About salary, bonuses, vacation pay for reporting periods submitted by employers to the tax authorities. But there are other incomes that individuals receive. faces. Information about them is contained in the 3-NDFL declaration. It must be filled out in the form prescribed by law. In 2019, some changes were made to its filling out, which every individual filing a declaration needs to know about.
New form 3-NDFL -
New form 3-NDFL -
The procedure for filling out the 3-NDFL tax return form -
A sample of filling out 3-NDFL for 2016 when buying an apartment -
The 3-NDFL declaration includes information about the income received in a certain time period. This document must be submitted by persons engaged in self-employment, citizens who have sold property, entrepreneurs working on common system taxation, etc. The filing of a 3-NDF declaration will be required for persons applying for tax deduction... The last deadline for submitting this document to the IFTS is April 30 of the year that follows the reporting period.
What does the new 3-NDFL tax return for 2017 contain?
The changes made to the declaration form made the process of its registration more convenient and simple. Four items were removed from the document, which were rarely completed by taxpayers. The most popular sections are now at the beginning of the form. In 2017, the conditions for filling in property, social deductions, registration of transactions with participation valuable papers... An additional sheet is now attached to the declaration, in which taxes are calculated on the profit received from investments in partnerships. Since this year, the need for a notarized signature of a lawyer has been canceled. Otherwise, all the data contained in the 3-NDFL remained the same. The declaration reflects income from:
- individual activities;
- rent;
- sales;
- winnings;
- donation (not from relatives).
How to fill in 3-NDFL correctly: step by step instructions
The declaration contains 2 sections, 11 sheets. For citizens engaged in entrepreneurial activity, sheets are mandatory for filling: title, B, F, 1 and 2 sections. Other sheets need to be filled in if the relevant data is available.
Filling out the declaration begins with the title page, which contains all the data about the taxpayer, including the status and category code.
The first section includes the amounts that are transferred to the state budget or are subject to return from the state budget. For each KBK and OKTMO, the first section is filled in separately.
The second section is designed to calculate the total amount of income received, which is subject to taxation. It reflects the amount that is transferred to the state budget or will be returned from the budget. For residents of Russia, a rate of 13% is provided, non-residents calculate a tax of 30%.
Sheet A is filled in with information about the profit received from the sale of property, indicating the source codes and its name, the amount received, and tax.
Sheet B is intended to reflect the income of the individual entrepreneur. It records the amount of profits, expenses, depreciation, payments, advance payments. The calculation is made and the amount of tax that is paid to the budget is displayed.
Obtaining a property tax deduction in the form of a 3-NDFL form
The legislation of the Russian Federation provides for three types of deductions: standard, property and social. To obtain these benefits, a 3-NDFL declaration is required to be filed with the tax authorities. In this case, you will not have to fill in all the sheets of this voluminous document. For example, in order to receive the deduction due to citizens purchasing housing, you will need to enter the necessary data on seven pages of the declaration: 2 pages of the title page, 1 and 6 sections, sheets: A, G1, I. A completed document is submitted to the Inspectorate of the Federal Tax Service at the place of residence. The 3-NDFL declaration is accompanied by documentary evidence of expenses and transactions. After checking the data, the transfer is carried out due deduction to the taxpayer's bank account or a document is drawn up allowing not to pay income tax from wages.
3-NDFL declaration free download
When filling out the 3-NDFL declaration form, a pen with black or blue ink is used. It is very important to enter letters and numbers accurately so that the data can be read by electronic devices. No corrections or deletions may be made. You don't have to visit tax office to take
Any individual may need to submit a declaration of income (form 3-NDFL) for 2017. You will have to file a return if the income tax was not withheld by the tax agent, as well as to claim your right to a standard, social, professional, investment or. Over the past 2017, the 3-NDFL declaration is submitted in a new form, which we will discuss in this article.
Updated form form 3-NDFL for 2017
The 3-NDFL declaration form was approved by order of the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation dated December 24, 2014 No. ММВ-7-11 / 671, and by order No. ММВ-7-11 / 822 dated October 25, 2017, amendments were made to it, which are valid since 2018 when declaring income received in 2017.
How new form Does 3-NDFL 2017 differ from the previous one? The main innovations of the declaration are as follows:
- Page barcodes have changed.
- The “title page” of the declaration no longer contains a field for entering the address of an individual, now only his contact phone number is indicated.
- On the sheet "D1", intended for property tax deductions, instead of the address, the cadastral number of the real estate is indicated.
- In the E1 sheet, the declaration in the form of 3-NDFL 2017 (calculation of standard and social deductions) now does not contain a line to reflect the number of months, following the results of which income from the beginning of the year did not exceed 350 thousand rubles. A new line has been added here for the amount paid for the passage independent evaluation their qualifications is a new social deduction approved by the law of 03.07.2016 No. 251-FZ.
- In connection with the introduction of a new type of investment tax deduction (Law of December 28, 2013 No. 420-FZ), sheets "Z" (calculation of income from operations with securities and derivatives) and "I" (calculation of income from participation in investment partnerships).
- In the 3-NDFL declaration, the form for filling in 2017 was replenished with a completely new application "Calculation of income from the sale of real estate". It must be filled in only for properties registered after 01.01.2016, given that the income from the sale must be at least 70% of cadastral value object (clause 5 of article 217.1 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).
In addition to the form, by the same order of the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation, the electronic declaration formats were also updated, since it can be submitted not only in "paper" form, but also electronically.
Tax return on the form 3-NDFL 2017: requirements for registration
Rules to follow tax return-2017, are contained in the above order of the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation No. ММВ-7-11 / 671 as amended on 25.10.2017.
The updated 3-NDFL declaration form for 2017 can be filled out manually, on a computer, or using specially developed programs. In this case, you can not use color ink, but only black or blue. You can print the declaration on a printer only on one side of the sheet. It is forbidden to staple sheets together with a stapler, which can damage the barcode and other document data.
When filling out the 3-NDFL certificate (new form for 2017), you should avoid mistakes, since the presence of corrections in it is unacceptable.
Everything monetary indicators are indicated in rubles with kopecks, but this does not apply to the amounts of personal income tax, which must always be reflected in full rubles, remembering that values are less than 50 kopecks. discarded, and 50 kopecks. and more - rounded to the nearest ruble.
Text fields are filled with capital letters from left to right, only one character is displayed in each cell, and dashes are inserted in empty cells.
If all the information reflected does not fit on one page of the 3-NDFL declaration sheet of the new form-2017, the form can be supplemented with the required number of pages of this sheet.
When the declaration is completed, it is necessary to number all its pages in order in the "page" field. and indicate their total number on the title page, as well as the number of sheets of supporting documents. For supporting documents, you can draw up and attach a register.
What you need to fill out the 3-NDFL declaration
First, you need to download the 3-NDFL 2017 declaration form, print it if it is filled in manually, or fill out the form on a computer. The declaration on the new form can also be filled out using a special program already posted]]> on the FTS website]]>.
You can download the 3-NDFL 2017 form, current in 2018, below.
The data should be entered into the declaration after all the necessary supporting documents have been collected. Information to be filled out is obtained from certificates of income "2-NDFL" issued tax agent, from payment, settlement and other supporting documents, as well as from settlements that are made on the basis of these documents.
3-NDFL new form 2017: sample filling
Regardless of the purpose of filing a declaration tax authorities, it must necessarily contain:
- title page,
- section 1 - total amounts of personal income tax payable or refundable,
- section 2 - calculation tax base and personal income tax for each tax rate.
The remaining sheets and a new annex to the 3-NDFL declaration are filled out if necessary, depending on the type of declared income and claimed deductions.
The sample of the 3-NDFL 2017 form presented by us is filled out in order for an individual to receive social deductions for personal income tax for treatment and training. except mandatory sections declarations 1 and 2, in this case it was necessary to fill in the sheet "E1" with the calculation of such deductions.
Individuals report the level of their income and expenses for the past calendar year to the tax inspectorate by filing a tax return in the form of 3-NDFL.
The process of filling it out is regulated by the rules and regulations of tax legislation. It can be filled out in paper form and submitted in person, or drawn up and sent to in electronic format... In the latter case, the user has access to calculation automation systems that independently generate a report based on the data entered by the user on their own income.
Changes made to the declaration in 2020
The 2016 tax return form has not undergone significant changes compared to similar documents in previous periods. The changes affected only those columns and paragraphs that did not correspond to the current legislation. Last revised of the document is dated November 2015. Let us dwell briefly on the main differences awaiting taxpayers when filling out 3-NDFL at the end of 2015:
The exclusion of repetitive and practically uncompleted information led to a decrease in the total number of sheets of the document from twenty-three to nineteen.
Optimized the order of the sections, taking into account the frequency of filling and providing reports for a specific section, category, item. So, the section devoted to the registration of the tax deduction has been moved closer to the beginning of the document, while the information from the owners of securities or investors is the final one in the income statement.
The adjustment of the paragraphs of the 3-NDFL form themselves is directly related to the amendments to tax law on social and property deduction, the procedure for calculating the taxable base when using securities, etc.
An innovation in the form for the 3-NDFL form is a sheet that allows you to calculate the taxable base and the amount of the tax itself in relation to income from investment transactions.
The 3-NDFL tax return form that is up-to-date for 2020 can be downloaded absolutely free of charge on the Internet. To visually distinguish the old form from the updated version, just look at the title page. Early versions required signature verification legal entity the seal of the organization, in the new version this need is absent.
Tax return deadlines
As for the deadlines for submitting a tax return, for individuals they have not changed and are limited to April 30th. It is before this day that you should contact the tax office at the place of residence of the taxpayer with a document filled in printed or electronic form in the form of 3-NDFL. If April 30 falls on a day off or a public holiday, then the law is allowed to provide information on the next working day after it.
As a rule, the tax return is filed at the registered place of residence, if the registration is in the territory Russian Federation is absent at all, then the law provides for the possibility of submitting information at the place of actual stay of the applicant.
If the registration of the 3-NDFL form in 2020 is associated with the receipt of property or social deduction, then the time limit for submission is removed. You can submit a declaration after April 30 throughout the entire calendar year.
Concept economic analysis
Economic analysis is a scientific way of understanding the essence of economic phenomena and processes, based on dividing them into their component parts and studying them in all the variety of connections and dependencies.
Distinguish macroeconomic analysis, which studies economic phenomena and processes at the level of the world and national economy and its individual industries, and microeconomic analysis, studying these processes and phenomena at the level of individual business entities. The latter species was named in our country for analysis. economic activity(AHD).
The emergence of economic analysis as a means of understanding the essence of economic phenomena and processes, scientists associate directly with the emergence and development of accounting and balance sheet. However, it received its theoretical and practical development in the second half of the 19th century. The separation of AHD into a special branch of knowledge took place somewhat later, in the first half of the 20th century.
The formation of AHD is conditioned by the general objective requirements and conditions that are inherent in the emergence of any new branch of knowledge:
first, the practical need for a comprehensive and systematic analysis in connection with the development of productive forces, the improvement of production relations, and the expansion of the scale of production. Intuitive analysis, approximate calculations, estimates in memory, which were used in artisanal and semi-handicraft enterprises, became insufficient in the conditions of large-scale production. It is impossible to manage complex economic processes and make optimal decisions without an integrated, comprehensive AHD.
Thus, AHD is important element in the production management system, an effective means of identifying on-farm reserves, the basis for the development of scientifically based plans and management decisions.
Fig. 2. Control functions
2. The main tasks of AHD business entity:
1. Study of the nature of the operation of economic laws, the establishment of patterns and trends in economic phenomena and processes in the specific conditions of the enterprise.
2. Scientific substantiation of current and long-term plans: without a deep economic analysis of the results of the enterprise's activities over the past 5-10 years, without sound forecasts for the future, without studying the patterns of development of the enterprise's economy, without identifying shortcomings and errors, it is impossible to develop a scientifically sound plan, choose the best option for management decisions ...
3. Control over the implementation of plans and management decisions, for the economical use of resources. AHD should be carried out not only for the purpose of stating the facts and assessing the results achieved, but also for the purpose of identifying shortcomings, errors and operational impact on economic processes. It is for this reason that it is necessary to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of the analysis.
4. Study of the influence of objective and subjective, internal and external factors on the results of economic activities.
5. Search for reserves to improve the efficiency of the enterprise based on the study of advanced experience and achievements of science and practice.
6. Evaluation of the results of the enterprise on the basis of the achieved level of economic development, the fulfillment of plans and the dynamics of indicators, the use of existing opportunities and diagnostics of its position in the market of products and services.
7. Assessment of the degree of financial and operational risks and the development of internal mechanisms for their management in order to strengthen the market position of the enterprise and increase the profitability of the business.
Consequently, AHD as a science is a system of special knowledge related to the study of trends in economic development, scientific substantiation of plans, management decisions, monitoring their implementation, evaluating the results achieved, searching, measuring and substantiating the value of economic reserves for increasing production efficiency and developing recommendations for their use.
3. Business activities and processes that take place in it are the object of study of many sciences - economic theory, macro- and microeconomics, management, organization and planning of production and financial activities, statistics, accounting, economic analysis, etc.
Economics studies the impact of general, private and specific laws on development economic processes in the specific conditions of an industry or an individual enterprise; statistics - quantitative aspects of mass economic phenomena and processes that occur in economic activity; accounting - the circulation of capital in the course of economic activity.
In working with people, you are an investor. It is necessary to sell those shares that are falling in price and buy those that have growth potential. In this case, you are investing your time. You create your own team and invite people to your business who will be your deputies and managers in your sponsored structures and will lead your branches in different regions. But if these substitutes are weak, then nothing will work. If you want to build large structures, you must select strong leaders, and not spend time training weak workers.
If you give your distributor a task, and he does not fulfill it, and this is repeated regularly, you should get rid of such an employee and no longer waste your time on him. In no case should you persuade, offer to do something for him, etc. You persuaded him at the presentation when he doubted whether it was worth cooperating with you, you persuaded him to call friends, you persuaded him to buy a product, etc. None of this applies to leaders. Leaders become in difficulties, and not in a greenhouse home environment.
It is enough for someone to show the mechanism of work once - and he will immediately get down to work, someone can not show anything - and he will do everything himself, while someone can be shown several times, but this will not give any positive results.
1. The site of freelancers fiverr.com, where you can order any service for $ 5.
2. We must try not to get subscribers as cheaply as possible, but to sell at the maximum large amount... If you can sell a large amount of your company's product to each subscriber, it won't matter at all how much this subscriber has cost you.
3. Conducting a one-minute presentation: "I help my target audience to get a result, even if ...". That is, you need to be able to sell yourself - this is an opportunity to briefly tell about yourself so that a person becomes interested in you and wants to communicate. For example: “I help my networkers start recruiting on the Internet, even if in technically they are still at the zero level. ”This is a kind of revision (strengthening).
4. Many networkers have their own "promoted" channels on Youtube. You can visit their channels, rewrite the titles of the most popular videos and record your own videos with the same titles, filling them with your own content. You will know for sure that these topics are interesting to people, your videos will be shown in the search among similar ones, that is, your video will increase the chances of being watched.
6. All of these techniques can also be used on other social networks.
ASSIGNMENT TO THE LESSON
Answer the following questions:
1. Do you have a personal history? (In a written form).
2. Do you continue to attract newcomers every month?
3. How many active first lines do you have?
4. How many of them are in leading positions (director, leader, supervisor, etc., usually 5,000-10,000 points).
5. Do you have planning meetings with your first lines?
6. Do you conduct regular structure schools?
7. Do you visit your regions at least once a year?
8. Do you have a clear system of work?
9. Are you in control of your finances?
10. Do you plan your time?
11. Do you have a written plan for the years ahead?
12. Do you have financial plan for 10-20 years?
13. Do you have insurance and savings programs?
14. Do you have investments?
15. Do you have goals that motivate you?
16. Do you find time to relax?
17. Do you find time to communicate with loved ones (your family)?
18. Do you go abroad at least 1-2 times a year?
19. Do you know how to delegate?
20. Do you know how to say no?
21. How do you react to difficulties?
22. How do you feel about public speaking?
23. Do you know how to "resolve" conflicts?
24. Do you have advantages and achievements that make you interesting to people?
25. Do you know how to go against the opinion of the majority, if you are sure that you are right?
Part 2
Recruiting
Recruitment over the Internet
Many people have situations when in social network an acquaintance meets, a conversation is struck, and he asks about your field of activity. Or, for example, a person whom you recently added as a friend asks why you offered him your friendship. It happens that on your page they see a photo from a presentation or an award ceremony and ask you to tell us about this event.
How is it necessary to communicate with these people in order to competently interest them in your proposal and attract them to work in your company?
1. You can email this person with your marketing plan or business proposal.
2. You can send him a video no more than 2-3 minutes long with the recording of some seminars, trainings, conferences.
3. Offer him to chat on Skype or by phone, that is, try to move to more convenient communication and make a presentation online.
4. You can invite the candidate to the presentation webinar / program.
6. If you live in the same city, you can try to make an appointment right away.
WHICH IS THE BEST AND MORE EFFECTIVE OF THESE OPTIONS?
About 10-20 years ago, John Calench's book "The Best You Can Be in MLM" was very popular. According to the principle of work of John Calench, the most effective formula was "Yes - No - Next". Over the years modern market has changed a lot, and this formula, alas, is no longer relevant. It just doesn't work, and network marketers admit it. Previously, we invited an interested person to a meeting, held a presentation and asked if he would like to work with us. Now people can subscribe, agree to cooperation only at the second, third meeting, but not at the first. Therefore, none of the proposed options is effective.
It is necessary to conduct a whole series of calls, meetings, letters, videos, webinars, presentations, each time promising to tell something even more interesting at the next contact. That is, a multi-stage system of meetings should be built.
You can choose one option that is most suitable for you to attract people to your business and use it as long as it is most effective.
For example, let's analyze one of the proposed recruiting options - a series of videos so that you can effectively implement it.
WHAT IS NECESSARY TO DO TO CARRY OUT THIS METHOD OF RECRUITING?
1. Create a landing page with a subscription to four useful videos.
Landing page(from the English. landing- "landing, landing, subscribing") is a useful content consisting of one page, to which you can subscribe by entering your registration data.
Number 4 is symbol... There may be more or less of them. The main thing is that this is a video loop where you offer some useful content. For example, the first three videos are with a presentation, and the fourth is an invitation to join your company or an invitation to a webinar.
Elite recruitment systems have a major impact on social composition and quality characteristics members of the elite. There are two main recruiting systems: 1) guild system; 2) entrepreneurial system. The main features of the guild system are as follows:
Closedness;
Slow way up;
Many intermediate levels in career development;
A large number of institutional filters (formal requirements for occupying a position - party membership, age, education, work experience, social origin, positive characteristics of the leadership, etc.);
A narrow circle of the electorate (as a rule, members superior body carrying out selection - selection of candidates);
The tendency to reproduce an already existing type of leadership.
An example of this recruiting system is the Soviet nomenclature system of the 1960s and 1980s.
The entrepreneurial system is in many ways the opposite of the guild system and is characterized by higher competition, increasing importance personal qualities, a small number of institutional filters, a wide range of electors (electorate). This system prevails in all developed democratic countries.
Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. The entrepreneurial system is considered to be more flexible, open to innovation, well adapted to dynamism modern life... But it makes the political course of the state less predictable, increases the risks associated with a possible radical change in the course of the government (after the elections, the course of the government may turn 180 degrees). The guild system makes the behavior of the new leadership more predictable, reduces the likelihood of internal conflicts, but it can lead to bureaucratization, gerontocracy (the power of the elderly), the formation of "families", "communities" and "clans". The process of the formation of the power of the "Kremlin elders" in the USSR can be seen by referring to the table. It should be borne in mind that the occupation of lower nomenklatura positions did not yet make a person a member of the political elite. The nomenclature was a kind of ruling class and a source of personnel for the formation of the political elite. In this period Soviet history people often reached political heights when they were over 60 years old. M.S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee at the age of 54, was perceived as a very young man.
"Length" of the nomenclature career in different periods Soviet history (the average number of years of work before the first nomenclature
positions)
By the mid-1970s. career variability decreased: a certain checkpoint (“asset”) appeared, through which it was necessary to pass in order to be admitted to high-status positions. The role of such a "dressing room" was played by the position of the middle manager: deputy director, chief engineer, secretary of the party committee. By the mid-1970s. vertical mobility has finally acquired the character of slow progress along a strictly verified career ladder. It became impossible to make a career without being a leader. The society became more and more closed. Loss of mobility was a serious depressive factor, especially significant for career-oriented people. The higher their own social resources were assessed, the stronger the frustration was. Any opportunity to change the situation was especially attractive: all expectations were refracted through the prism of upward mobility. In the 197080s. The Komsomol was also getting old. So, one of the last leaders of the Komsomol Boris Pastukhov (first secretary of the Komsomol from 1977 to 1982) took this post at the age of 44. In 1966, the average age of members of the Politburo was 58 years, and in 1981 it had already exceeded 70. The average length of stay in a ministerial office in 1980 exceeded 13 years. Another feature of the Soviet nomenklatura system was its clannishness, which took the form of community groups. Around L.I. Brezhnev, the Dnepropetrovsk and Moldavian communities were formed, whose representatives once worked with him in Ukraine and Moldova, and after Brezhnev became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, they took key posts in the party and government.
M.S. Gorbachev, having started perestroika (including the political system), failed to create his own team, made a lot of mistakes and, ultimately, lost power. An attempt to rely on the individual merits of the nominees in matters of personnel policy, ignoring their loyalty to the head of state, was unsuccessful. Constantly changing personnel, M.S. Gorbachev never managed to form a team around him. Under him, the transition from the guild system to the entrepreneurial system of recruiting elite members began, which was clearly demonstrated by the results of the 1989 elections of People's Deputies of the USSR. In these elections, some of the deputies were elected, having passed a real competition of candidates. The final transition to the entrepreneurial system was carried out already under B.N. Yeltsin. Free elections of parliament members and regional leaders in the 1990s. radically changed the very system of recruiting the elite. Under B.N. Yeltsin's political elite "got younger" (this was especially noticeable in the Government of the Russian Federation, when ministerial posts were often held by people under the age of 40). Along with the pluses (energy, willingness to build market economy) such a sharp "rejuvenation" had many disadvantages. The power often ended up with inexperienced, incompetent people.
During the presidency of V.V. In general, Putin still retains the entrepreneurial system, but there are already tendencies to return to the guild system. It is no coincidence that political scientists begin to talk about a pronounced clannishness, as in the Brezhnev times, about the domination of the so-called "St. Putin for work in the mayor's office of St. Petersburg and in the state security agencies. Petersburg community became more numerous than the community in the period of L.I. Brezhnev. In principle, the entrepreneurial system does not exclude the existence of the president's team, the members of which are selected by him personally, taking into account, among other things, the previous experience of joint work. But when a team has been in power for decades, when access to the elite for new people is reduced to a minimum, and instead of staff rotation, top officials are "transplanted" from one chair to another, and when personal loyalty completely supplants business qualities, then there is a clear threat of return. to the guild system. Moreover, in senior management modern Russia marked tende nci and, not even characteristic of the nomenklatura era. We are talking about family and marital ties, which are connected with some members of the government. This kind of "nepotism" was unusual for the Soviet elite. It is not typical for developed democracies with an entrepreneurial system for recruiting the elite.
26... Political leadership: essence, theory and typology.
The problem of political leadership has a rich history of research. Already in ancient mythology, leaders were endowed with supernatural qualities. The view of history as a result of the actions of rulers has long dominated historiography. These positions were held by the thinkers of antiquity (endowing the ruler with various extraordinary qualities), noble historiography (change of ruler - change of era), medieval theologians (history is created by God through the actions of kings), etc. Similar views were held by bourgeois thinkers: N. Machiavelli, recognizing the role of the masses, he left the leading positions in politics to the leader. Hegel wrote that the goals followed by great people contain the moment of the universal. T. Carlyle believed that the leaders lead a "stupid crowd." G. Tarde emphasized that all the achievements of civilization are the result of the activities of great leaders. Although ideas were expressed about the increasing role of the masses in history (G. Le Bon), the masses in this case were presented as "a crowd following the leader." Russian populists expressed similar views.
On modern concepts political leadership was most influenced by the Marxist approach to the problem of personality and the masses in history, the idea of leadership, developed by 3. Freud and his followers. In modern political science, there are many approaches to understanding the essence of leadership. The most common are:
The theory of traits (E. Bogardus). Leadership is viewed as a purely socio-psychological phenomenon. A leader is a person with a special set of such traits as intelligence, character, organizational skills, communication skills, tact, a sense of humor, the ability to attract attention, etc. Here the social nature of leadership is ignored, it is argued that a set of these traits makes a person leader automatically.
2. Situational approach (E. Fromm, D. Riesman). Leadership depends on the specific situation. Given the current situation, a person with certain traits can become a leader. In another situation, he will never become one. Accordingly, the leader develops in himself the qualities that correspond to the conjuncture or "situational demand", and is a kind of weather vane acting according to circumstances. Rejecting the independence of the individual, the leader is doomed to passivity, submission to conditions in order to preserve his career.
3. Functionalism (D. Edinger). Leadership is a position in society that is characterized by the ability of one person to direct and organize the collective behavior of all its members. The leader, by virtue of his abilities, takes on a number of important functions in society: management, regulation, control of political relations. This theory does not take into account the fact that certain conditions and opportunities are needed to realize the abilities of an individual.
4. The theory of the defining role of followers (F. Stanford). The leader always has followers. Leader promotion depends on the support of the group. The leader is an instrument in the hands of the group, which put forward him to protect their interests and turns him into a puppet acting on the needs of the crowd and according to its criteria. It is not the analysis of an active leader that is of primary importance, but of his followers. Without revealing the essence of leadership, this theory reveals quite fully the main reason weakening of leadership.
5. The compensatory theory of politics is rash! examines the problem of leadership based on psychoanalysis (A. Adler, G. Lassuel). Leadership, or rather the desire for leadership, is presented as a desire to compensate for their personal inferiority in some area (physical, mental, moral, etc.). The struggle for power (respectively, for leadership) is seen as a struggle for self-affirmation, for achieving leading positions in society in order to compensate for all their experiences. History knows similar examples, but they do not follow from objective laws.
6. Psychological interpretation (3. Freud). At the heart of social life is the psyche, and any person strives for power. But this aspiration of people manifests itself in varying degrees. Leaders are obsessed with the will to power. And leadership is a certain kind of insanity, as a result of neurosis. A number of political leaders were neurotic, so no regularity follows from this. Society is divided into mentally normal people and leaders (neurotics).
7. The "synthetic" approach to leadership in Western political science boils down to overcoming the one-sidedness of previous concepts. However, by combining different points of view and refusing to analyze them objectively, his followers cannot create a unified, internally consistent theory of leadership. Combining sometimes opposite approaches, they receive only an eclectic concept that does not give anything new.
8. Russian political science is characterized by a slightly different approach to the problem of political leadership.
The very concept of "leader" in translation from English means a leading, authoritative member of an organization or a small group. In understanding the essence of leadership, it is important to find out the reasons for the appearance of a leader in the political arena.
First, the traditional functioning of the institution of political leadership in a given society, when the leader is replaced by another (by inheritance, continuity, or other reasons). A democratic society presupposes the existence of a wide range of leaders who, constantly competing with each other, replace each other.
Secondly, the emergence of a political leader is due to certain socio-political conditions in the country. This is usually associated with various kinds of crises in society and social upheavals that lead to a change of government.
The political leader performs a number of functions in the community. American political scientist R. Tucker identifies the following:
1. Leaders perform the function of evaluation, that is, they provide a timely and comprehensive analysis of the current situation.
2. Leaders develop a line of behavior, develop a program of action to achieve their goals.
3. Leaders perform a mobilizing function, that is, they seek to gain massive support in the implementation of the planned action plan.
4. The leader makes a decision. Analyzing changes in the political situation, he determines promising ways of developing the political process and directs all public activities in this direction.
Acting as an active subject of politics and being the direct bearer of political power, the leader, in fact, exerts a tremendous influence on political life. In modern society, leadership is a way of forming power based on integration different groups to solve problems and tasks of social development by implementing the program put forward by the leader.
In accordance with this, we can say that leadership exists on three social levels where various tasks are solved.
Leadership at the level of a small group united by political interests. It directs and organizes the actions of the group. The personal qualities of a leader are of prime importance here: the ability to make decisions, take responsibility, etc. This leadership is inherent in all societies. The leader performs an integrative function.
Leadership at the level of political movements in the context of power claims of specific social groups. It is not narrow-group interests that matter here, but general social status. Not only his personal qualities, but also the ability to reflect the interests of the social environment that nominated him, are already important for the nomination of a leader. The leader performs not only an integrative, but also a pragmatic function, expressed in the development of an action program. And this level of leadership manifests itself in any society.
Leadership as a way of organizing power within the framework of the whole society, but subject to existence civil society, the division of authorities, as well as the social-class division of society. This is the highest level of leadership and only exists under the specified conditions. It presupposes the mutual satisfaction of the interests of both the leader and the "followers" (maybe even illusory, imaginary). Indeed, in the public consciousness there is a conviction that the actions of the leader bring benefits to both parties. The leader maintains his position not only with the help of legal regulation, but also with the moral and value regulators of his behavior. In addition to the integrative and pragmatic function, here the leader also performs a coordination one.
The considered levels of political leadership reveal the stages of the formation of the political leader himself. It is at the third level that the leader becomes a real bearer of power and a creator of politics.
At this level, we can talk about leadership on a national scale, which is characterized by the following features:
Distance leadership, i.e. the leader and his followers do not have direct contact;
Multi-role leadership, i.e. the leader is guided by the needs of his immediate environment, the political party, the bureaucratic executive machine, the entire population, and his task, therefore, is to maintain these interests in a certain balance;
Corporate leadership, albeit an individual one. V modern conditions a leader is a product of “organized activity”, a purely symbolic figure, he acts within the framework of certain prescriptions, established norms, and his roles are performed by other people, his headquarters (team), and the “performing elite”. Leaders only personify solutions developed by a team of people with professional knowledge.
Political leaders are nominated by certain social groups, and their role depends on the position of this group in society and on its support for the leader. A leader cannot make history on his own. Although, of course, political leaders, expressing the interests of certain groups of people, can have a significant impact on the course of events, the role of leaders is especially great in critical periods of development, when quick decision-making and the ability to correctly understand specific tasks are required.
What qualities are needed for a leader to conquer and maintain his leading position in society? Without pretending to be complete, let us name only the main characteristics of a political leader. The leader must:
To take into account, express and defend the interests of a certain social group, put the interests of society above personal ones;
Have your own (or express a group) political agenda;
To have the ability to organize the actions of the masses to fulfill this program, to fight against their political rivals for the defense and implementation of their program;
To be able to conquer the masses in order to gain popularity;
Have the time and opportunity to prove your leadership;
Constantly, by all their practical activities, confirm their right to leadership;
Possess a certain level of political culture;
To retain their political face regardless of the presence of an official post or the loss of it;
Be an active participant in public relations, influence their change;
Possess a set of certain personal qualities (erudition, correctness, professional training, moral stability, will, purposefulness, perseverance, communication skills, oratorical skills, etc.).
Real political leaders are formed through political struggles. Each leader strives to have as many supporters as possible, to formalize, to enter the existing political system.
Based on all of the above, we can give a detailed definition of a political leader.
A political leader is a person who leads his followers and exerts a constant and dominant influence on the whole society or a particular political association when making decisions in order to realize his political interests.
The formation of a political leader in practice can be defined by the following stages:
1) the emergence of social movements and the selection of their leaders;
2) the formation of parties, the development of their program guidelines and organizational principles;
3) the formation of a hierarchy of party and political leadership;
4) the struggle for power, the coming of the party to power, participation in governing the state, delegation of party leaders to leading government positions, the emergence of leaders-leaders.
The many different approaches to leadership has given rise to an urgent need to develop typology leadership. A classic example similar classification can be called the typology proposed by M. Weber, who identifies three types of leadership:
1. Traditional leadership, which is based on belief in the sacredness of traditions and customs. Leadership authority is traditional and often inherited. This type of leadership is characteristic of the development of society in the pre-capitalist era.
2. Rational and legal leadership, which is based on belief in the legality of the existing order, its "rationality". With this type, the political leader becomes a bureaucrat leader who performs certain functions in the system. government controlled... Leadership becomes an instrument of the law. A leader is nominated not for personal qualities or merit, but with the help of legal bureaucratic procedures, and his replacement is easily carried out. This type of leadership is characteristic of an "industrial" society. Its highest manifestation is the notorious nomenclature. This leadership is impersonal.
3. Charismatic leadership based on belief in the supernatural characteristics of the leader, his giftedness, uniqueness, the creation of a personality cult. Endowing a leader with exceptional ability also requires worshiping him. Unlike the two previous types, charismatic leadership emerges during periods of crisis in the development of society, and then, as it stabilizes, transforms into traditional or rational-legal.
The original approach of ls-Areble ^ e typology of leadership is offered by the American political scientist ^ I / Herman ^ who distinguishes 4 collective types of leader. /
1. The leader-banner-bearer, who has his own vision of reality, puts forward his own program of activities. This leader has an idea for the sake of which the existing political system can be changed.
2. A servant leader who expresses the interests of his followers and acts on their behalf. He acts as a conductor of the ideas of his group and the executor of its tasks.
3. Leader-merchant, for whom his ability to persuade is important. Thanks to this, the group "buys" his plans and is itself involved in their implementation. The main thing for such a leader is the ability to present his “product” (that is, his program).
4. A firefighter leader who responds quickly and in a timely manner to acute problems. This is a person who captures the needs of the moment, and due to this, takes a leading position.
An interesting approach is Pareto, who divided the leaders according to the methods of activity for lions and foxes.
Leadership can be classified in terms of the mechanism of power or the role of a leader in transforming society (R. Tucker).
1. A copservative leader opposes changes, hinders development, referring to traditions and established norms.
2. A reformer leader who believes in existing social ideals, sees a contradiction between them and practice, and therefore encourages people to change their behavior.
3. The revolutionary leader not only rejects stereotypes, but also the ideals themselves, asserted in society. These are the leaders who call and carry out changes in the socio-political system. At the breaks of society, the populist type of leader is activated.
G. Lasswell proposed his classification based on the inclination of leaders to a certain model of behavior and singled out leaders - agitators, organizers and theorists.
Leadership can also be classified according to the degree of institutionalization: formal and informal.
The most extreme, perverted form of leadership will be the personality cult.
An expanded system of political leaders allows us to more fully clarify the essence of leadership, to understand its features.
In its essence, leadership is associated with the desire for power, and the very way the leader disposes of this power largely determines the development of political relations in society, the formation of a certain type of political system.
The study of objectively existing connections between phenomena is the most important task general theory statistics. In the process of statistical research of dependencies, causal relationships between phenomena are revealed, which makes it possible to identify factors (signs) that have a major influence on the variation of the studied phenomena and processes. Causal relationships are a connection between phenomena and processes, when a change in one of them is a cause. Leads to a change in the other - the effect.
Of particular importance in the study of cause-and-effect relationships is the identification of the temporal sequence: the cause should always precede the effect, but not every previous event should be considered a cause, and the subsequent one - a consequence.
In real socio-economic reality, cause and effect should be considered as related phenomena, the appearance of which is due to a complex of concomitant simpler causes and effects. Multi-valued connections are possible between complex groups of causes and effects, when one cause will be followed by one or the other action or one action has several different causes. Each phenomenon can act in some cases as a cause, and in others as a consequence.
But the more complex the studied phenomena, the more difficult it is to identify the cause-and-effect relationships between them. The interweaving of various internal and external factors inevitably leads to some errors in determining the cause and effect. Socio-economic phenomena are the result of the simultaneous impact of a large number of causes. Therefore, when studying these phenomena, it is necessary to identify the main, main causes, abstracting from the secondary ones.
At the first stage of the statistical study of communication, a qualitative analysis of the phenomenon under study is carried out, associated with the analysis of the nature of a social or economic phenomenon using economic theory and sociology. The second stage is building a communication model. It is based on statistical methods: groupings, averages, tables, etc. The third and final stage - the interpretation of the results - is again associated with qualitative features the phenomenon under study.
Statistics have developed many methods for studying relationships, the choice of which depends on the goals of the study and the tasks set. According to their significance for the study of relationships, the signs are divided into two classes. Signs that cause changes in other related signs are called factorial or simply factors. Signs that change under the influence of factor signs are effective.
The connections between phenomena and their signs are classified according to the degree of closeness of the connection, direction and analytical expression.
In statistics, a functional relationship and statistical dependence are distinguished. Functional is called such a relationship in which a certain value of the factor attribute corresponds to one value of the effective attribute. The functional connection is manifested in all cases of observation and for each unit of the studied population.
If the causal dependence manifests itself not in each individual case, but in general, on average with a large number of observations, then such a dependence is called statistical... A special case of communication is correlation a relationship in which a change in the average value of an effective trait is due to a change in factor traits.
According to the degree of tightness of communication, depending on the value of the correlation coefficient, the following criteria for assessing the tightness of communication are distinguished: there is practically no relationship, weak, significant, close.
Direct and reverse link is distinguished in the direction. At direct communication with an increase or decrease in the values of the factor attribute, an increase or decrease in the values of the effective one occurs. Thus, an increase in labor productivity contributes to an increase in the level of profitability of production. When feedback the values of the effective attribute change under the influence of the factorial, but in the opposite direction compared to the change in the latter. So, with an increase in the level of return on assets, the cost of a unit of production decreases. social economic statistics
By analytical expression, links are distinguished straight(or simply linear) and curvilinear(nonlinear). If the statistical connection between phenomena can be approximately expressed by the equation of a straight line, then it is called line link ; if it is expressed by the equation of any curve (parabola, hyperbola, power, exponential, exponential, etc.), then such a relationship is called nonlinear or curvilinear.
According to the number of factors acting on the effective trait, connections are distinguished univariate(one factor) and multifactorial(two or more factors). One-factor (simple) relationships are usually called paired (since a pair of features is considered). For example, the correlation between profit and labor productivity. In the case of a multifactorial (multiple) relationship, they mean that all factors act in a complex, i.e. simultaneously and in interconnection, for example, the correlation between labor productivity and the level of labor organization, automation of production, qualifications of workers, production experience, downtime and other factor signs.
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The subject of economic analysis is the cause-and-effect relationship of economic phenomena and processes.
Factor analysis allows you to establish the cause-and-effect relationships of individual elements of these processes and with sufficient reliability to determine their possible consequences. This method has become quite widespread in economic research and is covered in great detail in the literature. However, in the works on forecasting the institutes of the chemical industry, it is still used in extremely limited areas.
When developing the classification system, the causal relationships between the factors of soil formation, on the one hand, and the structure and properties of soils, on the other, were taken into account.
There are causal relationships between the values of this area.
In economics, it is sometimes difficult to recognize causal relationships. Consider two logical errors.
When in different countries Since the same causal relationships are in place, different methods from one country can be transferred to another.
The subject of the analysis of economic activity is the cause-and-effect relationship of economic phenomena and processes.
It should be borne in mind that causal relationships in economics are by no means self-evident and the economist must substantiate the statement that event A caused the subsequent event B.
They also lengthen the lag and weaken the causal relationship between changes in demand and price fluctuations.
Essential in cybernetics are only those causal relationships that are important in solving this problem; the rest we have the right to ignore.
Therefore, during geofiltration schematization, the main cause-and-effect relationships between the regularities of the variability of the main factors in the formation of reserves and the features of the hydrodynamic-hydrochemical household flow structure should be taken into account. Identification and disclosure of these relationships is a guarantee of the correct transition from the natural to the geofiltration model of the field, as well as the fact that during the schematization, any significant factors in the formation of reserves will not be excluded. In some cases, the exclusion of certain significant factors from the calculation models is made purposefully due to their insufficient knowledge, but at the same time, such an exclusion can be carried out only with an understanding and, if possible, at least a qualitative assessment of how such a simplification will affect the forecast results. In the general case, such simplifications are aimed at creating a certain safety margin in engineering solutions and, in principle, can be allowed only if they do not lead to distortion of other elements of the reserve estimate when designing with an engineering margin of one of them.
In general, factor models of profitability reveal the most important causal relationships between indicators financial condition and financial results, they are used in forecasting financial sustainability organizations.
The subject of analysis of the financial condition of the enterprise is the cause-and-effect relationship of economic phenomena and processes. Objects - the economic results of financial and economic activities, namely: the volume of production and sales, the cost of products, services, financial results etc. Analysis tasks determine the structure and essence of the methodology as a research system used to study a specific object.
At the same time, Hume believed that the cause-and-effect relationships of the real world cannot exist either a priori or a posteriori, which indicates the weakness of his methodological position. He believes that the subject takes for a cause-and-effect relationship, at best, only connected and, moreover, repeated relationships of contiguity and sequence; he ascribes the necessary connection only to the relationship between events.
This is expressed in the fact that the cause-and-effect relationships of changes in productive forces and production relations are increasingly determined deliberately, on the basis of scientific substantiation of the tendencies of their development. In addition, the operation of this law is increasingly connected with the laws in force under socialism. This is manifested in the fact that planning embraces not only economic, but also social processes of the development of mature socialism.
