formation of the state. She stood out of society and does not coincide directly with the population of the country. Territorial organization of power and territorial division of the populationarakterny sign of the state is the presence of clearly defined external borders and an internal territory. Separation of the population. The state is the only organization of political. Power on the scale of the territory of the whole country. It unites its power and the protection of all people inhabiting the territory of the state, regardless of their belonging to any kind or tribe, religion or class affiliation. Each person, by virtue of his birth, becomes his citizen or subjects and acquires the obligation to obey the state-of-government velves, and on the other - the right to the patronage and protection of the state. The territorial limits of state power also apply to foreign persons who are in the country and have no citizenship. Taxes and fees -for the content of public authorities, the funds were required that the state received in the form of mandatory fees from the population - filters and taxes. Sovereignty -the most important and collective sign of the state., expressed in the supremacy and independence of the state in relation to any other authorities within the country as well as in the sphere of interstate relations. Communication with the right -only the state is endowed with the authority to establish mandatory legal norms for universal performance, publish the relevant states. regulations, laws, decrees, rulings. Legality is an exceptional prerogative of the state.

15 Interstate education in modern period

Definitions of the concept "form between state Device Unification of states "in modern theory of the state and there is no right, since as an independent institution, this phenomenon was not considered. However B. last years There was a tendency to allocate species of associations of states from general concept Forms of the state device. So, V.E. Chirkin speaks of existence along with states of international associations with elements of federalism, he also notes that modern conditions In connection with the increasing integration of states in the international arena, many organizations of public international law have emerged, having some constitutional and legal elements. Moreover, V.E. Chirkin does not consider these associations from the position of their form within the framework of the form of the state device, but only states the presence of such formations. This situation arises because along with the allocation of international entities into a separate group and the refusal to consider their territorial device as part of the form of a state device the theory of state and the law did not work out a new institute, the need for the appearance of which has already begun.

It should be accepted with the opinion of V.S. Nersense that the form of an interstate association (education) should be distinguished from the form of the territorial device of the state. In his opinion, the Interstate Association means such an alliance of states, within which there are general state or duty authorities, but uniting states retain their sovereignty. However, V.S. Nersense does not mean that he understands under the term the form of an interstate association.

Based on the methods developed in the theory of the form of the state device, its definition will try to identify the general features of this traditional institution with the form of interstate associations, its specific features and this is it to deduct. Common between the concepts under consideration is that they disclose and show the internal structure of education, the relationship between the parts of education, the organization of the authorities in the territory. However, in contrast to the form of the state unit, the form of an interstate association first, shows relations between the sovereign States Parties to the association. Secondly, interaction government agencies Participants in the association and bodies of the association. Thirdly, indicates the volume of the sovereignty of States participants and the possibility of transferring some sovereign rights to unification. Fourth, determines the degree of integration of states within the framework of the union. It seems that interstate associations (Confederates, Community and Community of States, ENIA, Empire, etc.) are an independent Institute of State and Law Theory and International Public Law, which is closely related to the elements of the State Form and, in particular with the issues of the State Device, but not enters it. The association of states although they have signs of statehood, but, nevertheless, are not independent states. That is why the author considers it necessary to consider them independently and allocate such a concept as the form of an interstate device.

Based on the foregoing, it is proposed to determine the form of an interstate unit of association of states as a territorial organization of an interstate association that defines the relationship between States parties among themselves and the bodies of the association, the volume of the sovereignty of participating States and the degree of integration within the interstate association.

States have always used various forms, which caused the presence of common interests - long-term or short-term, territorial proximity, uniformity of structures, coincidence of political courses, one proximity to their rulers. The XVIII-XIX century was characterized by stable and temporary unions, both on the scale of the world community and regions and functional. Generated by integrative processes, scientific and technical progress, these trends and their expressing structures were developed under conditions of manifestation global problems and the formation of the global community. At the same time, you can pay attention to the mobility and dynamism of state associations, their interlocks.

In scientific I. educational literature A rather large number of different types of associations of states are distinguished, and therefore their classifications are not carried out, the specified concepts are not given, their signs are not considered, which is undoubtedly important To determine the nature of the phenomenon. Typically, familiarization with the types of state associations is limited to a simple description, or in general, an example without explanation on the basis of which the author was taken by this unification of states to one or another. Based on scientific and educational literature, it is possible to state the fact that the types of association of states include the empire, an incorporation, a quasiconfederation, confederation, a condominium, a protectorate, the Community of States, the community of states, suzernet, a fortune, fuzia.

If we consider interstate associations in a historical aspect, we will not find two absolutely similar. As noted by E.E. Sumin, you can allocate two of the most vivid causes of such a variety. This is, firstly, the difference in the legal technique of association of states and, secondly, the distinction between those associations of states that are actually state objectives (Confederations), and such associations, the purpose of which is the institutional transformation of the international community on universal or regional level (for example, international conferences and international organizations). At the same time, the result of unification for the states themselves can be both the preservation of state sovereignty and its loss.

16 Historically established approaches to the consideration of the state's concept