· Market;
· command-administrative;
· Mixed;
· Traditional.
· transitional.
For economically backward countries, it is characteristic:
· Transition economy;
· Economics of classical capitalism;
· Planned Economy;
· Economy of industrial society
· traditional economy.
In a centralized economy, the question of which goods and services should be made, decide (is):
· Manufacturers
· Consumers
· state
· Foreign investors
The dominant form of ownership is determined by:
· forms of distribution, exchange and consumption of benefits
· Economic growth rates
· social structure of society
· Industry structure of the economy
Modern market economy is based on:
· Fodal property
· private property
· Multiple property
· Collective property
The transformation of state ownership in private is called:
· Nationalization
· Denomination
· Dealvation
· privatization
Transformation of private property to the state called:
· Privatization
· Restructuring
· nationalization
· Dumping
Scale of Evaluation of Educational Achievements for Test Materials
Questions to test for the course Economic theory
5. Requirements and resources.
Questions for the exam in the course Economic theory
1. The subject and methods of economic science.
2. Economic system and its properties.
3. Elements economic System.
4. Property: concept, subjects, objects, forms.
5. Requirements and resources.
6. The problem of choice in the economy. Curve production opportunities.
7. Market: concept, structure, functions.
8. Demand. Law of demand. Demand factors.
9. Offer. Law of proposals. Factors offer.
10. Market balance. The equilibrium price and its functions.
11. Administrative establishment of the price and its consequence.
12. Elasticity of demand. Factors of the elasticity of demand.
13. Elasticity of the proposal. Elasticity factors offer.
14. Cumulative and utmost utility. The law of decreasing utmost utility.
15. Consumer preferences and utility function. Curve indifference.
16. Budgetary restriction and budget line. Consumer equilibrium condition.
17. Entrepreneurial firm and form of its organization.
18. Production function of the company and its properties. The equilibrium condition of the manufacturer.
19. Production in the short term. Cumulative, medium and limiting variable factor products. The law of the decreasing limit recoil of the variable factor.
20. Economic costs of the company: internal and external.
21. Permanent, variables and cumulative costs. Medium and limit costs.
22. Production costs in the long-term period. Positive and negative scales effects.
23. Profit: Economic and Accounting. Conditions Maximizing profits in the short and long term.
24. Competition: concept, function, types. Price and insensitive competition.
25. Free market and free competition.
26. Pure monopoly. Socio-economic consequences of monopoly.
27. Natural monopoly. State regulation Activities of natural monopolies.
28. Goals, directions and organization of antitrust policy.
29. Oligopoly. Features of competition and pricing on the oligopolistic market.
30. Monopolistic competition.
31. Laws of the formation of demand for resources.
32. Labor market and its components.
33. Equilibrium on the labor market and factors that violate it.
34. Labor market in conditions of imperfect competition.
35. Real capital: main and revound. Capital assets.
36. Percentage of capital and its nature. Discounted cost.
37. The demand and supply of land.
38. Land rent: absolute and differentiated. Land price.
39. Economic functions states.
40. National production and its indicators.
Society in which power in hand
rich, anyway better than society,
in which rich can become
Only those in whose hands power.
Friedrich Hayek,
austro-Anglo-American economist.
Planned economy takes into account
The plans are all but economics.
Carey Makuilliams,
american journalist.
Democracy, of course, is a bad thing,
but the fact is that all other "pieces" are even worse.
Winston Churchill,
british statesman.
The concept of the economic system of society, its structure
The Greek word Systema means an integer composed of parts.
For the first time, the economic system was considering Adam Smith in 1776.
There are various approaches to the definition of an economic system, for example,
the economic system is a production method, i.e. The unity of the productive forces and the corresponding production relations (this is a Marxist approach);
or this is the message of people (society) united by common economic interests;
or is the unity of man and social production, etc.
Economic system -the totality of the principles, rules and legislatively enshrined standards in the country defining the form and maintenance of economic relations in the production, distribution, exchange and consumption economic Goods.
The economic system of society consists of elements that are in relationships and interaction. These elements constitute the structure of the economic system.
Economic system structure:
ü Productive forces;
ü production relations;
ü Management system.
Consider the elements of the structure of the economic system.
Productive forces -the combination of real and personal factors of production and certain forms of their organization that ensure the interaction and efficiency of use.
Productive Force Elements:
ü Production means, i.e. Foundation (then, with the help of what activities are carried out) and labor items (what activities are aimed).
Productive Force Structure:
ü material -a combination of personal and real factors of production. Production tools are included in human production, therefore, the main productive force are people with experience and skills.
ü spiritual -science as universal productive force;
Level of productive forcesit is determined by the height of the qualifying, educational, cultural and technical level of the employee, the degree of development of technologies, the level of introducing scientific achievements in production, etc.
Production relations -a combination of relations that add up between people in the process of manufacturing economic benefits, as well as relations of people to the means of production in the process of their application to meet the needs.
Production relations are shown in whose property there are means of production, what the nature of labor (hired, free), in whose interests and how products and income are distributed.
Subjects of production relationsare labor collectives, individuals, social groups, society.
Types of production relations:
ü between states (international production relations);
ü between the state and firms (enterprises);
ü between enterprises;
ü between the state and households;
ü inside the enterprise;
ü between enterprises and households.
Any economic system is peculiar to its national functioning mechanism. That's what it is management system - A combination of the management and regulation of the economy of a particular country, groups of countries. It includes property relations, coordination mechanism and state regulation.
Types of economic systems
In the history of the economy, various methods are known, approaches to the classification of economic systems. According to Karl Marx, economic systems are divided in accordance with socio-economic formations: primitive-free, slave, feudal, capitalist and communist. It is due to the level of development of the productive forces, which is ahead of the development of production relations. Contradictions between productive forces and production relations can achieve conflict, resulting in a change of formations.
In the twentieth century The formation approach to the evolution of economic systems was repeatedly criticized. Thus, the American economist, sociologist and politician W. Rostow created the theory of economic growth, in accordance with which the economic system of any country can be attributed to one of the five stages of economic growth: traditional Society - It is at the heart of manual labor, manual technique, agricultural production, low labor productivity; transitional Society - development of science, technology, crafts, markets; economic shift system -significant growth capital investments, rapid growth in labor productivity in agriculture, infrastructure development; society of economic maturity -rapid increase in production and its effectiveness, the development of the whole economy; society of high mass consumption -production begins to work mainly on the consumer, the leading place is occupied by industries that produce extensive items.
The change of stages occurs due to changes in the leading group of the industry. This theory was distributed in the 60s of the twentieth century, in the 1970s, Rosto offered to supplement this theory of another sixth stage, which he called "search for a new life."
The close theory was nominated in the early 70s by the American sociologist D. Bella in the work of the "Parish of Industrial Society". He divided society on pre-industrial (differs low levels), industrial(organized on the basis of machine and industrial production) and post-industrial(characterized by the following features: the center of gravity moves from the production of goods to the production of services, important role Science, information, innovations are played, the main place is owned by specialists).
German economist B. Guildebrand as a criterion of production level used exchange relations and therefore allocated three historical types of economic systems: natural, cash, credit.
Modern economists, representatives of economics, usually economic systems are classified by several criteria. The first of them is the property to the means of production, the second - the way with which is coordinated economic decisions. The most generally accepted classification proposed by the American economist K.R. McConnell. This classification is based on solving the three main problems of the economy.
Before any economic system costs three main problems:
- what to produce. What products and services;
- how to produce. With what means of production;
- who will consume.
Depending on how society responds to these basic questions, the types of economic systems are distinguished.
Consider the models of economic systems proposed by K.R. McConnell.
Traditional economy – answers to basic questions are given by tradition, based on customs (in the tribes of Africa, Australia). In such an economy, technology is traditional and stable, the range of products produced almost does not change. The young man does the same as his father, and a young girl is the same as her mother.
Command Economy (Randled or Centralized) – answers to all questions are given with the help of plans (in the USSR, countries of Eastern Europe, China, in Cuba), is characterized by public ownership of the means of production.
Market economy (pure capitalism) – answers to all questions are given by the action of market mechanisms inherent private property on the means of production. But there is no market economy in its pure form, because Clean capitalism involves the non-interference of the state into the affairs of the economy, and this is not anywhere in the world.
In Western European countries, a mixed economy.
Mixed economy -the economy in which, along with the action of market mechanisms, there is a state intervention in the affairs of the economy, there are various forms of ownership.
You can highlight different kinds mixed economy: for example, planned capitalism, those. The economy in which, along with the action of market mechanisms, there is planning, active state intervention in the affairs of the economy (for example, Japan, France).
Market Socialism(or socially oriented market economy) - the economy in which, along with the action of market mechanisms, is the state intervention in the affairs of the economy and the active impact on socio-economic processes (for example, Sweden, Germany). In Germany, for example, the principle acts: "As much as possible, the state is as possible, and so much states as needed." In countries with market socialism, an extensive network of social protection is valid: payments for sick, disabled, unemployed, assistance to those who have suffered from bankruptcy enterprises, benefits for children, poor and others.
Currently still allocate countries with economies. Transitional period – this is the time of transition from one system to another.
Consider in more detail command and market economy.
The main features of the command system:
ü domination of public or state ownership of the means of production;
ü dictatorship of state in economics;
ü administrative methods of economic management;
ü financial dictatorship of the state.
The main advantages:
ü more stable economy;
ü more confidence people in the future;
ü full-time;
ü less inequality in society;
ü guarantee of minimum livelihoods to everyone.
Main cons:
ü unsatisfactory work of state property (she was poorly used, the technique was not updated for years, theft, mismanagement developed);
ü no incentives to zealous work (There are no incentives for hard work, leaning from work, for, as A.S. Pushkin said, "Human Nature of Leniv (Russian Nature in particular");
ü irresponsibility, misintermettiness of workers (There was even a saying: "The initiative beats the initiator by head");
ü ineffectiveness of the economy and universal deficiencies;
ü dictate manufacturers over consumers(It was cleaned that was sent in the State Master, and not what was needed by the people);
ü low standard of living of the people.
The experience of any decade has shown that the command economy was insolvent, because "Conscious Orders" (according to the expression of the Austro-Anglo-American economist Frederick von Hayek), i.e. Defined on top, unnatural for developing, multiple systems. V.I. Lenin wrote about communism: "The whole society will be one office, one factory." But it is impossible to create the desired order "as a mosaic from the pieces of likes". Saltykov-Shchedrin said: "One can not feed anyone with one managing."
Market economy - This is an economic system based on the voluntary cooperation of individuals, on direct connections between producers and consumers through free buying goods. Such interchange "gives people what they want, and not what they should want to understand some group" (according to Milton Friedman - American economist, a supporter of liberalism or neoclassicism).
The main features of the market economy:
ü private property on the means of production;
ü freedom and Material Responsibility of Entrepreneurs(Each person can do any legitimate activity, he decides that, as for whom to produce, "his happiness itself," itself, "himself is material responsibility for the results of its activities). For example, American tobacco factories are forced to pay multi-million funds to the victims of smoking for not enough for the deadly danger of their products, the high probability of damage to the smokers by various diseases. Or payment of a millionth fine by the company producing microwave ovens, grandmother, who dried out her beloved dog in such a furnace);
ü freedom to choose economic partners(Each manufacturer, the consumer has the right to choose its economic partners, and thanks to a large variety of products, the decisive word belongs to the consumer. It is his choice, ultimately, determines what to produce and how much. How Milton Friedman was figuratively expressed, "everyone can vote for color of your tie ");
ü personal benefit of participants economic connections (it is the best stimulant of human initiative, ingenuity, activity. Adam Smith wrote about her: "A person constantly needs to help his neighbors, and it will be in vain to expect it only from their location. He will rather reach his goal if they turn to their egoism and it will be able to show them that in their own interests to do for him what he demands from them ... Give me what I need, and you will get what you need, is The meaning of any such proposal. Not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or buncock we expect we get your dinner, and from compliance with their own interests. We appeal not to humanity, but to egoism, and never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits. ");
ü self-regulation of the economy under the influence of market factors(freely emerging prices, competition, the interaction of supply and demand, etc.);
ü minimum state intervention in economy affairs(The smaller the state's intervention in the economy, the less interference for the market self-regulation. As Egor Gaidar said: the level of crime in society said, because the official is always potentially more criminalized than a businessman. "A businessman can enriched honestly , just not interfered. The official can enrich only dishonest ");
Main advantages:
ü stimulates high efficiency and enterprise;
ü rejects ineffective and unnecessary production;
ü distributes income based on labor results;
ü gives more rights and opportunities to consumers;
ü does not require a large control apparatus.
Main cons:
ü strengthens inequality in society (Private property allows individual citizens to accumulate enormous wealth and not necessarily by their work);
ü causes greater instability in society (It is characterized by lifting and decline, periodic exacerbations of unemployment problems, inflation, reducing the living standards of people, etc.);
ü not interested in non-profit production (Manufacturers do not interest such problems as universal education and health, the security of the country, the protection of public order, the lighting of the streets, etc., because it does not bring profits);
ü indicacy to the damage that can cause business to man and nature.
The market economy is characterized by the fact that in it "spontaneous orders", which add up without any idea in the live, natural process of the interaction of thousands of people. Nobody invented the market and did not build it, he developed for centuries, strengthened and developed only those social institutions that have passed natural selection, testing experience and time. The market economy is an economy in which "a person depends only on himself, and not from the grace of the strong world of this" (Friedrich von Hayek). He said: "The society in which the power in the hands of the rich, it is still better than society in which only those in whose hands power can be rich."
Property in the Economic System
The value of property relationship in people's life is difficult to overestimate. Hegel called them the axis "around which all legislation rotates and with which, one way or another, a large part of the right of citizens relates." The property relationship is determined by real power in society: who commands production and how the product produced is distributed. From them, material well-being, freedom and independence of man depends. In everyday communication, property is called property, i.e. The totality of things, the values \u200b\u200bowned by man, enterprise, society.
Meanwhile, property is only a part of property objects.
Own- this is an objectively emerging and legally enshrined set of relationships between people about the assignment of life benefits in the process of their production, distribution, exchange, consumption.
Property - economic foundation Society Society, its main element. It causes an economic way to connect an employee with the means of production, the purpose of the functioning and development of the economic system, the social structure of society, etc.
There are two different approaches to property. in Marxist and Western economic theory. According to Marxism: Property occupies the main place in one or another method of production, and their shift is carried out in accordance with the change of dominant forms of ownership, the main evil of capitalism is in the existence of private property. Therefore, the reform of the capitalist society, he connected with the substitute for private ownership of public.
In western economic theory The concept of ownership is associated with limited resources compared with the need for them. This contradiction is permitted by excluding access to resources, which provides property.
For business, key value has property relations for production. These relationships are very complex and multifaceted, but three points can be distinguished in them:
Fig.3. Structure of property relations
Consider each of the moments:
Assignment of means of production - this is the established and legally fixed right of various objects to be the owner of the relevant means of production, namely we own them, use and dispose.
Possession– this is a legally legal legal entity entitle of the property independently and to its interest to solve the tasks of applying property objects that are in its power;order– those. Management, management, use - those. assigning beneficial properties of goodalienation - those. Actions related to the transfer of property rights (donation, inheritance, pledge, etc.).
Relationship relationsanother thing occurs when the owner of these funds does not use them itself, and to temporarily possession and use to other persons or organizations, reserved the right to dispose.
Relationship of the economic implementation of property There are when the used production facilities bring their owner income.
Thus, property is considered as the right to control the use of certain resources and distribute costs and benefits arising from this. The object of study, therefore, the behavioral relations between people authorized by laws, orders, traditions, customs of society, which arise in connection with the existence and use of goods.
Economic theory allocates subjects and property objects.
Subjects - this is auridic and individuals, between which the property relationship arise.They can be combined into three large groups:
ü Private faces
ü collectives
ü society (state)
Individuals They are usually individual individuals who own property . Collective - This is an association of people who own property. Societyit is the largest property subject, it manages and manages the property owned by citizens of this country.
Objects – this is what the property relationship is. These include means of production, consumer goods, resources, workforce.
The composition of property objects may vary. It changes under the influence of HTR, the development of productive forces. At the same time, the property objects did not change, among them you can always select the main, key, possession of which gives real economic power. These include means of production. Their owner is the real master of production and its results.
Types of ownership can be distinguished by two main lines: according to the subjects (who owns) and on objects (what owns).
Depending on who is a property subjectMix different typesproperty. The most important of them (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus Art. No. 13 and Civil Code Republic of Belarus Art. №213) are public Activities Private property.
Private property – the type of ownership, in which the exclusive right to possession, disposal and use of the property and receipt of income has a private person.
Characteristic sign It is that it can be inherited.
Private property has two forms depending on property entities:
ü the property of the citizens themselves;
ü property of legal entities (enterprises, firms, organizations, institutions, etc.).
There are two types of private ownership: labor and unemployed.
but) labor: from entrepreneurial activity, from the conduct of own farms, from other forms, which are based on labor of this person;
b) non-hard: from obtaining property inheritance, dividends from valuable papersfrom other funds that are not related to labor activity.
State property -type of ownership of the means of production produced by products, property values \u200b\u200bbelong to the state.Distinguish two forms of state ownership: republican and communal.
Subject of republican property is the entire population of the republic. The ownership of the republic includes land, its subsoil, republican banks, funds of the republican budget, enterprises, national economic complexes, educational establishments And other property.
Communal (municipal) property consists of funds local budget, Housing Fund, Trade, Household Services, Transport, Industrial and Construction Enterprises, Folk Education, Culture, etc.
Management and disposal of property objects is carried out on behalf of the people by state authorities. The peculiarity of this property is the indivisibility of its objects between the subjects. IN different countries The proportion of state property is different.
At one time, K. Marks and F. Engels called private property " higher Cause Evil "on earth and" proprietary pig ", generating human exploitation by a person.
There is no ideal form of ownership, but still a better assessment and in life, and in business received private property. Because she:
ü creates people's interest in hard work, because As Alexander Herzen said: "A person seriously does anything only when he does for himself";
ü serves as a source of material well-being of a person, and therefore well-being of the whole society, because The richer citizens, the more prosper and society;
ü is a guarantor of freedom and independence;
ü raises man morally, she fills his life creative, creative meaning.
An Aristotle wrote that "everyone will be diligently refer to what he belongs."
But private property has its own minuses: it enhances individualism in society, selfishness, craving for compliance, strengthens the disunity of people.
State (public) ownership of the case means "Nonless" people, so it is used less efficient and even pops up. As A. Marshall claimed collective property The means of production will kill the energy of humanity and stop economic development" However, state ownership absolutely necessary in such spheres as military, cosmic, energy, etc.
The second line of property species assumes to distinguish them on property objects,those. depending on what is in possession. In this regard, distinguish:
ü real property those. Property for material benefits - enterprises, equipment, cash resources, houses, etc., the main owners are landowners, manufacturers, merchants and other entrepreneurs;
ü intellectual those. property of authors (scientists, inventors, writers, composers, architects, etc.) on the spiritual, lovely values \u200b\u200bcreated by them;
ü property for management (power), those. Property for the management process of society, on a leadership role in it. This type of property may be named only conditionally, because Its object does not have a form. This is the power of those who carry out public administration.
Divorce and privatization in the Republic of Belarus
Swimators and B. different periods History The relationship between private and public property is different and can change. In search of efficiency or for some purpose states spend nationalization, then privatization of property.
Nationalization(from Lat. Natio– tribe, people) – this is the public community, transferring it from private hands to state. She may be compensated(with full or partial compensation) or add to cart Royalty free(without compensation, i.e. forcibly).
Primary task transition economy It is to create the necessary prerequisites for the transition to a market economy, for the accelerated denationalization and privatization of state-owned property.
Reforming of state property, as well as economic reforms In the Republic of Belarus, due to the need to increase the efficiency of the industries national economy In market conditions.
The following areas were put forward as the main tasks of reforming state ownership in the republic:
ü improving the efficiency of production and structural restructuring;
ü Entrepreneurship development and initiatives at different levels and in various forms of management;
ü rational use of industrial potential and ensuring extended reproduction;
ü Improving the efficiency of the Belarusian economy as a whole and the activities of individual enterprises;
ü Attracting the investment required for the production, technological and social development of enterprises;
ü Assistance in the development of social protection of the population.
One of the most important conditions for the effective functioning of the farm in conditions market relations is the denationalization of the economy.
The concepts of denationalization and privatization are given in the law "On the denationalization and privatization of state ownership in the Republic of Belarus".
Divorce -this is the transfer from the state individuals Partially or fully the functions of direct management of economic objects.
Objectives of denationalization:
ü ensuring the necessary level of independence and economic responsibility of manufacturers;
ü Creation of a competitive environment for the effective functioning of a market economy.
The privatization of property in two directions:
ü by restricting the state's intervention in economic activities;
ü by defoding property, i.e. Creation of new private, collective enterprises and privatization of existing ones.
However, the state remains the functions of regulating social production by economic and legal norms.
One of the directions of the denationalization of the economy is privatization.
Privatization - acquisition by individuals and legal entities rights to state objects.
As a result of privatization, the state loses the right of ownership, use and disposal objects of state ownership, and state bodies - The right to manage them.
The main tasks are solved in the privatization process:
ü provision economic freedom citizens;
ü destruction of the monopoly of the state in production and commercial activities and the creation of a competitive environment for the effective functioning of the economy;
ü The transfer of the direct guidance functions of the enterprise's activities to manufacturers of products (services);
ü improving the economic responsibility of commodity producers for the results of its activities;
ü Abbreviation public spending Support for low-cost and unprofitable enterprises.
Privatization Principles:
ü combination of gratuitous and compensated methods of privatization;
ü The right of every citizen of the Republic of Belarus to a part of the dont transferred property;
ü Providing social guarantees to members of labor collectives of privatized enterprises;
ü control over the conduct of privatization by the state;
ü ensuring the wide publicity of the privatization process;
ü gradualness, step by step, compliance with legality;
ü Differentiation of methods, forms and privatization procedures.
What kind objectspublic property is subject to privatization? This is, above all, trade enterprises, catering, domestic service, enterprise easy and food industry, enterprises of vehicles, woodworking and building materials, canned objects, housing, etc.
In accordance with the Law of the Republic of Belarus "On the denationalization and privatization of state ownership in the Republic of Belarus" are not privatized by the objects of health, education, military defense, production of liquor-breeding products, tobacco products, issuing securities, television, radio, printing houses, institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Belarus, theaters, museums, etc.
Privatization Subjects – these are citizens of the Republic of Belarus, legal entitieswhose activities are based on non-state forms of ownership, labor collectives of state-owned enterprises, foreign investors and stateless persons.
In world practice there are various privatization methods:
ü restitution (refund of the property to former owners);
ü sale of ownership to third parties;
ü sale of property to employees of the enterprise;
ü voucherization (distribution of state property among the holders of vouchers);
Currently, two privatization methods operate in the Republic of Belarus:
ü gratuitous transmission of objects to citizens;
ü required (monetary) privatization.
Privatization by selling state ownership Provides a real shift of the owner and testifies to the interest of the buyer in privatization, but in the conditions of limited cash in the population and in enterprises can delay in many years.
With donate transfer of state property Social justice is ensured. Quickly creates a circle of potential owners of their number not only by the production, but also of the social environment. However, there is no confidence that they will really become owners; And if they become, they will be good leaders.
Various privatization methods:
ü turning a state-owned enterprise in joint-stock company and in ooo;
ü ransom ownership by rental enterprise;
ü Sale of objects of state and municipal property at auctions, contests;
ü transformation of the state-owned enterprise to the collective;
ü Issuance to each citizen of the Republic of registered privatization checks "Housing" and "Property".
Source of privatization financing Can serve:
ü funds of the company (part net profit, part of economic stimulating funds, etc.);
ü means of citizens (personal funds, registered privatization checks of citizens of the Republic of Belarus);
ü bank loans cash Insurance companies;
ü funds foreign investors;
ü funds from the issue of securities;
Funds from the privatization of republican property enrolled in the revenue of the republican budget, municipal property - In the income of the relevant administrative and territorial units.
In the process of privatization, foreign investors can take part.
The privatization process must go into two stages: first stage - so-called "Small privatization", which are the objects of communal property (shops, hairdressers, cafes, etc.);
second phase - Privatization of medium and large objects with the involvement of foreign investors.
One of the discussion issues is the question of the privatization of the Earth. One of the main reasons that encourage the state to move away from the monopoly ownership of land is the ineffectiveness of the use and deterioration of agricultural land.
But in Article 13 of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, it is recorded: "Subraser, water, forests make up the exclusive property of the state. Earth agricultural land is owned by the state. "
The economic system is a set of interrelated elements that form a general economic structure. It is customary to allocate 4 types of economic structures: a traditional economy, command economy, a market economy and a mixed economy.
Traditional economy
Traditional economy Based on kind of production. As a rule, it has a strong agricultural bias. The traditional economy is characterized by clayness, legalized division for estates, castes, closeness from the outside world. In the traditional economy, traditions and unlaspped laws are strong. The development of the personality in the traditional economy is strongly limited and the transition from one social group to another, standing higher in the social pyramid, is practically impossible. The traditional economy often uses natural exchange instead of money.
The development of technologies in such a society occurs very slowly. Now there are practically no countries that could be attributed to countries with traditional economies. Although in some countries it is possible to single out isolated communities, leading traditional lifestyle, for example, tribes in Africa, the leading lifestyle which differs little from the fact that their distant ancestors. Nevertheless, in any modern society, the remains of the ancestors traditions are still preserved. For example, this may relate to the celebration of religious holidays, such as Christmas. In addition, there is still a division of professions for men and female. All these customs are somehow reflected on the economy: remember the Christmas sales and the sharp increase in demand arising as a result.
Command economy
Command economy. Team or planned economy is characterized by a centrally decide on what, as for whom and when to produce. The demand for goods and services is established on the basis of statistical data and plans of the country's leadership. The command economy is characterized by a high concentration of production and monopolism. Private property on production factors is practically excluded or there are significant barriers to the development of private business.
The overproduction crisis in the conditions of the planned economy is unlikely. The shortage of high-quality goods and services becomes more likely. Indeed, why build two stores, when you can do and alone or why develop a more advanced technique, when you can produce low-quality techniques - there is still no alternative. Of positive moments The planned economy is worth highlighting savings resources, first of all, human. In addition, the planned economy is characterized by a quick response to unexpected threats - both economic and military (remember how quickly the Soviet Union has been able to quickly evacuate its plants to the east of the country, it is unlikely to repeat this at a market economy).
Market economy
Market economy. The market economic system, in contrast to the command, is based on the predominance of private property and free pricing based on supply and demand. The state does not play a significant role in the economy, its role is limited to regulating the situation in the economy through laws. The state only monitors these laws that these laws are respected, and any breakdown in the economy is quickly improving the "invisible hand of the market."
For a long time, economists considered the intervention of the state into the economy harmful and argued that the market could regulate itself without external intervention. However, the Great Depression has refuted this statement. The fact is that from the crisis it would be possible to reach only if the demand for goods and services appeared. And since no group economic Subjects I could not form this demand, then the demand could appear only by the state. That is why during the crises of the state begin to re-reagent their army - thereby they form the primary demand, which revives the entire economy and allows it to get out of a closed circle.
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Mixed economy
Mixed economy. Now there are practically no countries with only a market or team or traditional economy. Any modern economy He has elements of both a market and planned economy and, of course, in each country there are remnants of a traditional economy.
In the most important industries there are elements of the planned economy, for example, this production nuclear weapons - who will trust such a terrible weapon private company? The consumer sector is almost entirely owned by private companies, because they can better determine the demand for their products, as well as to see new trends on time. But some products can only be produced only in the context of the traditional economy - folk outfits, some food and other, so the elements of the traditional economy are also preserved.
Depending on the economic mechanism and social use, the types of economics are divided into such as:
- traditional;
- command;
- market;
- mixed.
These types of economic systems are associated with the distribution of funds and the presence of alternative costs (missed income). They are used to form economic activities in society - society of people who coordinate their actions with each other on the rules developed.
Traditional type of economy
The traditional system is based on historical traditions, which are transmitted from generation to generation. In modern society, it is used in countries with a weakly developed economic structure, which is based on agriculture, handicrafts, primitive forms of trade. The role of the state in economic relations is low. The regulator of economic relations is markets, where priority is on the extraction of their own benefit, and not collective. Here are slowly introduced new technologies due to the reluctance of people to make changes to the daily lifestyle. The distribution of resources, labor for the manufacture of goods and its products is based on the customs of the community. For example, the countries of Southeast Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan.
Specific traits
The traditional system is stable. It practically does not have production costs, and workers have motivation for the commercial realization of their skill, which has a positive impact on product quality. The system is characterized by:
- the predominant application of manual labor;
- using natural energy sources;
- building power on tribal relationships;
- a small segment of the extractive industry or its absence;
- exploitation, restriction of the rights and freedoms of the lowest interlayer of society.
The system admits free trade, allowing to provide a decent standard of living.
Team type of economy
The command system provides state ownership of resources, centralized planning, minimal intensity of free market relations. The state solves everything - from the place of placement of the enterprise to the supply channels of raw materials and sales of the product. Power structures establish profitability indicators to which labor, premiums and penalties attribute. This system is aimed at:
- suppressing personal freedoms of citizens;
- management, through administrative orders and planning systems;
- state form of ownership.
The team type of economy is currently used by Vietnam, Cuba, North Korea.
Market type of economy
The market system is a guarantee of compliance with the conclusion of transactions, non-interference of third parties. It allows you to freely choose the markets for the sale of goods and services. The entrepreneur independently chooses where to buy raw materials, which product to produce, who to implement it, how to use the income received. Basic signs:
- private property;
- the possibility of selecting forms of activity;
- pricing based on demand and suggestion;
- healthy competition;
- the limited role of state structures.
This type of business in pure form has no real examples. Existing market systems of developed countries are based on the dominance of large corporations. Prices are held at a certain level and depend on the vendor policies, which makes it possible to deviate from the model of perfect competition.
Mixed type of economy
Mixed economy allows you to combine the possibilities of market and command systems. It implies the combination of the leadership role of the state and freedom of entrepreneurial activity. It is based on the following types of ownership:
- private;
- state;
- municipal;
- collective.
The state carries out a regulatory role, applying fiscal, antitrust and other species economic Policy, And product and service producers have the right to an independent choice of the sphere of activity. The mixed type of economy is used in the UK, Germany and Russia.
Learned questions
1. The concept of the economic system.
2. Types of economic systems.
Traditional economy (natural economy, traditional production, community property).
Market economy (Private property, motivation, competition, freedom of entrepreneurship, market pricing).
In the greatest features, the place of the state in a mixed economy can be reduced to the following points:
· Stabilization of the economy, that is, control over the level of employment and inflation generated by oscillations of economic situation, as well as stimulating economic growth.
Despite the common features, the farms of developed countries are a variety of models of mixed economies, which is explained by a number of factors: a mentality of the nation, by historical Development, geopolitical position, level of development and the nature of the material and technical base, etc. Consider some models of the mixed economy.
The main features of the American model of the mixed economy:
· Low share of state property and minor direct state intervention in the production process. Today, the US state budget comes about 19% of the national product;
· Full promotion of entrepreneurial activity. The basic principles of economic policies are support for freedom. economic activity, promoting entrepreneurial activity, competition of competition, restriction of monopolies;
· High level of social differentiation. American social classes differ significantly. The task of social equality is not put at all. The low-income layers of the population creates an acceptable standard of living.
The main features of the European Mixed Economy Model:
· The active impact of the state on the functioning of the national market economy. Today at the state budget countries of the European Community comes from 29% (Spain) to 44% (Belgium) of the National Product;
· Protection of competition, promoting small and medium-sized businesses;
· Strong system social security. IN Western Europe Social orientation of socio-economic systems is the highest in modern world. The proportion of all costs for social needs in the expenditures of federal budgets in most Western European countries is 60% or more, and in France and Austria - even 73% and 78%, respectively. For comparison - these expenses are 55% in the US.
Features of the Japanese model of a mixed economy:
· Coordination of the activities of the government and the private sector. Clear and efficient interaction of labor, capital and states (trade unions, industrialists and financiers, government) in the interests of achieving national goals;
· special role States in the economy. Japan is a country with a strong public Policycarried out without the direct participation of the state in economic activities. Today, Japan's state budget comes only 17% of the national product;
· Special emphasis on the role of the human factor. The proportion of all costs for social needs in Japan is 45%. Low level Unemployment in the country is due to the traditions of social partnership, well-supplied training in workplaces, the wide distribution of work on temporary contracts (or part-time). The achievement of the Japanese economy is to reduce the specific weight of the poor. If this figure reaches about 15% of the total population in the US and EU countries, then in Japan it fluctuates about 1%.
Russian economy Located on a complex and controversial stage of development, denoted as a transitional - from the administrative command system to mixed. The Russian model of a mixed economy is only formed, and in the future it is expected that it will combine national traits and all the most promising from other models. The Russian model of the mixed economy should be relying:
· On the diversity of ownership forms. The peculiarity of the Russian mentality, on the one hand, is a thrust for individualism, which has developed under the influence of Europe. On the other hand - Cattone, collectivism, state thinking. Historically, the Russian state played a significant role in society. The features of the Russian ethnic group should be taken into account. According to the majority of Russia's specialists, a public-private management system is needed, in which state property should occupy about the same proportion as private;
· Diversity of entrepreneurial forms. The manifold of ownership assumes the diversity of entrepreneurial forms. And for Russia, the combination of private and public entrepreneurship is especially relevant;
· Mixed economic mechanism for regulating the economy. In the first stages of economic transformations, the reformers believed that when constructing a coil economy mandatory condition is to reduce the role of the state in socio-economic life of society. The consequence of this was the deepening economic crisis, Disorganization of reproduction processes, undermining the economic security of Russia. Today it can be argued that the conclusion of the Russian economy from systemic crisis and ensuring sustainable economic growth is impossible without the active role of the state in regulating reproduction processes;
· Multifier forms of the distribution of national product.
The limits of state intervention in the economy.
The most difficult in theoretical and practical plan is to resolve the issue of the permissible limits of the state intervention in the economy.Obviously, they should be determined by the possibility of market laws. Otherwise destruction will occur market Mechanism, and the economy can be transformed into the worst version of the command system. Western states have repeatedly encountered such limits.
Social policy can conflict with market incentives to increase production, thereby weakening all the advantages of the market mechanism.
For example, the desire to ensure a decent standard of living to all members of society in Sweden, in the state, which was called the state of "universal benefits," forced the government to raise the level of taxation of individual income to 80%, which undermined in the high-paid part of the population incentives to highly efficient work, to mastering the population complex specialties and as a result led to a decrease in production efficiency, braking productivity. On the other hand, for the beneficiaries of social benefits, not working, to ensure that dependent sentiment generated the dependent sentiment among their certain part of them, did not contribute to the strengthening of the family (the manual was usually paid only to single mothers; if the woman married, the payment of benefits stopped). This caused a decrease in the effectiveness of the Swedish economy.
In addition, it should be borne in mind that excessive strengthening of the role of the state inevitably leads to a bureaucratization, the hypertrophized role of officials in the life of the country, makes it difficult to make a different kind of decisions in the field of economics.
Thus, if the state is trying to go beyond the role of the role that he is assigned in a market economy, then, whatever good intentions it is guided by, as a rule, the destructive deformations of market processes occur. In the end, all society suffers, including those of his layers, which the state sought to help.
