1 Development of domestic political economy table. Evolution of Russian economic theory. Historical stages of political economy development

In the development of classical political economy, you can distinguish four stages:

Stage 1: The formation of signs of the emerging new (received the name "Classical Political Savings") of the exercise, an alternative mercantilism (the end of XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century). Proceeds appear, the authors of which sharply condemned the protectionist system and emphasized the priority importance of the liberal principles of management in creating wealth (U.Petti - in England, P. Buagilber - in France). The first attempts are made to the cost interpretation of the value of goods and services. Physiocracy appears - a specific course within the framework of a classic school, which continued the argued criticism of mercantilism and significantly advanced economic science (F. Cane, A. Turgo);

Stage 2: The formation of classical political economy. This period of development of the classical school is entirely associated with the name A. Smita - the greatest English scientific and economist of the end of the XVIII century. His famous work "Study and Nature and the reasons for the wealth of peoples" was the first in economic science with full-fledged labor that set out the general foundations of economic science. Smith interpretations of goods and its properties, money, wages, profits, capital, productive work, etc. Lay on the basis of modern economic concepts;

3 Stage:development classic political economy followers A. Smita (first half of the XIX century). In a historic aspect, this is the period of completion of the industrial coup, which marked the transition from manufactory to machine (industrial) production. In the era of the transition to the industrial society, A. Smita's ideas were supplemented and developed by a number of his followers (D. Ricardo, J.B.Seem, T.Maltus, N. Senior, F. Bastia, etc.)

4 Stage: Completion of classical political economy (second half of the XIX century). The best achievements of the classic school were summarized in the works of J.S. Mil and K. Marx. Despite the fact that during this period the new direction of economic thought was to be developed, which was subsequently the name of the neoclassical theory, theoretical view of the classics continued to maintain their popularity. The latest leaders of the classical political economy sympathized with the working class and were addressed to socialism and reforms.

Classical political economy was built on the basis of the application of progressive methodological methods of research, known at the time, such as causal (causal), inductive and deductive, scientific (logical) abstraction, etc. In the period of the classical school, political economy has become truly scientific discipline, studying the economy of free competition.

Economic views of U. Petty.

William Petty. (1623-1687) - founder of classical political economy in England

Main works: "Treatise on taxes and fees" (1662), "Word Wise" (1664), "Political arithmetic" (1676), "Miscellaneous about money" (1682)

The subject of political economy is to find out how to increase wealth, and in particular the amount of money in the English kingdom ("Political Anatomy of Ireland")

Methodology: - application of mathematics for economic analysis, that is, the research method for the first time receives a statistical substantiation; - method of scientific abstraction

The main provisions of economic teaching: - W. Petty is the first author of the labor theory of value, which is based on the doctrine of the natural price (value). He differed natural and market prices change depending on the ratio of supply and demand. The price of the price - the "natural" price (value) is determined by the work spent on the production of goods by labor; - the formation of wealth occurs in the field of material production; Four factors are involved in its production: labor and land - basic, qualifications, the art of his work and the work of labor (guns, stocks, materials) are not basic, but they are doing work productive and cannot exist independently, that is, without difficulty and land; - Formula "Labor is a father and an active principle of wealth, and the Earth is his mother"; - W. Petty opposed the inflow of precious metals, as he saw a source of price growth in this; - noted the existence of a proportion of money for trading exchange; Excess money leads to price increases, and disadvantage - to reduce the volume of work and low level tax payments; - created economic statistics (political arithmetic) and proposed a method for calculating national income. Rent theory, price of land and loan interest.

Rent - surplus the cost above the costs of production, which must, mainly on the cost of the workforce (salary reduced to a minimum of means of existence). Specific forms of manifestation of rent - land rent and money rent (percentage).

W. Petty introduced the concept of differential land rent, the causes of the existence of which in various fertility and location of the lands. The price of the land was considered in close connection with the Rent's problem. The land price is to represent a capitalized land rent, that is, the amount of annual meter for a certain number of years. (The number of years is 21 years - the period of simultaneous life expectancy of three generations, grandfather (50 years old), son (28 years old), grandson (7 years). This is an arbitrary calculation that has not solved the problem. It is necessary to solve the knowledge of the nature of the loan interest.

Loan percentage - Fee for the inconvenience caused by the creditor when burning money. The level of interest should not exceed the size of the rent from the amount of land that can be bought on a loan. Thus, the percentage did U. Peti not as a predetermined value associated with the movement of profits, but only as a special form of rent.

Before studying the classic political economy in Russia, it should be paid to the fact that all the theoretics of the classical political economics discussed above were, with the exception of Marx, the British and the French. It was associated with the leading position of England and France at a specified period of time in the field of economic, political and cultural development. The share of other European countries and the United States remained the interpretation of theories coming from England and France, in accordance with their local socio-economic conditions. Among them was Russia. Nevertheless, the individual original ideas. In the economic science of that time, Russian scientists were expressed.

Classical political economy began to penetrate Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. Her official recognition and teaching at universities began, as well as in Western Europe, From the XIX century. At the same time, in its economic and political development, Russia lasted from the West. At the end of the XVIII - early XIX century. In England and in the first half of the XIX century. in France already

the industrial coup passed, manual production dominated Russia. In England, the bourgeois revolution with relevant social reforms occurred in the middle of the XVII century, in France - at the end of the XVIII century, in Russia and in the first half of the XIX century. The absolute monarchy stood unshakable, the society was divided by class rights and privileges, and a significant part of the population consisted of serfs practically deprived of all rights.

Therefore, in the second half of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX century. The economic thought of Russia possessed certain specifics. It developed as if in two planes. Academic, university economic science, which had close contact with Western Europe, was in line with the global traditions of classical political economy, which corresponded to industrial capitalism, which was absent while in Russia. The practical line of the Russian economic thought used the spirit rather than the content, classical political economy and raised the problem of the initial capital accumulation period, i.e. Problems cash circulation, loan, finance, external and domestic trade, economic Roll States, as well as problems of the economic rights of nobility, merchants, peasants and other social sections of Russian society. This chapter will consider the main stages of development in Russia the theoretical line of classical political economy.

The first theory of classical political economy, which was distributed in Russia, became the theory of physiocrats, and its conductor was the Russian ambassador in France Dmitry Golitsyn (1734-1803). He had a task from Catherine II to inform her about the activities of the kind "Princes of Science", which corresponded to his personal inconsistencies, and therefore, with the advent of the school of "economists" (physiocrats), Golitsyn began to visit their "Tuesdays" in the House of Marquis Mirabo. (Subsequently, in 1796, he published about the physiocharatas and their teaching the book "On the Spirit of Economists".) In 1765, with the blessing of Catherine II in St. Petersburg, by analogy with the Paris club "Economists", a free economic society was created, which existed until 1917. At the same time, the theoretical side of the teachings of physiocrats did not attract much attention in Russia. Film Economic Society in the initial period of its activity was mainly engaged practical issues agriculture.

However, in the late 1980s. In the history of economic exercises, an important discovery was made. It was believed that " Economic table"F. Kene, who served as the first step in the theory of interstitial

the baseless balance was continued only in 100 years in the theory of public reproduction of K. Marx. But, as it turned out, the essential development of the "economic table" had in the work of the professor of the Kharkov University of Josef Lang (1775 (6) -1820) in the work of the recent works of Professor. Yesterday's graduate of the University of Freiburg, invited in 1803 in the newly open Kharkov University, he worked here all his short life and in the works of 1807-1815. Developed first three-sector (but somewhat different than Kene), then Che-tyrochsector model national economy. To denote sectors of the Lang economy, as well as Kene, used the concept of "class". In its four-sector model, the redistribution of the gross national product was carried out between the manufacturers of the primary product (agriculture and the production industry), producers of the secondary product (manufacturing industry), commercial and servil classes. At the same time, he used linear equations and digital examples from the national economic turnover of Russia. Unfortunately, Lang's work was not seen by contemporaries and did not affect the development of economic science.

A much larger scale compared to the theory of physiocrats had the dissemination of A. Smith's theory in Russia. There were personal contacts with Smith. In 1761, two students of Moscow University, Ivan Tretyakov (1735-1776) and Semen Desnas-Kiy (1740-1789), were aimed at studying at the University of Glasgow, where a professor of moral philosophy was Smith, who had not yet written "the wealth of peoples "But the economic problems already considered in his lectures. In 1767, Desnaitsky and Tretyakov returned to their homeland and began to teach at the Faculty of Faculty of Moscow University. In addition to legal work they wrote in general social problemsAnd the Tretyakov had a small economic work "reasoning about the causes of abundance and slow enrichment of states, both in the ancient and current peoples" (1772), whose name is very close to the name of the main book of Smith, published four years later. The Economic views of Tretyakov and Desnitsky were close to Smith's early glances, but in contrast to him, not as supporters of "economic liberalism", advocated for protectionism in foreign trade and stimulating domestic production by the state, and also paid more attention to the issues of money circulation, loan and finance. In addition, the Desnaitsky in 1781 put forward the concept of social development, within which he gave a scheme of history

economy consisting of four stages: hunting, cattle, agricultural and commercial. The latter meant the capitalist economy. This scheme anticipated similar schemes of the historic school, which appeared in Germany from the middle of the XIX century.

At the beginning of the XIX century. The ideas of Smith have already received widespread in Russia, especially since in 1802-1806. The "wealth of peoples" Smith was translated into Russian for the state account. This was due to the fact that from the beginning of the XIX century. Political economy became part of the university program, and in Russia were open over Moscow five new universities. New discipline read at first mostly foreign professors. Among them, the Christian of Schlezer, Professor of Moscow University and the author of the first textbook of political economy translated into Russian; Ludwig Jacob, Professor of the University of Kharkov, who wrote the work on the economy of Russia, and Mikhail Balfiansky, Ukrainian from Austria-Hungary, the first rector of the St. Petersburg University and Assistant of the famous Russian reformer M. Speransky. Since these were mostly German teachers, they taught the classical political economy with the taste of camelistics (disciplines about the state-based management, reading in the XVIII century. In German universities). In other words, they were not full supporters of the concept of "economic liberalism".

For the first twenty years, Russian Political Economy was taught under the direct influence of Smith's theory, but gradually Smith was moved to some height as a symbol of the general direction, and in specific issues, Russian economists were increasingly relied on the work of SEI, Malthus, to a lesser extent on Ricardo, and on work less large western economists. From the 20th year. XIX century The main authority finally became Say, who remained in this capacity before the beginning of 40 tt.

In Russia, at this time the largest economist and the first Russian academician on political economy was Heinrich Storms (1776-1835). He was born in Riga, he studied in Germany and then taught in the first cadet corps in St. Petersburg and served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The main work of the curtain-ha "course of political economy", which brought him European fame, was released in 1815 in French. Regarding this work, the storm had a conflict with SEM, accusing the storm in the plagiarism. Nevertheless, other European scientists had a different opinion. So, the nearest friend and follower of Ricar-

i wrote to Mc Culloch: "This essay delivered great fame to his author ... In addition to the clear and skillful presentation of the most important starts ... The production of wealth ... The composition of the storm has many excellent search for objects that have attracted little attention to English and French economists. .. The compositions of the storm in all justice can be put on the head of all writings about the political economy brought from the continent to England. " Own the most important contribution The Economic Science of Storms considered the theory of civilization, which, in his opinion, complemented the theory of Smith's wealth. She followed from his value theory, partly close to the theory of Say. At the same time, SEA, in determining the cost, the main emphasis was made on the factors of production, and the storm was on the utility of things. Based on the priority of utility, not materiality, the storms distributes the concept of wealth and capital and for intangible benefits to which he attributed the fruits of various services, including health, knowledge, artistic taste, leisure, security, etc. From here it follows and the expanded interpretation of the productive work, which he derives beyond the material production. The unproductive class of the storm attributed only the owners receiving the percentage or rent, and retirees. The compound of the theory of (material) wealth and the theory (intangible) civilization of the storm called the theory of popular prosperity. The ideas of the storm, in particular the idea of \u200b\u200bthe intangible, so-called human capital, received the second birth in the XX century.

In the mid-40s. XIX century Russia began to receive the spread of the composition of the critics of capitalism (Sismondi and Svopirists). And as well as in the West, in Russian political economy there is a certain polarization of positions. In particular, in 1847 in Russia, the first full textbook of political economy was published, written in Russian, - Alexander Butovsky three-volume (1817-1890), which served in the Ministry of Finance. Butovsky, whose writing has become the main textbook at the universities of Russia, was close to Say's School. Vladimir Milyutin (1826-1855) was criticized by Budovsky (1826-1855), at that time, a student, and later Professor of Moscow University. For a number of provisions, he was close to Sissondi with his desire to achieve the welfare of all subjects of the capitalist economy, but did not share the idealization of small-handed production.

A representative of the socialist destination in Russian classical political economy was Nikolai Chernyshevsky

(1828-1889). He was the editor of the magazine "Contemporary", during the revolutionary lift of 1859-1861. He became one of his ideologues, in 1862 he was arrested and exiled to Siberia, from where he returned only before his death in 1889. All the economic works of Chernyshevsky were written in 1857-1862. Among them should be allocated two works: "Essays from political economy (by Mille)" and "Capital and Labor". In the field of theory, he partly relied on Mill, but was mainly close to Owen and dreamed of creating his "political economy of workers." Under the workers, Chernyshevsky understood both workers and peasants and believed that Russia has its own special path to socialism - through the peasant community and the working artel, bypassing capitalism.

Chernyshevsky's contemporaries were bourgeois representatives of the classical political economy - I. Gorlov, I. Vernadsky, V. Probrezov, etc. in 1859-1862. Professor of St. Petersburg University Ivan Gorlov (1814-1890) released a two-volume textbook of political economy, who has changed the textbook of Butovo. Professor of Moscow University Ivan Vernadsky (1821-1884) published the first fundamental research on the history of economic exercises "Essay of the history of political economy" (1858). These scientists have performed for the development of industrial capitalism in Russia and the farm route of agricultural development. Their activity coincided with the period of reforms in Russia, the main of which - the abolition of serfdom in 1861 - significantly stimulated the development of capitalism in Russia. From the 60s XIX century Finally, two lines of development of the Russian political economy coincided - the scope of capitalist production became the subject of study of both its theoretical and practical line. But the paradox was that in world economic science, the classical political economy was already fully completed its creative development.

In the second half of the XIX century. Classical political economy in Russia, as well as around the world, formally maintained its domination, was taught in universities, but her creative potential is already dried. In the 1870-80s. It gradually displaces the ideas of historical or, as she was also called, real school (see below). Among the Russian representatives of the classical political economy of the second half of the XIX century. It can be obviously allocated only by the "Kiev School" (N. Bunghe, A. Antonovich, D. Pihno et al.), which was primarily a study of pricing in the context of changing supply and demand.

Finally in the 90s. XIX century In Russia, under the influence of the stormy industrial lift and the formation of capitalism receives

mass distribution Marxism. Among the economists-Marxists of this time should be indicated primarily by P. Struve, M. Tu-Gan-Baranovsky, V. Ulyanova (Lenina), S. Bulgakov, etc. Russian Marxists during this period theoretical disputes with another group of Russian socialists - populists On the prospects of capitalism in Russia. Populists (V. Vorontsov, M. Da-Nielson) were divided, in fact, the theory of the implementation of Sismoni and argued that the development of capitalism in Russia prevents. Recreation of the market (demand), Marxists, based on the theory of public reproduction of Marx, proved that due to the growing specialization of producers of difficulties for the sale of their products, it does not arise. At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Marxism in Russia split into a critical and orthodox (from the above four leading economists in the positions of orthodox marxism, only Lenin remained), and at the beginning of the XX century. Critical Marxists switched to completely different theoretical positions.

Functions of political economy

Methods of political economy

System of Economic Laws of the Company

System of production relations

Subject of political economy

Historical stages Development of political economy

Topic 1. Subject and method of political economy

The patterns of its development

The main type of human activity is the production of material benefits to meet their needs.

As products are made, knowledge has arisen how to organize production. These knowledge was recorded in the form of commandments and rules, as evidenced by Egyptian papyrus, Tables of King Hammurapi (Byzantium), Old Indian Vedas, Juda Torah, works of scientists of ancient China and Greece, Bible.

Thus, in the ancient Indian "laws of mana" (IV-III century BC. E.) describes the public division of labor.

In the writings of Confucius (551-479 BC), the difference in mental and physical work is investigated, and the first - monopoly of the highest sections of society, the second - the lot of commoners.

Economic views of the ancient Greek thinkers of Xenophon (430-345 BC), Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) can be considered the initial provisions of the economic science, because They contained:

Estimate of the cost of the product by labor;

The idea of \u200b\u200butility as the basis of the value of the best;

Consideration of commercial exchange as an equivalent exchange.

Aristotle introduced the term "OoConomia" (Oikonomia): "Okos" with Greek. - House, economy, NOMOS - doctrine, law. So, "Savings" is the laws of housekeeping, since in the conditions of the slavement "House" was an independent economic unit.

Aristotle in his writings explored the concept of value, prices, amounts of labor, etc. He shared the concept of "savings" (science of management for the sake of satisfaction of needs) and "Creation" (the art of making a profit).

There are reflections in the Bible about the fair price, a public assessment of the value of goods, about wealth.

These historical documents were embrying future economic science on the organization and maintenance of production.

But all these glances did not imagine a holistic teaching.

In the context of overcoming the feudal fragmentation and formation of centralized states in Europe, attempts arise to determine the rules for maintaining non-individual farms, but nationwide, i.e. at the state level.

In this regard, the concept of "savings" acquires a new meaning and turns into "political economy" ("Polyteya" - from Greek. - State device), i.e. Laws of the state (public) economy.

The formation of economic exercises into an independent area of \u200b\u200bknowledge takes place to the XVII century.

For the first time, the concept of "political economy" introduced the French economist Antoine de Monkeyne in 1615 in his "Treatise on Political Savings" containing advice on maintaining state economy and multiplying wealth.

The development of political economy as a holistic science occurred in stages.

1) The first economic teaching system was systematized by the accumulated knowledge was mercantilism (XVI - XVII centuries).

This is the period of the formation of capitalism, the origin of manufactory (industry), development public division Labor, the formation of domestic markets and world trade, the growth of money circulation in Europe.

This scientific school first tried to build the theory of the social system exclusively on the economy.

Representatives of mercantilism were Antoine de Monkeyen (1575-1621) and Jean-Batist Colbert in France, Thomas Mann (1571-1641) in England, A.Odin-Nachchokin in Russia.

The purpose of the functioning of a public (national) economy, they considered the enrichment of the state and the population. And since the incarnation of wealth, they considered money, they studied the sphere of appeal, and the main task was seen in ensuring the abundance of gold in the country.

In this regard, the mercantilists believed that foreign trade was served as a source of wealth of society through which it is possible to accumulate more gold in the country.

Thus, mercantlers laid the basis of the state economic Policy – protection policiesIn which the state should patronize the national industry and trade, provide favorable conditions for exporting and hiring labor, to establish high customs duties to import, prohibit the export of gold from the country, maintain an active trade balance, and the like.

The historical example of such a policy in the England of the 20th century was the law on "enhancement" of the lands (the peasants drove away from their lands, thereby depriving them of their livelihood and forcing the city to hire a job on manufactory. This ensured the emerging capitalist production of the hired workforce), Labor laws - about establishing 12-14 hours day.

However, the mercantilistic theory did not give a complete idea of \u200b\u200bthe functioning of the economic system, as he considered the main source of national wealth trade.

2) The deeper analysis of the functioning of the economy was taken classic schoolwho pretended in Western Europe in the XVIII - early nineteenth centuries.

Its founders were English economist William Petti (1623-1686) (the main works - "Treatise on taxes and fees", "political arithmetic", "Something about money") and French economist Pierre Buagilber.

The classic school actually turns political savings into genuine science (knowledge system).

Her representatives transferred the study of the economy from the sphere of appeal to the sphere of production, because considered the source of public wealth production, and accordingly - human labor.

The direction of the classic school was theory physicraftsThe founders of which were French economists Francois Kene (1694-1774) and Anne Robert Jacques Türgo.

Title theory physicrafts - From the Greek Words: Phisis - Nature, Kratos - Power.

Physiocrats believed that the source of wealth is labor, but only in the field of agriculture.

In "Economic Tables", F.Kene (1758) analyzes public reproduction from the position of the proportionality of natural and cash streams In the movement of social product.

Financister J.Turgo formulated the law of decreasing fertility, which today is interpreted as a law of decreasing performance (return): an increase in the application of labor to the Earth leads to the fact that each subsequent labor costs turns out to be less productive.

The largest representative of the classic school is English economist Adam Smith (1729-1790).

The main work is "research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" (1776). The central idea is the liberalization of the economy, that is, the minimum intervention of the state in the economy, market self-regulation based on competition and free pricing.

A. Simit laid the foundations of labor theory of value, showed the importance of division of labor as the conditions for increasing its productivity, formulated the principles of rational taxation.

Later representative of the English classical school - David Ricardo (1772-1823). His main work is "the beginning of political economy and taxation" (1817).

D. Ricardo considered the law of the value of A. Smita the foundation of the theory of political economy. The only source of value is the work of the worker, which underlies the income of various classes. From this, D.Rikardo concludes: Profit - the result of the unpaid labor of the worker.

D. Ricardo revealed the trend of the profit rate to decrease, disclosed the mechanism of formation of differential rent.

The principle of comparative costs D.Rikarto and today is used to substantiate the effectiveness of international specialization and cooperation of production.

The main provisions of the classic school theory are reduced to the following conclusions:

1. The object of studying political economy should be material production.

2. The source of public wealth (wealth of peoples) is a productive work.

3. Labor is a measure of value of all goods.

4. Public production is developing in their laws that are objective.

5. The work of the hired worker is the source of income of all sectors of society: land owners, industrialists, bankers, workers.

6. The economic interests of various classes and social layers are opposite.

7. The state must implement economic policies.

8. Capitalism as a social system is natural and eternal order.

9. Competition makes the economy self-regulating system.

10. It is appropriate to the lack of state intervention in the economy (the policy of economic liberalism) and the encouragement of private entrepreneurship.

3) Representatives of the critical direction in political economy - economic romanticism (S. Sismondi), utopic Socialism (Sh. Fourier, T. Ma, R. Owen), ricardianism (W. Thompson and J. Gray) (XVI - XIX centuries) revealed flavors and diseases of society, painted paintings of a happy future, but did not see the real economic ways to achieve it.

4) In the XVIII-XIX centuries. There is so-called small bourgeois political economy, whose study is external economic dependencies.

Main Representative - Jean Batist Say (1767-1832). J.B. Say was a supporter of economic liberalism, idealized the free market, denied the possibility of economic crises.

It formulated the so-called SEA law: "The proposal creates its demand", according to which the economy always reaches equilibrium.

5) Marxism (XIX century) - the direction of political economy, which studied the laws of development of capitalism and created the concept of socialism (communism) as a new economic system.

The founders of this area are German economists and sociologists Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels. He continued their research by V.I. Lenin, who created the theory of imperialism.

The main work of K.Marks - "Capital" (1867) in 3 volumes. IV Tom - "To criticism of political economy" is a critical analysis of all Domarix theories in political economy.

"Capital" is a theoretical study of all phases of public reproduction - production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. The basis of this theory is the works of the classics of Political Economy Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

The most important provisions of Marxism:

1. The doctrine of social and economic formations.

2. Theory of surplus value.

3. The doctrine of the dual character of labor embodied in the product.

4. The theory of reproduction and economic crises.

5. The theory of absolute rent.

6. Analysis of the evolution of the forms of value and the emergence of money.

Marxist theory considered the basis of operating workers under capitalism Private property for the means of production predicted the inevitability of the death of capitalism, destruction private property And the victory of communism due to the opposite of the economic interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

This idea was developed by V. I. Lenin in the work "Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism" (1916).

Marxist political economy wore a pronounced class character, reflecting the interests of the proletariat.

6) Historical School L. Sheet and New Historical School K. Buuger, V. Zombart focuses on the fact that no socio-economic form is perfect, it is constantly improving, so economic theories cannot be equally used to different countries.

7) Marginalism (XIX-XX centuries) (from English. Marginal is the limit) - the theory, considering the economy as a system of interrelated economic entities and explaining economic processes based on limit values: Land revenue, limit costs, limit product, utmost utility, etc.

The founder of margin analysis is the French mathematician, philosopher and economist Antoan Kourno (1801-1877).

In the second half of the XIX century, the Austrian School of Marginalism appeared, whose representatives were Karl Menger (1840-1921), Friedrich von Viers (1851-1926), Evgeny Bem-Baberk (1851-1914).

Contribution austrian school There was a theory of utmost utility at which the beneficial price is determined by the utility of the latest available product units - this is a subjectivist approach to determining the cost of labor products.

The mathematical apparatus of the analysis of limit values \u200b\u200bwas developed by representatives of the Mathematical School: Swiss Leon Valrasi (1834-1910), English economist William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882), American economist John Bates Clark (1848-1938).

8) In the 90s of the XIX century. on the basis of development of this theory appeared neoclassical direction (A. Marshall, J. B. Clark), which is a compromise between different directions in economic theory.

The neoclassical theory is based on the principle of non-interference of the state in the economy, freedom of entrepreneurship and market forces.

9) Keynesianism (XX century). Representatives: English economist John Meinard Keynes (1883-1946), N. Kaldor, E.Aychner, J. Denis.

J.Keyins developed the theory of effective demand achieved at the expense of state regulation market economy Through Financial I. monetary policy, as well as the theory of anti-crisis regulation.

A variety is postkensianism, seeking to update and add J.Kanes theory in modern conditions.

10) In the XX century The institutional and sociological direction arises ( institutionalism).

Representatives: Testaine Weblin (1857-1929), Wesley Mitchell, (1874-1948) - Specialist in Industrial Cycles, John Galbreit (1909), Robert Coase. Consider the economy as a system in which relations between business entities add up under the influence of both economic, and off-economic factors, "institutions", under which they understand the state, family, trade unions, moral and ethical and psychological standards. This area also includes modern theories of neo-propitismalism; industrial, post-industrial, technotronic and information society.

11) Neoclassical synthesis. Representatives: John Hicks (1904) and Paul Samuelson (1915). Propose depending on the state of the economy, use either Keynesian recommendations of state regulation, or classical recipes. The achievements of this direction were: research of economic growth issues; theory of general economic equilibrium; Justification of the theory of taxation.

12) Neoliberal Direction Presented:

BUT) theory of monetarism Milton Friedman (1912), USA. This is the theory of stabilization of the economy by controlling the state of money.

B) economic liberalism (neoliberalism), Ordoliberalism, conduits. Representatives: American economist Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973), English economist Frederich von Hayek (1899-1992), German economist L. Erhard, French economist M. Alla.

Essence economic liberalism: The market is the most efficient management system, so it is necessary to ensure freedom to subjects economic activity. The role of the state is determined in the statement of L. Erhard: "Competition is everywhere, where possible, regulation where necessary".

13) Modern Economic Theories and Schoolslate XX - early XXI explosive Very diverse. These are: modern institutionalism theories, modern monetarism, economic theories of developing countries, economic theories of countries with transitive economies; Economic theories of world economy; Theories of global development of society and others.

For modern destinations, it is characterized by reorientation for a combination of macro- and micro-acids to the analysis of economic phenomena. This allows you to link theory with practice and get fundamentally new results in economic science.

The historical stages of the development of economic thoughts are presented in Scheme 1.1.

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Introduction

Political economy, political economy - one of the social sciences, the subject of which are production relations and laws that manage their historical development.

The subject of political economy: the object of the study will be society, social ties. But this object is studied by psychologists, and sociologists, and political scientists, etc. The subject of political economy will be socio-economic phenomena, which add up in certain areas that different periods Time was in focus of political economy.

1. Polyteconomy functions

PE examines the relationship between people in the decisive sphere of their livelihoods: in economic activity. The PE value in the life of society can be characterized by its functions.

PE as one of the industries of scientific knowledge performs:

1) cognitive function. Her PE provides accumulation of scientific knowledge, extension intellectual Potential Societies, expands the scientific horizons of people, arms them with knowledge of objective laws of economic development of society, the power of scientific foresight.

2) Methodological - PE examines the production and economic relations of people in their depth of their essence. This is the fundamental science, is the methodological basis of all economic sciences. This is a kind of economic philosophy.

3) Practical - PE - theoretical Foundation economic policies of the state, enterprises, firms. Based on the laws and its theoretical conclusions of the laws and its theoretical conclusions government controlled, firms define their program goals, economic strategy and tactics. PE contributes to increasing economic potential.

4) ideological - PE forms views, social ideas, public consciousness. It is the initial basis for the formation of economic and political thinking.

Political economy identifies patterns and formulates economic laws, managing the development of production relations at different historical stages of the development of human activity of mankind. In order to distinguish them, different techniques can be used to allocate qualitatively different states of the productive forces and production relations of the Company, in particular, a special category of socio-economic formations.

2. The birth and development of political economy

Economic problems have always been the focus of people. Fixed economic problems We meet in myths, legends, religious beliefs. The first scientific problems are also found in antiquity within a single philosophical science.

The accumulation of large volumes of economic knowledge leads to their dismemberment and separation. The emergence of special research refers to the beginning of the 17th century. (the emergence of capitalism and the formation of national markets). Then the term political economy arose. He was first applied by the French scientist - Mercaltilism Antoine de Montoune in 1615 in the "Treatise of political economy" addressed to the king and queen. Mantilism is the first school of political economy. Comes from the Italian word "mercant" - (merchant). Representatives of this area The wealth of society was identified with gold, and the source of wealth was considered trade. Mercantilists contributed to the decomposition of feudalism, the primary accumulation of capital.

Classical PE arose in connection with the penetration of capital in the sphere of production. Classical PE was the dominant school of 2 floors. 18 - Nach. 19th century The first representatives of this school are physiocrats (nature and power), Francois Kene, the source of wealth, was considered the source of wealth, but only agricultural. The main merit is that it was the first attempt to analyze public reproduction.

The merit of representatives of the classical PE William Petti, Adam Smith, David Ricardo is that they substantiated a number of important theoretical provisions:

1) the source of public wealth is all social production;

2) introduced the abstraction method, which opens up the possibilities of penetration into the deep essence of the studied phenomena;

3) laid the foundations of labor theory of value;

4) investigated the mechanism of reproduction of public capital.

5) attempted to explain the laws manageing economic phenomena;

6) advocated the restriction of the state intervention in the economy and for freedom of trade.

In the middle and second half of the 19th century. In the works of Sissondi and Proudhon, a small-bourgeois PE developed. It reflected the interests and views of small commodity producers; It was not able to open the laws of economic development and therefore turned out to be fruitless.

Marxist teaching entered the arena of economic theory from the middle of 19 century. as one of the peaks of theoretical thought of that time. It basically remains.

In "Capital" there is a fairly deep theoretical reflection of the conditions for the development of capitalism of free competition to. 18B. - n. 19B. It is the economic teaching of Marxism that was a solid foundation for the formation of PE as science with a clearly defined subject. Danish K. Marx Analysis of production relations in unity with productive forces, creating a system economic categories and laws, an analysis of the internal contradictions of the economic system - generally accepted by world science. Marxism made the principle of historicism, which allowed Marx to discover the laws of economic development.

Modern economic theory is characterized by a large number of areas, schools, flows. Main:

1) neoclassical;

2) Keynesian;

3) monetarism;

4) institutional and sociological.

They differ in the interpretation of the role of the market and states, their relationships and interaction in economic development.

1) Neoclassical comes from the root position of the classical school on the market and competition as natural conditions of functioning and development of the economy. The market mechanism of self-regulation is considered the only effective way Functioning of the economy. State intervention can lead to a violation of economic equilibrium, to a decrease in efficiency. Neoclassical theory Based on the theories of utmost utility and performance.

2) Keynesianism emerged in the 30s of the 20th century, due to the need to bring the economy from the global crisis 29-33. J.M. Keynes released the work in 1936 " General Theory Employment, percentage and money. "

Basic provisions: Market mechanism is not able to completely eliminate crises and unemployment, state regulatory intervention is necessary, with taxes, subsidies, loan interest.

3) The focus of monetarists - anti-crisis activities: stimulating economic activity using the financial and credit system, monetary circulation, inflation to increase the demand and impending of production.

4) institutional and sociological direction. The object of research is such public institutions as corporations, trade unions, the state. At the same time, the focus - universal value. They oppose the excessive ideas of public life, against the militarization of the economy, for indicative government planning of the economy, for guaranteed income, for the expansion of state social programs, for organizing the state of retraining employees in connection with technological unemployment.

The economic science of Ukraine in modern conditions should creatively use the global potential of economic thought.

political pattern of savings domestic

3. Domestic political economy in 20-9 0 - e. Years XX.in.

Period 1917-1921. In the development of domestic economic thought is characterized by a sharp politicization.

Theoretical ideas about socialism and transitional period The leadership of the Bolsheviks party largely determined the ways of the development of domestic economic thoughts for many years ahead. The results of the first socialist transformations led to some polarization of economic views from leading party theorists.

IN AND. Lenin comes to the conclusion about the need to temporarily suspend the Red Guard attack on capital in the form of privatization of private ownership in order to establish the right functioning of the emergence of the economy sector. He substantiates ideas about the existence in the future of various contradictory business stages, the principles of stimulating and organizing labor in the new conditions, attracting bourgeois specialists. These ideas will become the basis of the theory and practice of NEP.

However, the leading theorists of Bolshevism L.D. Trotsky, N.I. Bukharin, E.A. Preobrazhensky adhered to other views.

LD Trotsky puts forward the concept of militarization of labor. Its main idea is to create a system of forced labor, a barren organization of society. The production was organized on a military model, where the issue of labor discipline was solved under the laws of military time (evaded work went to penalties or concentration camps). Such an organization led, in his opinion, to the faster realization of the need to work for the benefit of the whole society, which, in turn, will be the main stimulus to work, and therefore, the growth of its effectiveness.

From determining the role of the proletariat in the revolution, the attitude of Trotsky to the peasantry as a counter-revolutionary part of society. This is reflected in collectivization policies, politics industrial construction By pumping funds from the agricultural sector.

Others were the views of the Menshevik part of the Russian Social Democracy, which turned out to be opposition to the new government. According to G.V. Plekhanov, Russia was not ready for the transition to socialism due to the insufficient development of capitalism. The same point of view was expressed by P.P. Maslov. They believed that a long-term reform was possible in Russia.

Already after the February Revolution of 1917, Maslov defended the concept of preserving commodity and capitalist economy with simultaneous reform of agricultural relations, state organization In order to change the distribution of national income, the rational placement of the productive forces. The first economic transformations implemented soviet power We were met by the Mensheviks critically.

This was the reaction to the policy of "military communism". Mensheviks offered a number of measures to restore the national economy: state refusal from the policies of the overall nationalization of industry; attracting private capital and cooperation; encouraging by the state with small industries working for a free market; Attraction foreign capital; Cancellation of labor militarization and restriction of labor service; free development of independent workers and peasant organizations; Food change; providing a peasant incentives to expand and improve the economy; preservation of the peasants of the inviolable use of the land they received during the revolution; Minding the number of Soviet farms in agriculture to the minimum number that the state may contain both exemplary and cost-effective; passing backgrowers for rent; Freedom of chain order by surplus products. This Economic Reform Program coincides with the main activities of the new economic policy introduced by the Bolsheviks in the spring of 1921.

The post-war period had a huge impact on all parties to the life of the Soviet society, including the state of economic thought. It was the time of approval of the domination of the ideas of Marxist political economy. At that time, the struggle of Marxists with economists of other areas intensified. Here you can highlight the stages in the development of economic thoughts.

The 20s can be called the "Golden Decade" of Russian economic science. Economists in the 20s. The task of justification of the NEPA was solved, the models of modernization of the national economic mechanism were developed. In the first place in practical significance, the problems of the market and commodity - cash relations were issued. During this period, some of the Soviet economists were influenced by the principles of "Military Communism", the views of K. Marx on this problem. Many party figures and economists did not immediately understand the meaning of a new economic policy and considered it as a retreat from the option of a faster transition to socialism.

From the late 20s. As a result of the folding of the NEP, the influence of the political factor in economic science increases. The transition of economic science to a new state, characterized by a fall in the level of theoretical studies, led to the approval of party monopolism in science of 30-40-Gg. Another feature of this period was the amplifying self-insulation of domestic science from foreign economic thoughts.

In the 30s. The discussions in political economy began to pursue the goal of the theoretical and economic substantiation of the formated command-administrative system, the propaganda of the Stalinist interpretation of Marxism. A.L. Vainstein, A.V. Cheyanov, L.M. Crzman is developing natural-real accounting systems as centralized projects natural economy. But most of the scientists stood on the positions of preserving commodity-monetary relations in socialism.

In the 1930s, an official point of view is approved on the inevitability of long-term preservation of trade and money before going to communism. Supporters of this concept are so argued by the need for commodity and money relations: the incompleteness of the process of socializing and preserving the small-handed sector; the presence of difficulties in the system of direct accounting, control and distribution; The differences between the city and the village, mental and physical labor; Various level of qualifications of workers and technical level of enterprises, industries, etc.; The need to ensure the material interest of workers, etc. Thus, the concept of a limited role of commodity-monetary relations in socialism is approved, and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of the death of commodity-money relations becomes indisputable.

Another problem discussed in the interwar period discussions was the problem of national economic planning. In the 20s, two approaches to understanding the role and planning tasks were formed.

Proponents of the genetic principle of planning believed that it should be repelled from the forecast, i.e. How to evolve national economy under the condition of non-interference of the state.

Supporters of the teleological principle, on the contrary, believed that the main thing when planning was to determine the goals, while the enthusiasm and the consciousness of the workers would help them achieve them.

An attempt to reconcile the positions of genetics and telestods took V.A. Bazaars. He put forward the idea of \u200b\u200ba combination of these approaches, in accordance with which the teleological principle of planning was distributed to nationalized sectors of the national economy, and the genetic was used mainly to the agrarian sector. Due to the predominance of the latter in the national structure, the genetically developed plan has become the basis of the general plan.

The discussion was far from science, and the position of telecoms was resting on the ideology of the Bolsheviks party. In 1927, the first five-year plan was adopted, ignoring the objective patterns of the development of the national economy of the country.

With the transition to the NEPA, the controversy caused agrarian policy. Outstanding scientists who worked in the field of economics peasant farm Was in. Chayans leader of the organizational and industrial school. Chayans studied the family-labor peasant farm in cooperation with the surrounding economic environment. He revealed a number of paradoxes and peculiarities of the development of peasant farms in Russia, believing not always possible the use of market criteria for the assessment of the labor peasant economy. Chayanov came to the conclusion that the peasant economy is different from the farm motive of production: the farmer is guided by the criterion of profitability, and the peasant is the organizational and production plan, which represents a set of money budget, labor balance in time and in various industries and activities, turnover money and products.

The components of the organizational and production plan are labor balance (agriculture, fishery), the balance of production facilities (cattle, inventory) Monetary budget (income, expenses).

Chayans came to the conclusion that prices for agricultural products are not the main factor in the peasant economy. Therefore, the farmer and the peasant will respond differently to lower prices. The farmer will expand production volumes, and the peasant is reduced. Regular practice of extinguishing crafts, weakening their own agricultural farm, gave peasants the opportunity to more evenly distribute labor resources At the time of year.

The concept of the organizational and production plan created by the ceyanov made it possible to explain many features of the economic behavior of the peasant economy and in practice to take them into account when forming an agricultural policy.

Chayans worked on the methodology for assessing the balance of labor peasant farm, using the methods of the theory of "limiting utility". The use of the technique would predict the change in the cost and prices of agricultural products.

The concept of the organizational plan was laid into the theory of Cayanov's cooperation, in which he saw the path to improving the effectiveness of the agricultural sector. He insisted on the gradual cooperation, believing that the cooperatives should be separated only by the technical optimity of which exceed the possibilities of individual peasant farm.

Three cycles of economic development identified by Condratyev

Another outstanding scientist of this period was N.D. Kondratyev (1892-1938). The theory of large cycles of conjuncture has brought the greatest fame.

Kondratiev conducted the processing of time series of the following economic indicators: commodity prices, percentage of capital, wage, Turnover foreign trade, mining and consumption of coal, production of cast iron and lead for four countries - England, Germany, USA and France. The observation period amounted to about 140 years. As a result of data processing, they revealed a tendency showing the existence of large periodic cycles of waves with a duration of 48 to 55 years.

N.D. Kondratyev established a number of empirical patterns accompanying large cycles. For example, an upward wave begins when a sufficient amount of capital is accumulated, which goes to invest in a radical update of technology and the creation of new technologies. At some point, the rate of capital accumulation decreases, which leads to a fracture in the dynamics of development. During the period of a downward wave, the accumulation of free capital and an increase in efforts to improve the technique, which creates prerequisites for the new lift.

In world economic science, interest in the problem of cycles and patterns of cyclic development was aggravated after the Great Depression (crisis 1929-1933). Kondratyeva's hypothesis found many supporters and followers. She firmly among the largest achievements of world science. Since then, these cycles are called Condratyev's "cycles along with three-year kitchin cycles and decade cycles of Zhulura.

In the USSR, his concept was not appreciated due to its discrepancy with the official doctrine of the general crisis of capitalism.

Despite the process of vulgarization of political economy, the area in Soviet economic science remained, in which domestic scientists not only went to the leg with Western colleagues, but also achieved priority. This is an area of \u200b\u200beconomic and mathematical research, or econometrics.

One of the achievements of the school was the development of the concept of inter-sectoral balance of national economy. Already when developing the first five-year plan, the first balance sheets began to appear ("The balance of national economy of the SSR Union 1923-1924"). PI participated in the work on them. Popov, L.N. Litoshchenko, N.O. Dubenetsky, F.G. Dubrovnikov, I.A. Morozova, O.A. Kvitkin, A.G. Primurain.

The work of the Soviet scientists attracted the attention of the American scientist V. in Leontyev, with the name of which is connected with the resumption of work on the preparation of intersectoral balances in the USSR in the late 50s.

One of the most prominent representatives of the Russian econometric was L.V. Kantorovich (1912-1986). He began to decide quite practical task - distributions of various kinds of raw materials in different machining machines in order to maximize the release of products at a given assortment. To solve this problem, Kantorovich has developed a special method, in which, with each restriction of the initial problem, a special assessment was associated, called the allowing factor. The optimal plan of the problem was determined as a result of an iterative process, during which consistent adjustment of the resolution multipliers was carried out. Thus, Kantorovich created a new science - linear programming. The results of the study were set out in the "Mathematical Methods of Production Planning and Planning" brochure (1939), which was considered, in addition to the task with machines, a well-known transport task, the problems of minimizing waste, maximizing the impact of the use of complex raw materials, the best distribution of sowing space. In 1975, for an outstanding contribution to the global economic science, Kapotovich was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics.

In 1939, a large economic and mathematical work was published - "Methods of compulsion of the national economic efficiency of planned and design options" V.V. Novozhilova (1892-1970), in which the task of making a national economic plan is formulated. Optimal, according to Novozhilov, is a plan that requires the minimum amount of labor costs at a given amount of products.

In 1958 V.S. Nemchinov (1894-1964) organized the first laboratory of economic and mathematical methods at the Academy of Sciences. In the work of Nemchinova, "Economic and Mathematical Methods and Models" (1964) identified the main directions of application of mathematics in economic science: the development of the theory of planned calculations and the general mathematical methodology of optimal planning; development of intersectoral and interregional balance sheets; mathematical analysis of the expanded reproduction scheme; optimal planning of the work of the transport; Decision of technical and economic tasks; Development of mathematical statistics and its use in the national economy.

Within the framework of economic and mathematical science in the 50-60s. Ideas were put forward on the need to use indirect levers of state regulation of the economy, the need to reduce the scope of policy planning and, in connection with this, reducing the bureaucratic apparatus, etc.

In the 60s. These ideas were reflected in the concept of the optimal functioning system (SOPE), which left a marked mark in the development of Soviet econometrics. SOPE acted as an alternative to the dominant methods of management of the national economy.

In the 50-60s. Discussions did not stop the role of the plan and market. Attitude to the role of planning and market levers in economic system Socialism has become the main criterion for the classification of Soviet political economies. In 1965-1967th. An attempt was made economic reformbased on economic methods Manuals (concept E.G. Lieberman). However, in science, the monopoly of supporters of a planned approach, which were representatives of which were N.A. Zagolov, N.V. Hessin, N.S. Malyshev, V.A. Sable, A.V. Bachurin, L.E. MINT.

Changes in the world, the acceleration of NTP in countries with a market economy by the beginning of the 80s revealed complete inconsistency of economic management based on administrative command methods. Part of economists (Lisuchkin, N. Petrakov, O. Lazis, etc.) led to the need for serious transformations. At the origins of the restructuring stood such economists as A. Aganbegian, L. Abalkin, A. Anchushkin, A. Greenberg, P. Bunich, S. Shatalin.

Conclusion

Studying the history of scientific schools in the domestic economic theory of the XX century. Allows you to come to the following conclusion: it would be unfair to consider that our domestic economists did not make a certain contribution to world science. The best achievements of economic and mathematical, Kondratyevskaya and political economical schools have become a basis for many modern global research. In this regard, domestic scientific schools have real prospects for further development. At the same time, to implement these favorable prospects, it is necessary that a new type of scientist, combining the excellent knowledge and understanding of the achievements of world science, widely educated and at the same time a specialist in a particular analysis area. Then it will be possible to realize the main task - the creation of a truly scientific national economic school, which independently solved the urgent problems of all the post of Soviet countries.

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