Macroeconomic indicators and features of their measurement. The main macroeconomic indicators and methods of their measurement. System of national accounts. In the Company's incomes are included

For the convenience of exploring the material article Macroeconomic indicators We divide on topics:

Gross national disposable income

The Agriculture differs from the GNI on the balance of current redistributive payments (current transfers) transmitted abroad or received from abroad. These transfers may include humanitarian aid, gifts of relatives derived from abroad, fines and penalties paid by residents abroad. Thus, the ADDC covers all revenues obtained by residents of a given country as a result of the primary and secondary distribution of income. It can be determined by summing up gross disposable income of all sectors of the economy. Vetric is divided into final consumption and national savings.

End consumption

CP includes the cost of finite consumption of households, government controlled, non-profit organizations serving households. At the same time, the costs of public administration and non-commercial organizations serving households coincide with the cost of non-market services provided by these organizations.

Gross accumulation

Gross accumulation covers the accumulation of fixed capital, change of material, as well as the net acquisition of values \u200b\u200b(jewelry, antiques, etc.), i.e. it is an investment of residential units to the facilities of fixed capital to create a new income in the future by using them in production. VN of fixed capital includes the following components: the acquisition of new and existing disposal; on improving unproved material assets; Expenditures in connection with the transfer of ownership of unproveed assets.

Gross accumulation as an element of GDP includes the gross accumulation of fixed capital, the increase in material current means, costs for acquiring values. The accumulation can be calculated on a clean basis, that is, less the consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).

Balance foreign trade

External trade balance is an important element of the final use of GDP and is defined as the difference between exports and imports. If the balance of foreign trade is positively, there is a clean export.

Macroeconomic indicators of Russia

Stream values

Gross release is the value of all goods and services produced in the economy for a certain period of time. Gross release includes absolutely all products produced in the economy, including those intended for the production of other goods and services. The latter are intermediate consumption, in contrast to final consumption.

The level of gross release, which is ensured in complete employment, is called the level of natural release.

Gross National Product (GNP) - the value of all finite goods and services produced in the economy for a certain period of time. GNP, in contrast to gross release, is cleared of intermediate consumption. As in practice, the dual account is avoided, will be considered below.

The gross national and gross domestic product (GDP) differ. GNP is a GDP minus the amount created on the territory of the country using foreign, plus the amount of the value added abroad using the factors belonging to citizens of the country.

The net national product (CNP) is an GNP minus charges for capital consumption (depreciation). The indicator of the CHDP has a significant drawback: it carries a distortion that contributes to the structure of market prices. Without intervention, the amount of market prices of all goods without a residue is decomposed on factor income of households. However, the state introducing indirect taxesOn the one hand, and providing subsidies to firms - on the other, it actually contributes to the overestimation of market prices in the first case and incline - in the second.

National income (y) is a pure product measured in factors of production. ND is a CHDP minus indirect taxes plus subsidies.

The level of national income, which is provided in complete employment, is called the national income of complete employment (YF).

Income, which remains at the disposal of households, that is, income after paying taxes is the disposable income (YV) households.

Streaming values \u200b\u200binclude consumption costs (C), savings (S), investments (I), government procurement (G), taxes (T), export (E), import (z) and some other essential indicators.

Stock indicators and indicators of economic

Property (assets) - any source of legitimate income. The property includes as real assets, eg, real capital (K) and (shares,), in addition, allocate property rights and intellectual property.

Asset portfolio is a set of assets belonging to an economic subject.

National wealth - total assets belonging to households and state.

Real monetary (cash) remnants are a stock of payment funds that the economic entity wants to keep in the form of cash.

The state of economic conjuncture reflect the following indicators:

Percentage rate (I), the rate of return of the capital asset (R), price level (P), inflation, level (U) and others.

GDP calculation methods as the most important indicator To measure the volume of national production

Value Added Method

GDP is money Evaluation All finite goods and services produced in the economy for the year. At the same time, the annual volume of finite goods and services created in the country is taken into account. To correctly calculate GDP, it is necessary to take into account all products and services produced in this year, but without a repeated, dual account. That is why the definition of GDP we are talking about finite products and services. These benefits are consumed within households and firms, and do not participate in further production, in contrast to intermediate goods. If the GDP includes intermediate products used for the production of other goods (flour purchased by bread baking bread), then the overestimated GDP rating is obtained (the price of flour will be taken into account several times).

Eliminate the double account allows the value added indicator, which represents the difference between the sales of their purchases of materials, tools, fuel and services from other firms. Value added is the market price of the company's products, minus the cost of consumed raw materials and materials purchased from suppliers.

Summarizing the value added, produced by all firms in the country, can be defined by GDP, which represents the market assessment of all issued goods and services.

1. Consumer spending of the population (c).
2. Gross private investment in (Ig).
3. Public procurement of goods and services (G).
4. Pure exports (NX), which represents the difference between the export and import of this country.
GDP \u003d C + Ig + G + NX

GDP can be represented as a sum of factor income (, percentage, earnings, rent), i.e. Determine as the amount of remuneration of owners of production factors. GDP includes revenues of all subjects operating in the geographical framework of a given country, as residents (citizens living in the territory of a given country, with the exception of foreigners who are in the country less than a year) and non-residents. In the GDP indicator also includes indirect and direct taxes on enterprises, revenues from property and retained part of profits. The fact that for some subjects is costs for others - income.

Both methods are considered equivalent and should provide as a result of the same amount of GDP.

Not all transactions implemented economic constituents For the calculated period (per year), included in the GDP indicator. First, these are transactions with: buying and selling securities - shares, bonds, etc. Financial transactions are not directly related to changes in current real production. Secondly, the sale and purchase of second-hand things and goods used. Their value was accounted for earlier. Thirdly, private transfers (for example, gifts), in this case it is only a redistribution between private economic entities. Fourth, state transfers.

Calculation of GNP

Nominal and real GDP

Nominal GDP is calculated in current prices (PQ), where p is the price index, Q is the physical volume of production. To determine the physical volume of production, the basic year is established and calculated at its prices produced in the current year GDP. The new basic year is usually determined every 10-15 years.

Real GDP is the actual volume of production, calculated in the prices of the base year. To calculate real GDP, you must use the price index.

hence,

The GDP deflator measures the intensity of inflation or the reverse process. If the value is greater than 1, the GDP deflation occurred if the price index is less than 1, then inflation occurred.

Consumer price index (CPI), which uses a fixed set of benefits ("Consumer Cart"). Lassekiiras index il \u003d p1i q0i / p0i q0i, where Q0i the number of goods and services produced in the base year, P0i - prices of goods and services in the base year, P1i - prices of goods and services this year. CPI reflects only the prices of goods purchased by households. CPI takes into account the prices of imported goods.

Manufacturer prices index (PHIs), where the quantities of goods and services produced in the current year are taken as price weights. Paashee index ip \u003d p1i q1i / p0 q1i, where Q1i is the number of goods and services in the current year. The GDP deflator is a parasas index.

IN lately A wide application finds the Fisher index, which is a medium-beometric value from Lassejaras and Paashey indices. IP \u003d IL IP

GDP forecasting logic

Assessment of the probable level of gross national product (GNP) is a starting point in determining a long-term forecast of economic growth, since this is the most exhaustive meter of economic growth, which has universal recognition.

Thus, the prediction of the GNP represents the process divided into 3 stages, within which the level of GNP and the relationship with other essential indicators is determined:

1 stage - components of the components of the GNP;
2 stage - the use of labor;
3 Stage - compensation, profit and prices.

The prediction of the GNP and other major macroeconomic variables should be started with the "exogenous" variables - whose behavior is poorly related to the current development of the economy - and go further to "endogenous", whose behavior is largely depends on the rest.

Thus, the 1st stage begins with the calculation of exports and public spending, whose initial estimates can be made on the basis of external sources. In addition, for example, in the United States, Commerce Department provides sufficiently accurate reviews of plans and information about initial cost Basic capital from non-residents.

The short-term assessment of state and local government spending on goods and services with can be obtained based on the study of temporary rows and changes in inventory.

The medium-term prognosis of consumer spending of the population on durable goods (RSD) can be analyzed and represent a rough frequency assessment and amplitude phase of the current cycle of business activity. These forecasts should be revised from the point of view of the financial conditions expected in the future and other changes.

And finally, some additional external information can be used to develop a forecast of imports and consumer spending on essential goods and services.

Combining these steps, produced initial score GNP, which is then used in justifying forecasts of permanent and alternating capital. If these forecast calculations are significantly different, then the entire process of coordination and recalculation can be repeated until the logical sequence of the phenomena under consideration is established.

This continuous repetition process allows you to insure the logic of the forecasting process, both in an economic sense and from the point of view of quantitative calculations throughout all stages of forecasting.

Unemployment and productivity

Compared to the first stage, the prediction of unemployment and productivity is relatively simple. However, a situation may occur when issues related to the forecasts of variable predictions of the 1st stage may appear on the intuitive level. And then you will need to turn to the previous steps.

Compensation, profit and prices

Combining the "real" forecast with "nominal", compensation, profit and prices are considered as the forecast phase requiring the most close attention. Namely, the decisions on the real costs at the 1st stage directly depend on the level of inflation. The results of the 3rd stage are likely to need other ways of interconnection with preliminary forecasts of previous steps. In particular, the nominal prognosis of the GNP is closely interrelated with the assessment of the future monetary policy course, which is the key to solve what financial conditions are expected in the economy. They will have a significant impact on consumer spending on long-term goods.

The stages of the development of the GNP and clearly presented in the scheme begin with the definition of real GNP and then move towards financial conditions, as the most likely way to make decisions about the production, sales in non-financial organizations. Financial institutions and treasury corporations benefit from the results, starting from the date of development, the component of the nominal GNP in combination with monetary policies and financial Terms, given the prices, return to the real GNP as a residual one. In general, the practical rule is the following: Focus your attention on the fact that you are most worried about, or that you know best.

The nature of some of the repetitive procedures can be illustrated with the relationship with other variables, which are depicted in the diagram.

Consider the procedure for determining consumer spending and compensation for wages.

Personal consumer spending

The theory of consumer behavior was well studied: real consumer spending on the services and goods of the essential (RSO) depend on their magnitude in the past and size of income. But there can not even establish the effect of inflation with a positive or negative, the number of empirical observations suggests that inflation strongly reduces consumption.

The theory has not yet determined what the empirical amount of income is the most appropriate. In prediction practice, such an accessible indicator as GNP is most often used - the income meter.

The Forecast of the RSO is based on the preliminary calculations of the "explaining" variables in the right-hand part of the equation. As a rule, the number of explanatory variables includes other than RSO and other pre-proposed variables (in our case GNP, CRI). It is best to start with easily developed promising calculations, which are developed and published by official organizations, for example, such as the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) in the United States. If the GNP growth forecast is 2.2% per year, and the consumer price index (CPI) is 7.5%, then as a result of solving the RSO equation (consumer spending on essential goods and services), 4.1% will increase in the forecast year .

However, the equation does not take into account external factors that may have a significant impact on the deviation of real data from the forecast in quarterly observations.

Labor compensation

The growth of compensation for labor (% SCM) depends on inflation (% of CPI) and state changes, which ultimately reflects on the change in the level of employment, UR.

Based on annual data more than in 20 years, the following equation was calculated:

% Samt \u003d 2.78 + 0.5% SRIT + 0.24% SRIT-1 - 0, URT

Thus, the macroeconomic forecast is a logical sequence of development of basic macroeconomic indicators, between which there is a causal relationship.

The quality of forecasts obtained on the basis of such econometric models largely depends on the methods of developing macroeconomic variables:

The equation was built on real Data of the RSO and GNP per 1 inhabitant. Using the population of the predicted period, these indicators can be transformed into the necessary forecast macroeconomic units

Designation of development methods:

1. Statistical methods of processing time series;
2. Econometric methods;
3. Cyclic comparisons;
4. External sources of information.

Dynamics of macroeconomic indicators

Macroeconomic growth, its indicators

Usually under economic growth means an increase in the ability of the national economy to produce a product that meets the needs of people.

Examples of products for products and imports:

VAT,
- excise
- customs duties.

Similar classification exists for subsidies.

The amount of, PC, PC and the balance of taxes (and subsidies) for production is called gross value added (VDS).

GDP is widely used in macroeconomic studies, since all data for its calculation can be obtained from tax documentation, which causes their completeness and accuracy.

Foreign economic activity characterize such indicators:

Export,
- import,
- Export-import balance,
- Saldo foreign economic.

In conclusion, we will focus on the volume and cost indicators characterizing the scope of money circulation. First of all, it is a mass of cash (m0), i.e. The cumulative nominal value of banknotes, bills and other banking documents of repeated use performing the functions of a universal payment agent and in free circulation. If this magnitude add the amount of deposit deposits, bank credit reserves, as well as money sumsIn the process of transferring from the account to the account (i.e., all sorts of free non-cash money), then we obtain the so-called narrow weight of the money in circulation, denoted usually, M1.

If to M1 add urgent contributions with ne. expired Deposit Treaty I. foreign currency (Cash and non-cash), which are in circulation within a given country, we will get a wide mass of money in circulation, denoted by M2. The total nominal value of all sorts of securities with limited use as a means of payment (so-called. Pseudo money -, bonds of state loans, etc.), added to M, will give a lot of money M3.

To analyze the dynamics of the listed volume and cost indicators, they calculate the growth and increase rates.

The growth rate of the indicator is the ratio of its value for the current time period to the value in the base period.

The growth rate is the ratio of the difference of the indicator values \u200b\u200bfor the current base periods to the value in the base period.

Typically, growth and growth rates are expressed as a percentage.

Price level and price indicators

The most common indicator of the cost of life is the consumer price index, calculated on the basis of the so-called consumer basket.

Under the consumer basket, a set of goods and services needed to the average consumer to meet its urgent food needs, essentials, accommodation, transport, etc. The consumer price index is calculated as the ratio of the cost of the consumer basket for the current time of time to its value for the base point of time. It should be noted that depending on the accounting difference in prices in individual stores and other trading institutions, as well as depending on the determination of the value and structure of the consumer basket, the value of the consumer price index can be calculated in different ways. Therefore, leading this indicator, you should specify the technique for which it was calculated. Most often for this is used by the IMF technique.

General price changes are also characterized by:

Wholesale price index,
- Retail price index.

The wholesale price index is calculated as the ratio of the value of all implemented through wholesale trade In the current period of goods and services expressed in existing wholesale prices, the value of the same goods and services expressed in wholesale prices basic period.

The retail price index is defined as the ratio of the value of all goods and services implemented through retail, expressed in existing retail prices, to the value of the same goods and services expressed in retail prices of the base period.

The most aggregated price level is a weighted price index (Wholesale Index, deflate). It is defined as the ratio of the value of all implemented goods and services (both through wholesale and retail trade), expressed at the appropriate pricing prices, to the value of the same goods and services (taking into account the actual method of their implementation), expressed in the pricing period prices . To resolve private problems arising from the calculation of a weighted price index, a number of techniques have been developed. A generally accepted is the IMF technique.

In addition to those listed, a number of other indicators also apply as indicators of price levels and characterized by the nature of the specific types of goods and services taken into account in them.

Analysis of macroeconomic indicators

Based on GDP, indicators of national accounts are calculated, widely used in economic theory and statistics. The system of national sets associates the most important economic indicators - the volume of goods and services, total income and expenses of the Company. SNS represents modern system Collection and processing information and applied in almost all countries for macroeconomic analysis market economy. It allows in a visual form to submit GDP (GNP) at all stages of its movement, i.e. Production, distribution, redistribution and final use. Its indicators reflect the structure of a market economy, institutions and mechanisms of operation. The use of the SNA is necessary for the effective macroeconomic policy of the state, economic forecasting, for international comparisons of national income.

National Accounting - comprehensive system Concepts that explain the creation, distribution, redistribution and use of gross national product and national income within the framework with a certain structure and patterns of operation.

The UN National Device Model can be considered as a certain theoretical concept that includes:

A) product description and income of the nation, as well as their movement in terms of equality of investments and savings;
b) the model of inter-sectoral balance V.LEONTEV "Costs - Issue";
c) motion analysis (streams) financial meansreflecting the counter movement of material goods and services.

The practical implementation of this concept is the system of national accounts, i.e. A specific statistical system based on a complex of special balances, in which the equilibrium states of the set of exchange transactions between participants are expressed.

National expense performs for the economy as a whole the same functions that for a separate enterprise. To practice, the following states of macroeconomic equilibrium are found to be of great importance, which can be obtained from regularly and officially observed and fixable in documents of nationwide statistical information. Various indicators that are included in the national account system make it possible to measure the volume of production at a specific point in time and disclose the factors directly determining the functioning of the economy. The information that the gross domestic product and national income is given is the basis for the formation and implementation of public policy aimed at improving the functioning of the economy. Thus, practical observation in Western countries is based on the methodology and theoretical principles of national offices and a system of national accounts, the main substantive element of which is the gross national product. Our country has work on the development and use of the methodology of the system of national accounts for practical purposes.

The national accounts system is a statistical system, which is a formalization of the theoretical concept of national offices and consisting of a logically consistent and integrated set of accounts, tables and balance sheets, which reflect the production, distribution and use of the gross national product and national income of the country. The national account system is a closed system, where all countries' accounts can be reduced to a single matrix, reflecting all flows (goods, services, money, financial documents) in national economy. The main structural elements of the national accounts system are: economic production functions, consumption, accumulation, mediation in the redistribution of income; Economic operations - individual acts that make economic units in the process of execution economic functions (operations with material benefits and services, distribution operations, financial operations, etc.); Economic agents are subjects of economic operations that take economic decisions (net industries, institutional sectors); Objects of economic operations - goods, services, money, financial documents. The system of national accounts uses the system double recording By method accounting. The method of building a system of national accounts is to reflect all economic processes As a combination of bilateral operations committed by counterparties. National economy is presented in the form of a closed model; Subjects sign on accounts as income and expenses.

In order to produce financial Policy It is necessary to analyze and predict the relationship between material and financial flows in the economy, to carry out a reliable calculation of the main macroeconomic indicators. The problem lies in the fact that the process of reforming the economy is ahead of the process of improving the system of collecting and processing statistical information. GDP indicator makes it possible in monetary terms to measure the volume of annual production of the country, but GDP does not fully reflect the economic welfare of the nation.

Firstly, in almost all countries there are no systematic and reliable information of such activities as home care for sick and children, home improvement (repair of apartments, shoes, equipment, etc. on their own).

Secondly, there is no assessment of the negative results of the operation of production (environmental pollution, climate change, depletion of resources), which leads to a decrease in the welfare of society.

Thirdly, the GDP indicator does not take into account the well-being of society associated with leisure: in the conditions of a highly developed economy, the level of income is sufficient for high-quality rest and increase the free time of a significant part of the population, which is equivalent to an increase in the welfare of the country.

Fourth, in the world, including in Russia, the difficulties of reliable calculation of macroeconomic indicators are exacerbated by the presence of a "shadow" economy, the scale of which is currently not subject to accurate assessment. According to the State Statistics Committee of Russia, its share in the structure of Russian GDP is now about 20%. But the question arises: is it limited to the scale of this number and to what extent is it really taken into account in GDP calculations? According to various experts, this indicator varies from 30 to 50% in the valuation. This affects the calculation of such indicators, such as the speed of turnover money, turnover of funds in the calculations.

The lack of reliable information when making one or another solution in the field of macroeconomic regulation leads to a certain distortion of the planned relationship between the increase in prices, the cost of the loan and the outflow of capital from real sectors in the sphere of speculation. New confirmations of this contains the January newsletter of the Institute of Economic Analysis. Research is devoted to the analysis of the consequences monetary emissionwhich today again has become fashionable to consider as an allegedly acceptable way to exit the crisis. This has already become a matter of no theory, but practices: the monetary base has been increased by 30%, which corresponds to an increase of 123% per year (against the planned by the Government of 30%).

It should be noted that a concrete political situation in Russia has a great influence on the state of the Russian economy, the current tax practice and state regulationWhat contributes to the direction of financial resources for consumption to a greater extent than on accumulation and.

At the same time, difficulties in obtaining objective cost estimates are complemented by the problems of accounting for the production of products in physical terms caused by the attempts of managers of individual organizations to underestimate the production of products in order to reduce the taxable base and the substantiation of the causes of insolvency.

Thus, there is a need to develop a system for calculating macroeconomic indicators, which includes adjustments to the unrecorded volume of natural-cost and financial resources.

Macroeconomic Development Indicators

An indicator of macro economic Development is GDP.

The starting point for determining the macroeconomics indicators is the volume of annual aggregate production of goods and services. In the national account system, this indicator is the gross domestic product (GDP). This indicator gives a general idea of \u200b\u200bthe dynamics of the economic as a whole and is used to measure national well-being (while calculating the GDP per capita); Measurements of labor productivity (GDP per hour spent). GDP indicator reflects the final result of the activity economic units - residents - both in the field of material production and in the service sector.

GDP is cumulative finite goods and services in the economy of this country for the year. At the same time, the cost of intermediate goods and services is not included in GDP, because otherwise the indicator would contain a repeated (double) account and would not satisfy the requirements to characterize the total production volume in the country, the region for the period under review.

If we summarize the goods and services produced in the country, it is inevitable multiple (repeated) the account of the value of goods and services, substantially distorting the actually generated mass in the composition of various types of gross product.

Consequently, to eliminate the double account of transactions with intermediate products and an overestimated assessment, GDP should include only the cost generated (added) at each intermediate processing stage. So the concept of "added value" occurs is the cost created in the production process on this company and characterizing the actual contribution of the company to the creation of the value of the final product, i.e. Salary, depreciation, profit. Therefore, the cost of consumed raw materials and materials that purchased from suppliers and in the creation of which the company participation did not accept, the value-added value of the product produced by this company does not turn on.

GDP indicator shall be calculated for the internal economy, which covers activities on the economic territory of a given country, both residents and non-residents.

To "residents" in Belarus include all business entities (individuals, legal entities et al.) Regardless of their nationality and citizenship that have a center for economic interest in the country's economic territory, within which the faces, goods and money can freely move. The rest of the institutional units belong to non-residents.

Another macroeconomic indicator is the Gross National Product (GNP). His calculus of statistical authorities was an important condition for the introduction of a system of national offices in the country. GNP is calculated for national Economywhich covers the activities of only residents, and regardless of their location: on the economic territory of a given country or beyond. The difference of this indicator from GDP (GNP is its modification) is associated with a feature of the structure of the economy in the market conditions.

Gross National Product (GNP) is cumulative market value In total, the final volume of goods and services, regardless of the territorial location of domestic firms and companies (in their own country or abroad) for the year.

Thus, the GNP differs from GDP by the magnitude of pure factor income (CFD) from abroad, which may have a positive and negative value:

GNP \u003d GDP + CFD

Pure factor income from abroad is the difference between incomes received by enterprises, organizations and people from using the resources of a given country abroad (transferred to the country profit from the capital invested abroad existing there, the salary of citizens working abroad) and Similar income of foreigners, obtained in the territory of the Republic of Belarus.

In order to correctly measure the GNP, it is necessary to include in its value not all created goods and services (and abroad - not all income, but only the tax received after the deductions of taxes and other payments in favor of states in which residents were used in the territory of ), but only the end.

As for the negative value of the CFD, this means that resources belonging to foreigners in the country produced more products and income than domestic resources abroad.

If revenues for production factors from abroad will exceed payments for the factors of production by the rest of the world (abroad), then in this case the balance between payments (net income) will be positive, and GNP is more GDP. If you exceed payments for the factors of production by the rest of the world, the balance between payments will become negative, and the GDP will be greater than the GNP.

The balance between income received by residents of a given country abroad, and income received by foreign residents in the territory of a given country, both in the former USSR and in the current Belarus constitutes all extremely minor values. The difference between GDP and GNP varies within 1%. Therefore, in practice both indicators are used in parallel.

In macroeconomic analysis, three methods use for the definition of GDP or GNP: for production, according to expenses and in income.

The calculation of GDP for the production (or by industry) shows the contribution of each manufacturer to national production as a whole. The analysis makes it possible to identify the ratio and role of individual industries: the share of mining and processing industries, the share of industry and agriculture in the creation of GDP.

The production method for calculating GDP is reduced to the definition of gross value added for all sectors of the economy (as the difference between gross release and intermediate consumption) and the addition of taxes less subsidies for products and services, including imported.

It should be noted that the gross value added is nothing but the income system presented, ultimately, gross inner product.

The comparison of GDP for production in a series of years allows to identify the change in its structure and the dynamics of the development of individual sectors of the national economy, and also indicates the nature of the economic and especially structural policies conducted in the country. Macroeconomics increases its effectiveness, if possible from the intermediate unit economic Blag. Make the maximum possible number of finite goods and services required by the Company.

The release (gross release) includes market output and non-market output. Market production in the SNA is estimated at the so-called major prices. A non-market release is estimated by software, including depreciation (write-off).

Intermediate consumption is the costs of economic entities for the acquisition of material resources (without investment) and services (transport, legal, financial, etc.) for current production purposes. The methodology for calculating production indicators and intermediate consumption depends on the industry characteristics, the nature of activity. For example, in industries where material benefits are directly produced, the issue (gross release) is the cost of material benefits that are the result of the production activities of resident units during the period under review. In the sphere of treatment, in particular in trade, the release is measured by the value of a realized imposition, which is the difference between the value of the goods sold in the prior and purchase prices, minus the value added tax (VAT).

Thus, GDP can be determined either by summing up all expenses for the purchase of all the volume produced in this year (GDP in costs), or by adding income received from the production of the entire volume of this year (income GDP).

Calculation of Cost GDP (final use method) includes the following articles taking into account the specific elements allocated as part of GDP:

1. End consumer expenses (C). They reflect the cumulative acquisition (consumption) by household residents of goods and services produced both within the country and imported to meet the material and spiritual needs of the population, as well as intended for the development and improvement of the individual. All these positions in the structure of consumption are also the elements that fall to the consumer, bypassing the market, are farmers.

2. Gross accumulation (I). It is a pure acquisition (acquisition less than retirement) resident units of goods and services produced in the current period, but not consumed in it. This category covers all investment costs.

Gross accumulation includes:

Gross accumulation of fixed capital (), i.e. All final purchases of machines, equipment;
- all construction;
- change in reserves of material working capital, i.e. increase (reduction) of stocks of raw materials, materials, fuel and finished products;
- Pure acquisition of values, i.e. Objects purchased to preserve the cost - precious metals and stones, except for monetary gold, as well as gold and stones intended for industrial use; jewelry;
- antiques; Collections, etc.

3. Public procurement (G). They cover the expenditures of government bodies (budgetary organizations) and non-profit organizations serving households to purchase the final product of firms and the purchase of resources, especially labor, for the needs of the state. It is expressed in the amount of the cost of the state for paying wages to civil servants, the purchase of goods and services for individual and collective consumption.

4. Pure exports (X) is defined as the value for which foreign expenses for the purchase of domestic goods and services exceed the national cost of buying foreign goods and services. At the same time, this indicator grows from year to year, which adversely affects both GDP and economy as a whole.
X \u003d e-m
where e is the export value;
M - import value.

The balance of exports and imports of goods and services covers export-import operations of a given country with all countries and reflects that part of the national production activity, which is supported by the foreign economic factor.

Consequently, GDP calculated by costs:

GDP \u003d C + I + G + X

Calculation of GDP "According to expenses" makes it possible to establish:

A) the role of the public sector in the economy;
b) the proportion of personal consumption (consumer spending of the population) as a percentage of GDP;
c) the rate of profit and the rate of accumulation as a percentage of GDP.

The calculation of GDP in income (distribution method) includes the following types of primary income distributed by residential resident units:

1. Payment of labor of employees. This largest income category consists of wages and all kinds of insurance charges on it (social, medical, pension, labor). These additional payments are part of the costs associated with the employment of labor and, therefore, are considered as a component of the total cost of a firm for labor.

2. Profit firms and corporations. Usually, corporate profits are used in this way:

A) corporations - the part of the corporate profits to which claims and receives it in the form of a profit tax;
b) dividends - the part of the remaining corporate profits, which is paid to shareholders and enters the disposal of households;
c) corporations - what remains from corporate profits after paying income tax, dividends and debts.

These unallocated income along with deductions for fixed capital are used as current or future investments in new enterprises and equipment.

3. Rental payments, i.e. Revenues received by owner owners: land and other real estate.

4. Interest is a cash income paid by suppliers of money (loan) capital used in the production of GDP.

5. Income from property, income of the non-corporate entrepreneurial sector (they receive enterprises in individual or family property) and income of independent workers: artists, writers, lawyers and other employees who are not employed.

The calculation of GDP "on income" makes it possible to identify:

A) the share of salary in general;
b) the ratio of income "For labor" and income "for property;
c) the share of indirect taxes in GDP.

Thus, there are 3 methods for calculating the GDP of the country: production, according to costs and income. All methods for calculating GDP are equivalent and should give the same result, since what is spent on the purchase of goods and services becomes income for their manufacturer. Only articles on which GDP is calculated. Thus, it can be seen due to which GDP is growing or falling, and using all methods can be made more efficient analysis.

Macroeconomic Indicators of the National Accounts System

As a generalizing indicators of the results of the functioning of the national economy for a certain period, such aggregates are used as:

Gross National Product (GNP);
- gross domestic product (GDP);
- Clean national product (CHDP);
- National income (ND);
- Personal income of citizens (LD).

Comprehensive Indicator of Economic Development and the best indicator of the state of the economy are GNP and GDP, which constitute the basis of the SNA. Gross National Product (GNP) is the market value of the final goods and services produced during a certain period of time using resources belonging to the country, regardless of their geographic use. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of the final goods and services produced during a certain period of time in the territory of a given country, regardless of national affiliation used in production.

Pure National Product (CHDP) is an GNP, reduced by magnitude. depreciation deductions, i.e.

CHG \u003d GNP - depreciation.

The difference between the sale of goods to the consumer and the selling price of the company's goods is equal to indirect taxes on the business. Such taxes are value added tax, excise taxes, import duties, etc.

Pure indirect business taxes are equal to indirect taxes on business less subsidies to business.

CHDP, reduced to clean indirect taxes on the business, is the amount of national income (ND):

ND \u003d NDP - clean indirect taxes on a business, i.e. domestic income reflects part of the cost of GDP, which is obtained in the form of income owner of production factors: the owners of the Earth - in the form of rent, capital - in the form of a percentage of capital, profit firms, labor - In the form of salary.

But not all means earned by the owners of production factors go to personal consumption and savings.

To determine personal income (LD) from the value of the ND, it is necessary to subtract:

A) Social Insurance Contributions;
b) taxes on the profits of state-owned enterprises and private firms;
c) retained earnings of enterprises and private firms;
and add:
a) dividends;
b) transfer payments;
c) pure interest.

Personal disposable income (LRD), which comes to consumption and savings, differs from personal income (LD) on the amount of individual taxes and mandatory payments. There are three ways to measure the magnitude of the national product: according to expenses (final use method), production and income (distribution). When calculating GDP by finite use (according to expenses), GDP is a set of consumer household expenditures for consumer goods and services.

Consumption of households is the most important and most significant component of the GDP. Changes in GDP and change in consumption in the long term are the same. In the short-term period, GDP change is more significant than consumption changes, as consumption depends on the disposable income, which does not coincide with GDP in terms of magnitude and components such as taxes, transfers that are automatic economy stabilizers.

When calculating GDP, the manufacturing method is summed by the added value at each stage of the final product. This allows you to take into account the contribution of all firms and industries to the creation of GDP and avoid a double account. Validated value is meant the cost of goods sold by the manufacturer minus products costs, resources purchased and used for production.

In accordance with the distribution method (for income), GDP is the total amount of income of all business units and the population from all types economic activity, as well as depreciation deductions and pure indirect taxes on business. Thus, GDP is a flow of income of production factors owners (salary, percentage, profit of the rent), states in the form of indirect taxes, income of the entrepreneurial sector, taking into account depreciation deductions to buy investment goods.

The gross national product differs from the gross domestic product by the magnitude of pure factor expenses from abroad (ChFD):

Clean factor income is the difference between the cumulative income of citizens abroad and the cumulative income of foreigners in the country. Cumulative revenues involve income of the owners of production factors.

When calculating GDP, the final use method and production is more often used. Gross national disposable income is GNP and clean transfers from abroad. It is distributed to ultimate consumption and national savings. In economic theory and practice, nominal and real macroeconomic indicators are distinguished. Nominal GDP is calculated in prices of the current year. Real GDP is GDP in unchanged, comparable prices adjusted with inflation.

Price indexes are used to evaluate the rates of inflation, the cost of life. There is a consumer price index showing the change in the average price of consumer basket of goods and services, and the manufacturer's price index. The consumer price index plays a key role in the economy, as it is widely used when indexing wages, transfer payments and other payments. Price index - an implicit GDP deflator.

The difficulties of counting the indicators of GDP and ND are that: goods created in this year, but not received to the market, do not have a market price, and are taken into account by a conditionally accrued price; Services of civil servants do not have a market price; In GDP indicators, goods produced and consumed in the household are not taken into account; There are problems of GDP accounting due to losses from environmental pollution, the presence of a shadow economy, systematic errors in calculating the price index that does not take into account the effect of substitution and change the quality of goods and services; There is an imperfection of accounting for the operation of a rapidly growing number of small producers in the transition economy.

The inner gross product is not a true indicator of the welfare of the nation, it can be used only when comparing the level of material well-being in different periods and for different regions. When assessing the welfare of the nation, except for the value of the national product, the intangible sources of welfare should also be taken into account: the state of the environment, the level of education and health of the nation, satisfaction with the work, political and social climate in the country.

Macroeconomic indicators of GNP

Gross National Product (GNP), as the gross domestic product (GDP), is also a widely used indicator of the functioning of the economy producing goods and services. In our country, the GNP is calculated by statistics since 1987 and fundamentally different from our previous indicators, which reflects the results of activities not only in material, but also in intangible production.

Estimates of the gross national product are analyzed to determine what the current state of the economy, as well as assess its prospects.

Gross National Product is the market value of the final goods and services produced using the country's internal resources during this period of time. GNP measures the cost of production produced by the factors of the production factor in the property of the citizens of a given country, including in the territory of other countries.

The GNP characterizes both the total expenditure and the total income in the economy.

Gross national product is an earlier than GDP. It should be noted that the GNP is used in the statistics of a number of foreign countries today.

And GDP and GNP reflect the results of activity in two spheres national economy Material production and services. Both of these indicators determine the value of the entire amount of final production of goods and services in the economy in one year (quarter, month). Indicators are calculated in prices as current (existing), so constant (prices of a base year).

The difference between GNP and GDP is as follows:

1) GDP is calculated by the so-called territorial basis. This is the cumulative value of the products of the products of the material production and service sector, regardless of the national affiliation of enterprises located areas of this country;
2) GNP is defined as the market value of all finite products and services in the economy for the year. It takes into account the annual volume of finite goods and services created by citizens of the country, both within the framework of the national territory and abroad.

Another definition of the GNP is the amount of income of enterprises, organizations, the population in material and intangible production. The GNP takes into account the depreciation deductions that are formed as a result of the inclusion of part of the value of the goods used (machines, machines, etc.) into finished products. As for GDP, it is necessary to take into account all the products and services produced in this year, for the correct calculation of the GNP.

Thus, the GNP differs from GDP for the sum of the so-called factor income from the use of resources of a given country abroad translated into the country the profit of the capital invested abroad existing there is ownership, the salary of citizens working abroad for a minus of aliens exported from the country. Usually, in order to calculate the GNP, the difference between profit and incomes received by enterprises and individuals of a given country abroad, on the one hand, and profits and income obtained foreign investors and foreign workers in the country, on the other hand.

This difference is very small: for leading countries of the West no more than 1% of GDP. UN Statistical Service recommends using GDP indicator as the main indicator.

Macroeconomic Indicators of the National Economy

The results of the activities of individual economic entities across the national economy are judged on the basis of various indicators of the system of national accounts.

The national account system is a complex of interrelated balance sheet tables, which are intended to determine the amount of income, consumption, accumulation and capital costs. With the help of SNS, the most important macroeconomic indicators are calculated. The main indicators of the SNA - Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), National National Product (CHDP), National Income (ND) and disposable income (RD). All major macroeconomic indicators are conditionally divided into streaming indicators and stock indicators.

Streaming values \u200b\u200binclude gross release, GNP, GDP, NDP, ND, RD, as well as expenses for consumption, savings, investments, public procurement, taxes, exports, imports, etc.

Reserves in macroeconomics are property, national wealth, real cash balances.

Consider in more detail the streaming indicators.

Gross release includes the value of all goods and services created by the economy of a given country for a certain time period, including an intermediate product. The latter is a combination of goods produced for a certain period and used during this period for further processing.

The GNP is an aggregate market value of the final goods and services created both within the country and abroad (as a rule, per year). The final product is the goods and services intended for end consumption, the accumulation of real capital, government procurement or exports. Intermediate consumption in the GNP is excluded by assessing the value added, only the cost added at each stage of processing, excluding material costs.

GDP expresses the total cost of final products produced in the territory of a given country, regardless of whether the factors of the production factors belong to citizens or foreign citizens.

CNP expresses the market value of the actually created goods and services produced by the country for a certain period.

ND is a newly created country value for a certain period. ND is a cumulative income in the framework of the economy of a certain state, obtained by all owners of production factors (land, labor and capital) used in the production of GNP.

The RD is the amount of funds obtained by the population in the form of income and used for consumption and savings.

Let us dwell in more detail on stock indicators.

The property includes real assets (real capital) and financial assets (shares, bonds).

National Wealth is a combination of material benefits created by the labor of the preceding and current generations and the reproduction process involved natural resourceswhich has a society.

Real cash balances are a stock of payments that the economic entity wants to have in cash.

The central indicator of the National Accounts System - GDP, which is calculated in three ways:

1. Flow in income;
2. Flowstone;
3. Production.

In the flow of GDP income is defined as the total amount of wages of workers, all types of profits, rental income, depreciation deductions and indirect taxes.

The flow rate of GDP is calculated as the cumulative value:

Consumer spending of the population for the purchase of goods and services necessary to meet its material and spiritual needs, as well as intended for the development and improvement of individuals;
gross private investments in the national economy representing the cost of the costs directed by firms to increase fixed capital and material reserves;
procurement of goods and services by the authorities (both state and municipal) for their own needs;
Pure exports (import export).

The production of GDP is calculated by determining the amount of the contribution to the creation of the national product of each of its manufacturer. This uses the value added indicator, which is the market price of the company (services) of the company minus external factors, including the costs of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products and energy, purchased and consumed for the production of products and rendering paid services.

In macroeconomic analysis, along with GDP, an indicator of a gross national product (GNP) is used.

The difference between these indicators is as follows:

1. GDP is an aggregate value of the product of the material production and services sector, regardless of the national affiliation of enterprises located on the territory of a given country. In other words, the basis of the calculation of GDP is the territorial principle.
2. GNP represents the total value of the entire volume of production and services in both spheres of the national economy, regardless of the location of national enterprises (in its own country or abroad). Consequently, the GNP differs from GDP for the amount of factor income (the income of employees, rental income, loan interest, profit of firms) from the use of resources of a given country abroad, for a minus similar foreigners exported from the country. Therefore, to calculate the GNP, the difference between profit and incomes received by enterprises and individuals of a given country abroad, on the one hand, and profit and income received by foreign investors and foreign workers in a given country - on the other hand. This difference for countries with a developed market economy is about 1%. GNP is determined in monetary measurement. However, in the conditions of a market economy, there is an oscillation of the course of monetary units, as well as a change in prices for goods and services. As a result, with the same physical volume of the cumulative national product, its cash evaluation may be ambiguous. For this, the GNP is customary to count both in current or actual prices and in prices that take into account the change in price level and course monetary unit. In this regard, the nominal and real GNP are distinguished. Nominal called GNP, calculated on actual (or current) prices. Real is called GNP, calculated based on the increase in prices (i.e., the level of inflation) and the permanent course of the currency. Comparison of the nominal and real GNP is possible using a GNP deflator, which will be considered in more detail in the next paragraph.

In addition to GNP and GDP, other indicators of the national accounts system use in macroeconomic analysis.

The NGP is defined as the difference between the GNP and the total value of depreciation (the cost of wear of equipment, buildings and communications of economic purposes) for the period of creation of GNP:

CHG \u003d GNP - depreciation deductions.

If the depreciation of the depreciations are from the GNP, which are lost to consumers costs, it will be a residue that makes up the annual amount of national economy, which the country can actually consume (CHDP).

Revenues needed for consumption. First, they receive the owners of economic resources, as they directly create a NGP. These revenues appear in the process of implementing a clean product produced in the form of rent, wages, profits and percentage. Part of such income must be given to the state in the form of indirect taxes on the value added, excise taxes, license payments and customs duties. The total amount of these taxes is the main part of the state's revenues.

This total amount of income reflects the National Income Indicator:

ND \u003d CNP - indirect taxes + subsidies.

In addition to indirect taxes, revenue recipients from the use of economic resources pay the state of income tax and social insurance contributions.

The remaining amount is a personal income:

Personal income \u003d ND - Social Insurance Contributions - Retained Corporation Profit - Corporate Profit Taxes + Amount of Transfer Payment Payment.

In addition to the owners of economic resources, employees of the public sector (budget sector), disabled citizens, retirees also receive personal income.

If the personal income subtract individual taxes and fees (income tax, tax on real estate), I will get a personal disposable income, funds from which are used for personal consumption and savings.

Based on the above, you can draw the following conclusions:

The national account system is a complex of interrelated balance sheet tables, which are intended to determine the amount of income, consumption, accumulation and capital costs. With the help of SNS, the most important macroeconomic indicators are calculated. Main indicators of the SNA - Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Pure National Product (CNP), National Income (ND) and disposable income (RD);
All major macroeconomic indicators can be divided into streaming indicators and reserves. Streaming indicators include gross release, GNP, GDP, ND, ND, RD, and consumption costs, savings, investments, public procures, taxes, exports, imports, etc. To stock indicators include property, national wealth, real cash balances ;
The GNP is an aggregate market value of the final goods and services created both within the country and abroad (as a rule, per year). Modification of GNP - GDP indicator;
Based on GDP, you can identify other indicators of the national account system: a net national product, national income, personal income, personal disposable income.

Characteristics of macroeconomic indicators

In economic theory and statistics of foreign countries, macroeconomic indicators are used, calculated on the basis of the national accounts system: gross national product (GNP), gross domestic product (GDP), National Income (ND), National National Product (CHDP) and etc.

In national statistics of some states (USA, Japan), the main indicator of the effectiveness of the national economy is the gross national product. It is the market value of all finite goods and services produced in the economy for a certain period of time (usually per year). It should be noted that the final goods and services are those that are purchased during the year for final consumption and are not used for intermediate consumption (i.e., in the production of other goods and services). The GNP characterizes the value of the final proportion created by residents in the territory of this state and the foreign sector of the economy, but does not include the activities of non-residents in the economic territory of this country. When calculating it, the entire cost of finite goods and services is taken into account, which are manufactured by domestic enterprises (firms, organizations) within the country and to this amount (or takes place) balance between payments abroad and payments from abroad. Thus, the basis of the calculation of the GNP is the National Principle: the cost of products produced by residents of this country is taken into account regardless of their location.

Gross domestic product. This indicator is a kind of modification of the GNP, but unlike the latter covers the results of activities in the territory of this country of all economic entities, regardless of their national affiliation. The difference between the GNP and GDP is dual. On the one hand, when calculating GDP from GNP, the amount of income from the use of resources of a given country abroad (wages, interest, dividends, etc.) is submitted. On the other hand, when calculating GDP to the GNP, similar income of foreigners obtained in the given country are added. For example, dividends received by foreign investors are taken into account in the country's GNP of their permanent residence and in the country's GDP, whose shares are acquired by foreigners. Thus, the magnitude of the GNP differs from the value of GDP in the amount equal to the balance of the trade balance, i.e. This is the difference between the value of the export and import of the country. A positive balance increases the size of the company's product, and, therefore, the GNP will be more GDP.

In economic theory, the following types of GDP distinguish (GNP):

Nominal GDP (GNP) - calculated in current or current prices;
- Real GDP (GNP) - corrected nominal GDP, taking into account the price level (inflation or deflation).

For example, real GDP is calculated by the formula:

Real GDP - more accurate characteristics of the national economy. The ratio of the nominal to real GDP shows the change in GDP as a result of price changes and is called the GDP deflator. It should be borne in mind that the GDP deflator includes not only the prices of consumer goods and services, but also prices of investment goods, goods purchased by the government, as well as goods and services purchased and sold in the global market.

Actual GDP is defined in real conditions, and potential - taking into account the achievement of complete employment and use of the entire production potential. Created GDP is calculated as a set of market value of final products and services created for the year. Distributed GDP is calculated as the amount of income of all enterprises, entrepreneurial structures and population engaged in the production of material goods and the provision of services, i.e. The amount of income in the form of salaries, percentage of capital, rent and profit, as well as the amount of depreciation and social insurance deductions. Used GDP is calculated as the amount of final consumption of material goods and services by the population, investments - enterprises, government spending and balance of foreign trade (export and import).

There are three methods for measuring GDP (GNP): production (by value added), distribution (by income) and final use (by expenses). These methods reflect the processes of production, distribution and use of the national product.

The production method is based on the exception of the value of all the issued goods and services of that part of them, which was spent during the production process. The fact is that the production of goods and services covers several stages: in one enterprises, raw materials turn into an intermediate product (nodes, parts, components), which is then transmitted to other enterprises producing a finished product. Therefore, the calculation of the value of all final products and services is to summarize the cost added at each stage of production.

Value value is the cost created in the production process. It does not include the cost of consumed raw materials and materials. To determine the value of the value added, it is necessary to calculate the cost of materials and components purchased from suppliers from the volume of sales. Suppose that Minsk Automobile Plant produced and implemented for the year of cars in the amount of 10 billion rubles. Of this amount, 4 billion rubles are the cost of wheels, engines, glasses, electrical equipment, paints and other goods purchased for production. In other words, 4 billion rubles is the cost of an intermediate product that entered the cost of the final product - the car. In this case, the added value will be 6 billion (10 billion - 4 billion).

Thus, to calculate the overall GDP in the country, it is necessary to fold the cost added by all its manufacturers, including depreciation, since enterprises are involved in creating a new value of products.

It should be noted that GDP should take into account all the manufactured products. But part of it is not implemented in the markets and therefore it is difficult to evaluate. This apartment is repaired by its owner, homework, cleaning, cooking, all types of self-service, etc. There is also a "shadow" economy: illegal income from the "underground" issue of goods, moonshine, selling drugs, etc. The volume of the shadow economy reaches significant sizes. IN different countries It ranges from 3 to 25% of GDP. This part of GDP is calculated approximately and forms a conditionally accrued value.

It is also necessary to take into account that the GDP includes the cost of goods produced only for a certain period. Therefore, for example, transactions with existing asset, such as houses, are not included in GDP, as they are not the results of the current production. But if the house is built this year, its value is entirely taken into account in GDP.

GDP, calculated on the production method, except added value, includes clean indirect taxes. In the SNA is taxes on production and import. Pure indirect taxes are the difference between the sum of all taxes on the production and imports paid by enterprises, and subsidies for the production and imports obtained from the state.

When calculating GDP (GNP) on the distribution method (by income), all types of factor income are summed up (wages, rent, interest, etc.), as well as two components that are not income: depreciation deductions and pure indirect taxes on business, those. Taxes minus subsidies. At the same time, it is important to consider the flow of income that receive owners of production factors. Cumulative income in the economy, obtained by the owners of production factors, is called gross domestic income. If the gross domestic income representing the amount of primary income, add the balance of factor income from abroad, we get gross national income.

There are two types of income: labor and property. The main part of the labor revenue is wages. In addition, this includes the income of the owners of uncorpled enterprises, obtained as a remuneration for their work.

Revenues from property (entrepreneurial income) include:

Rental income, i.e. Revenues from the transfer of rights (to land, on patents, on the development of subsoil and others);
- profits from their own capital in their enterprises;
- Profit of corporations - income on capital (equipment, buildings, patents) in the corporated sector of the economy;
- Net interest income - business and external world payments to firms and farms of the country for the loans provided.

When analyzing the income movement, it is customary to allocate the following phases: the formation of income, primary distribution, redistribution, formation of finite (disposable) income, the use of disposable income to finance final consumption and savings.

The disposable income is an income coming by households. Note that not all gross national income is available at the disposal of households, since its individual elements are excluded from payments to these farms.

At the same time, some types of income received by households are not included in the gross national income and therefore should be added to it. Of the gross national income, part of the profit of firms, which remains at their disposal and taxes on corporate profits; Assigns: part of the profit coming to the disposal of shareholders of the corporation in the form of dividends, interest payments by the government, as they are initially included in transfer payments, transfer payments - childbirth and other social benefits. As a result, the gross disposable income (VD) is obtained. WDD performs in the form of consumer household expenditures - total costs Households on goods and services. They make up to 90% of VD. The remainder of the VDD is national savings.

Savings - that part of the WDD, which goes on the accumulation. Savings are carried out by buying securities, acquisition of real estate or jewelry, as well as the placement of money on a deposit in a bank. The share of personal savings in the WDD is called the norm of personal savings. It ranges from 22% (in Italy) and 18% (in Japan) up to 4% (in the USA).

When calculating GDP (GNP) on costs (end-use method), the costs of all economic agents using this product are summed up: households, firms, states and foreigners (the cost of our net exports). In fact, we are talking about aggregate demand for GDP manufactured (GNP).

The calculation of GDP (GNP) by expenditures is carried out by the formula:

GDP (GNP) \u003d C + I + G + HN,
where C - personal consumer spending, including household expenditures on long-term goods and current consumption, services, but not included in the cost of buying housing;
I - gross investments, including production investments or investments in the main production funds (costs of firms for the acquisition of new manufacturing enterprises and equipment); investment in housing construction; Investments in stocks (stock growth is taken into account with the "+" sign, a decrease - with a sign "-"). Gross investment (investments that increase capital stock in the economy) can also be submitted as an amount net investment and depreciation;
G - government procurement of goods and services, for example, the construction and content of schools, roads, the content of the army and the state management office, etc. However, this is only part of government spending, funded from the state budget. This does not include, for example, the net exports of goods and services abroad, calculated as the difference in exports and imports.

When calculating GNP, it is necessary to take into account all the costs associated with the purchase of finite goods and services produced in the given country, including the expenses of foreigners, i.e. The cost of exports of this country. At the same time, it is necessary to exclude from purchases of economic agents of this country those goods and services that were produced abroad, i.e. Import value.

The reduced GDP equation (GNP) is often called the main macroeconomic identity. The difference between the GDP components (GNP) - C, I, G, HN is based mainly on the difference between the types of buyers carrying out these costs (households, firms, the state, foreigners), and not to the difference in the purchased goods and services. Thus, a car bought by household is included in the C component; If he is acquired by the firm is part of investments in fixed assets, etc. The exception is to invest in housing construction, which are included in GDP (GNP) without division into accounting, depending on who carried out these investments - households, business or state.

Among the GDP components (GNP), the most common consumer expenses (C) are usually consumer expenses (C), and the most volatile investment costs (I).

Based on GDP (GNP), other macroeconomic indicators are calculated (net national product, national income, personal income, disposable personal income, consumption, savings, gross national disposable income):

The net national product can be obtained from GNP, deducted from it depreciation deductions (a):

Pp \u003d GDP - A

There is a difference between prices for which consumers buy products and selling prices of firms. This difference is indirect business taxes (value added tax, excise taxes, import duties, taxes on monopolous activities, etc.).

National income (ND) - an indicator representing the total income of all residents of the country, it turns out if it is subtracting net indirect taxes on a business, i.e. Indirect taxes less subsidies business.

Personal income (LD) is obtained by subtracting from the national income of social insurance contributions, retained corporate profits, taxes on corporate profits and adding the amount of transfer payments. It is also necessary to subtract a clean percentage and add personal income obtained in the form of a percentage, including a percentage of internal government debt.

The disposable personal income (RDD) is calculated by reducing personal income in the amount income tax from citizens and some non-tax payments to the state. The disposable personal income is used by household for consumption and savings.

Consumption (C) is the most important component of GDP (GNP). In the long term, the change in GDP (GNP) and consumer spending is approximately the same, but in the short term consumer costs fluctuate to a lesser extent than GDP (GNP), as they depend mainly on the disposable income, the increase or decrease in which is the largest And in its components does not coincide with the Dynamics of GDP (GNP). For example, the two most important components of the disposable personal income that distinguish it from GDP (GNP) - taxes (with a progressive tax system) and transfers - act as automatic stabilizers during periods of recession and lifts: taxes are reduced during the recession period, and transfers are growing, so the disposable personal The income is reduced not as fast as GDP (GNP).

Savings (s) are defined as income less consumption.

The disposable income can be determined not only at the household level (disposable personal income), but also the economy as a whole.

Gross national disposable income (VET) is obtained by summing the GNP and clean transfers from abroad, i.e. Transfers received from the "rest of the world" (donation, donations, humanitarian aid, etc.) minus similar transfers transmitted abroad. Gross national disposable income is used for finite consumption and national savings.

Thus, the system of basic macroeconomic indicators introduced into the statistical practice of the National Accounts system (SNA), and which is widely used by the country with a market economy, and the CIS countries can be introduced in the form of the main indicators of the GNP (GDP).

Forecast macroeconomic indicators

GDP, billion tenge
real GDP growth, % to the previous year
gDP deflator,% to previous year
GDP per capita, uS dollars at the official rate
Agriculture
billion tenge
% to the previous year
Volume of industrial products
billion tenge
% to the previous year
including,
mining industry
billion tenge
% to the previous year
processing industry
billion tenge
% to the previous year
Construction,% for the previous year
Services-total
% to the previous year
including,
Trade,% for the previous year
Transport,% for the previous year
Communication,% for the previous year
Export of goods, million dollars. US
% to the previous year
Import of goods, million dollars. US
% to the previous year
Sales balance, million US dollars
World Price for Oil Brent, uS dollars / barrel on average per year
Oil production volume, mln. Tons
Inflation rate,% at the end of the year

Methods for calculating macroeconomic indicators

The system of national accounts (SNA) the main indicators are the gross domestic product (GDP) and the gross national product (GNP).

There are three methods for determining these indicators:

1. Method for determining the gross domestic product at the production stage: GDP \u003d VDS + CHNPI,
Where CHNPI is clean taxes on products and imports. 2. Method for determining gross domestic product
At the formation of income:
GDP \u003d from + CHNPI + DNP + VPE,
Where from the payment of Labor, DNP - other taxes on production.
3. Method for determining the gross domestic product at the income use stage: GDP \u003d RKP + VN + CE + Wed,
where RKP is the cost of finite consumption;
VN - gross accumulation;
CE - net exports of goods and services;
CP-statistical discrepancy.

The index deflator (Ie) is defined as GDP in actual prices divided into GDP in comparable prices.

GDP per capita is defined as a gross domestic product in actual prices divided into the average period of the population.

Along with the gross domestic product (GDP), the gross national product (GNP) is calculated by the formula:

GNP \u003d (GDP) + (revenues of our enterprises located on the territory of other countries) - (income of enterprises of other countries located in our country).

Consider methods for calculating GDP as an essential indicator for measuring the volume of national production.

When calculating GDP, three main methods are used:

Value added method;
- method of calculating GDP according to expenses;
- Method for calculating GDP for income (distribution method).

Value Added Method

GDP is a monetary evaluation of all finite goods and services in the economy for the year. At the same time, the annual volume of finite goods and services created in the country is taken into account. To correctly calculate GDP, it is necessary to take into account all products and services produced in this year, but without a repeated, dual account. That is why the definition of GDP we are talking about finite products and services. These benefits are consumed within households and firms, and do not participate in further production, in contrast to intermediate goods. If the GDP includes intermediate products used for the production of other goods (flour purchased by bread baking bread), then the overestimated GDP rating is obtained (the price of flour will be taken into account several times).

Eliminate the double account allows the value added indicator, which represents the difference between the sales of their finished products by buying materials, tools, fuel and services from other firms. Value added is the market price of the company's products, minus the cost of consumed raw materials and materials purchased from suppliers.

Summarizing the value added, produced by all firms in the country, can be defined by GDP, which represents the market assessment of all issued goods and services.

Calculation method for calculating expenses

Since GDP is defined as a monetary assessment of the final goods and services produced in the year, the postolon must summarize all the costs of economic entities for the purchase of finite products.

When calculating GDP based on expenses or flow of goods (this method is also called the production method) the following values \u200b\u200bare summed up:

Consumer spending of the population (C).
Gross private investment in the national economy (IG).
Public procurement of goods and services (G).
Pure exports (NX), which represents the difference between exports and imports of this country.

GDP \u003d C + Ig + G + NX

Method for calculating GDP in income (distribution method)

GDP can be represented as a sum of factor income (salary, percentage, profit, rent), i.e. Determine as the amount of remuneration of owners of production factors. GDP includes revenues of all subjects operating in the geographical framework of a given country, as residents (citizens living in the territory of a given country, with the exception of foreigners who are in the country less than a year) and non-residents. In the GDP indicator also includes indirect and direct taxes on enterprises, depreciation, property income and retained part of profits. The fact that for some subjects is costs for others - income.

Table 1. Combining two approaches to the calculation of GDP on costs and income:

Both methods (Table 1) are considered equivalent and must provide the same GDP value as a result.

Not all transactions implemented by economic entities for the calculated period (per year) are included in the GDP indicator. First, these are transactions with financial instruments: Purchase and sale of securities - shares, bonds, etc. Financial transactions are not directly related to changes in current real production. Secondly, the sale and purchase of second-hand things and goods used. Their value was accounted for earlier. Thirdly, private transfers (for example, gifts), in this case it is only the redistribution of funds between private economic entities. Fourth, state transfers.

Calculation of GNP

In addition to GDP, an indicator of a gross national product (GNP) is used in macroeconomic analysis, which shows the annual volume of finite goods and services created by citizens of the country, both within the framework of the national territory and abroad. The calculation of the GNP is based on the criteria for the belonging factor of the production of resident or the non-resident of the country. If we add the difference between the receipts from the factors of production factors (factor income) of residents from abroad and factor income received by non-residents in a given country, we will receive an indicator of GNP. The difference between the Indicators of GNP and GDP for many countries is insignificant and varies within + -1% of GDP.

Nominal and real GDP

If the calculations of GDP are produced at current prices, then the physical volume of production may be distorted. There is a difference in the values \u200b\u200bof nominal and real GDP.

Nominal GDP is calculated at current prices (PQ), wherein the price index, Q is the physical volume of production. To determine the physical volume of production, the basic year is established and calculated at its prices produced in the current year GDP. The new basic year is usually determined every 10-15 years.

Real GDP is the actual volume of production, calculated in the prices of the base year. To calculate real GDP, you must use the price index.

Real GDP (Q) \u003d Nominal GDP (PQ) / GDP deflator,
hence,
Defuel GDP (P) \u003d Nominal GDP (PQ) / Real GDP (Q)

The GDP deflator measures the intensity of inflation or the reverse process - deflation. If the value of the price index is greater than 1, then the GDP deflation occurred if the price index is less than 1, then inflation occurred.

The GDP deflator takes into account the prices of all goods and services produced in the country. The deflator does not take into account the prices of imported goods. The deflator allows changes in the set of goods and services in accordance with the change in the composition of GDP.

Macroeconomic theory uses various price indices for calculating real GDP.

Consumer price index (CPI), which uses a fixed set of benefits ("Consumer Cart").

Lassekirase index:

Il \u003d P1i Q0i / P0i Q0i,
where Q0i the number of goods and services produced in the base year, P0i - prices of goods and services in the base year, P1i - prices of goods and services in the current year. CPI reflects only the prices of goods purchased by households. CPI takes into account the prices of imported goods.

Manufacturer prices index (PHIs), where the quantities of goods and services produced in the current year are taken as price weights.

Paashe Index:

Ip \u003d p1i q1i / p0 q1i,
where Q1i is the number of goods and services in the current year. The GDP deflator is a parasas index.

To determine national income use the calculated formula:

ND \u003d SOP-MH (including depreciation of fixed assets).

There are three methods for determining national income:

Production method for determining national income;
- distribution method for determining national income;
- Method for determining national finite use.

The production method is determined by the formula:

ND \u003d PE (amount of pure products) of all industries of material production.

Net products (PE) for each industry is defined as a difference between the value of gross production (VP) for each industry for the disadvantage of material costs (MW) for each industry (including depreciation of fixed assets).

The distribution method National income is determined by the formula:

Nd \u003d v + m,
where the V-primary income of the working sphere of the production sphere,
M - Primary revenues of industrial enterprises.

The primary income of the enterprise of the production sector includes:

Profit from sales;
- VAT (value added tax);
- Social insurance deductions, etc.

The primary income of workers of the non-productive sphere belongs:

Salary;
- net income from utility agricultural sections;
- income from securities.

The method of finite use is determined by the formula:

ND \u003d FP + FN ± Saldo from foreign economic activity ± loss in natural disasters
Where FP is the consumption fund;
FN - accumulation fund.

In the FP turn on:

Personal consumption of the population of material goods and services;
- consumption of material goods and services by institutions and organizations for servicing the population;
- consumption of material goods and services in the institutions of science and health care.

The accumulation fund includes:

The increase in fixed assets;
- The increase in material working capital and reserves.
FP + FN \u003d Used National Income (Ind).

The change in national income is influenced by 3 factor:

1. Changes in spent time (or the number of employees in the industrial sectors);
2. Changes in productivity;
3. Specific savings mat costs.

Absolute national income growth:

ND \u003d ND1-ND0

Which in statistical analysis is characterized by three types of growth:

1. Due to changes in the number of employees or spent time:
NDT \u003d nd0 * (T1 / T0-1),
where T1 / T0-1 is the growth rate of the number or spent time,
T - the average number of employees;
2. Due to changes in labor productivity:
NDW \u003d (ND0 + ND T) * (W1 / W0-1), where W \u003d SOP (Q) / T
3. Due to the specific savings of material costs:
Nd m z \u003d (d0-d1) * SOP (Q),
where d \u003d MZ / SOP (Q)

In the event that the calculations are made correctly, equality is true:

ND \u003d NDT + NDW + NDMZ.

Gross release (explosives) is the value of all manufactured products in the national economy, including the value of goods and services that have both market and not market character.

The cost of goods and services is given at the main prices, i.e. At prices on which they are implemented. Therefore, centuries in sectoral development is determined in the main prices.

Intermediate consumption (PP) is the cost of goods and services that are fully consumed in this period in order to produce other goods and services. In the intermediate consumption, the cost of consumed fixed assets (depreciation) does not turn on.

Gross value added (VDS):

VDS \u003d BB - PP - indirectly measured services of financial intermediaries

Gross profit of the economy (IDE):

VPE \u003d VVTS (gross value added) - wages of workers - (other taxes on PR + subsidies)

Net profit of the economy (CPE):

ChPE \u003d VPE - Consumption of fixed capital

The most important macroeconomic indicators

In world practice, the following major macroeconomic indicators are made to characterize the results of the management in the country's economy:

Gross social product - VP;
- National income - ND;
- final product - KP;
- intermediate product - PP;
- gross domestic product - GDP;
- Gross National Product - GNP;
- added value - DS;
- Pure national product - NGP.

The most generalizing, synthetic indicator, characterizing the processes of production, distribution, exchange, consumption and accumulation in the conditions of the country's transition to the market, acts as a gross public product (VM).

HPD is the amount of gross products of the industrial production of the country's economic system produced in these industries for a certain period of time (year, five years, decade, etc.).

According to the current classification of the sectors of the national economy, this State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, the industrial sectors include:

Industry;
- rural and forestry; - transport (cargo) and communication (in terms of maintenance of the production process);
- building;
- geology and intelligence of subsoil (in terms of deep drilling on oil and gas);
- Trade I. catering;
- material and sales;
- billets;
- Other industries of material production.

Including:

Editorial and publishing;
- Film production;
- collection of forest products (berries, fungi, wild and medicinal plants);
- collection of scrap metal and scrap;
- Hunting and fisheries.

Other generalizing, synthetic indicators of the reproduction process in the country include:

National (manufactured and used) income (ND);
- final product;
- Intermediate product.

ND is part of the VD, which is a newly created value and defined as a difference between the amount of gross products of the industrial production of the country and the magnitude of the material costs consumed in the manufacturing process.

Creating clean products in a particular business period, some industrial sectors produce products in natural-real form, while others - only increase the cost of manufactured products, continuing the process of production, but without creating products in natural-real form.

Among the first industries, for example, include: industry, construction, agriculture, among the second - cargo transport and communication (in terms of maintenance of the production process), trade and public catering, logistics and sales, etc.

To carry out a number of macroeconomic calculations of a socio-economic nature, such as planning remuneration, the use of free and working time, in the theory and practice of management allocate a number of industries that not only increase the cost produced in other industries, but also continue to create products in natural real form. For example, work by packing and sorting and labor of cashiers in trade.

KP - part of the VB, directly used for public and personal consumption, production and non-productive accumulation, compensation and overhaul Fundamental funds of the country, taking into account the export-import balance.

As can be seen, the indicator of the KP is close in its value to the value of the indicator of the produced ND. But differs from the latter on the size of the losses that occur in the national economy, and the value of the export-import balance (used by ND). Losses are associated with extrusion of crops, damage from natural disasters, with storing products and goods, their transportation, etc.

The practical meaning of the allocation of these two indicators of the reproduction process is that the values \u200b\u200bof the produced ND and KP fluctuate in the limits of plus-minus 3-5% and depend on the peculiarities of the reproduction in each specific period, foreign policy conditions, etc.

PP is a part of the VB, spent on compensation consumed in the process of material production of labor items. The allocation of this indicator is due to the peculiarities of the consumption of labor items in the branches of the main and auxiliary production, in related and conjugate industries.

Since 1988, in the USSR and Russia in addition to the most important generalizing macroeconomic indicators of reproduction - VD, ND, etc. - the indicators "Gross National Product" (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) began to be calculated.

These indicators are necessary to provide:

International economic comparisons through identification of calculating methods of compared indicators;
- settlements on the payments of Russia in the UN;
- the needs of the market economy in international foreign economic relations.

Indicators of GNP and GDP characterize the final results of economic activity in the industries of both the manufacturing and non-productive sector of the country's economy. They allow us to expand and deepen the analysis of the reproduction process in the national economy on the basis of international comparisons. There are certain differences between these indicators, although there is a lot in common.

GNP is intended for:

Reflections of general end results of economic activity in the country;
- Characteristics of interrelated processes of the reproduction process, the process of manufacturing material benefits, works, services, distribution of income, final use of national and attracted external resources.

The GNP covers the results of the economic activity of all autonomous economic units, both operating in the territory of their country and located on the territory of other countries.

Namely:

Enterprises, organizations, institutions;
- collective farms, state farms ,;
- personal subsidiary economy of citizens;
- farmers;
- persons engaged in individual labor activities.

The results of this economic activity are in the form of material benefits, works, services.

GNP can be defined at various stages of the reproduction process. At the production stage, this is produced by GNP. At the distribution stage are income. At the use stage, this is the used GNP.

The produced or created GNP is defined as the sum of the gross value added of all sectors of the national economic system of the country. At the same time, the value of the consumed means - materials, fuels, energy and other material resources, as well as services provided by economic units.

At the stage of formation of income, the GNP is defined as the amount of income of economic units and the public from economic activity and includes:

Labor payment;
- profit;
- the net income of collective farms from production activities;
- income from individual labor activity;
- depreciation (wear assessment).

Used GNP includes both the final consumption of material goods and services and the magnitude capital investments, as well as the increase in material working capital and balance of foreign trade.

When calculating the GNP, it is important to take into account the classification of the sectors of the national economy, according to which the GNP is calculated.

According to the UN methodology, based on the national accounts system, statistics allocate 5 industries (sectors) of economic activities:

1. Agriculture.
2. Hunting and fishing.
3. Industry (mining and processing).
4. Construction.
5. Utilities, Transport, trade and other services.

Within the framework of this classification, water and energy supply are recorded in the section of communal and social services, and the rental of housing in the hiring is in the section of other services. There are other types of classification of industries of economic activities.

For example, classification of functions that perform industries in society:

1. Material production or commodity sector (agriculture, industry, construction, water and energy supply). In this sector, all the material benefits (goods) of the country are produced.
2. Sector of commodity services and distribution. It includes transport, trade and storage. The function of this sector is the distribution of material benefits, i.e. mediation between the material production sector and the population.
3. Sector of intangible services. This includes education, health, physical culture and sports, culture and art, social service, other state organizations, including military, as well as depreciation (wear assessment) of the country's fixed assets.

Used GNP includes the final consumption of material goods and services, capital investments and other types of savings (securities, for example).

In addition to the indicator of the GNP in the theory and practice of worldware, it is also used very similar to it with a GDP indicator. The similarity is that both indicators reflect the final end result of economic activity in industrial and non-production (services) areas of the national economy. In addition, GDP and GNP are calculated in current and comparable prices for a certain period of time (year, quarter, month, etc.).

The difference between GDP and GNP indicators is as follows: GDP is the total value of the products of the material production and services sector, regardless of the national affiliation of enterprises located on the territory of this country. GNP - the cumulative value of the entire volume of products and services in both spheres of the national economy, regardless of the location of national enterprises (in their country or abroad).

In other words, the GNP differs from GDP to the sum of the so-called factor income from the use of resources of a given country abroad (transferred to the country a profit from the capital invested abroad existing there is ownership, salary of citizens working abroad of their country) for a minus similar exported from foreign countries of foreigners.

To calculate the GNP, the difference between profit and incomes received by enterprises and individuals of the country abroad, on the one hand, and profit and income received by foreign investors and foreign workers in the given country, are added to the GDP indicator. This difference is for developed countries West is plus - minus 1% of GDP, for underdeveloped - up to 15-20%.

DS - the cost created in the production process at this enterprise and reflects the real contribution of the enterprise to the creation of the value of a particular product, works, services. DS is the salary, profit and amortization of the enterprise (fixed assets) calculated for the corresponding period of time. The size calculated in the whole country, the size of the DS also applies to the number of the most important macroeconomic indicators of the development of the national economic system of the country.

CHDP is the most accurate meter of government outcome in the national economy of the country.

This is explained by the fact that the NGP does not include the size:

Annual depreciation of fixed assets involved in the creation of products, works and services in the national economy;
- indirect taxes.

Thus, the NGP reflects the total production of goods, works and services that is consumed in all sectors of the national economic system.

CNP also shows the amount of income suppliers of economic resources for the land provided by him, labor, capital, entrepreneurial abilities, with the help of which the National CNP is created and a normal reproductive process is carried out in the national economic system.

The relationship of macroeconomic indicators

As a gross transmission meter of GDP production has one important disadvantage: it overestimates the volume of production on the value of annual depreciation. Therefore, having reduced the amount of GDP to the amount of depreciation accrued for the year, you can get another macro economic indicator - Pure inner product. With this indicator, it becomes possible to measure the general annual production of goods and a mustache, which the country has produced and consume in all sectors of the national economy. One of the essential drawbacks of this indicator is that it takes into account the taxes on goods and services (excise taxes, value added tax, etc.) and subsidies that are provided to organizations by the state. The first lead to rising prices for goods and services, and the second, on the contrary, to their decline. All this is not how much the real idea of \u200b\u200bincome in the market economy is distorted. To a certain extent, it is possible to eliminate this deficiency with the help of such an indicator as a national income.

National income is the sum of all types of income received by economic agents during this statistical period for their contribution to the production of GDP. The volume of national income is determined by deducting from a pure internal product the amount of taxes on products and adding subsidies. Given that the national income is a combination of various types of income, it can be defined as earned national income. The system of national accounts is also widely used such an indicator as the disposable national income under which the total amount of income received and transmitted to economic units as a result of economic activity or from property, as well as as a result of redistribution processes.

When calculating the disposable national income, they are summed up:

Salary - remuneration to female labor faces paid in de gentle and natural forms;
- Social insurance contributions that do not depend on the quantity and quality of labor and are entered by organizations;
- indirect taxes and other state fees;
- Subsidies are negative taxes (they are no longer contained in market prices, in which the main statistical indicators are calculated, therefore, they are deducted from the total income);
- manuals - transfer payments to households in monetary and natural form, which are manufactured by public or private non-profit organizations without any equivalents;
- International assistance - gratuitous payments of one state to other and contributions to international organizations.

If the country helps more than it helps other countries, then international assistance is included with the "+" sign, if the situation is the opposite, then with the "-" sign; retained earnings corporations - net profitwhich remains from corporations after deducting from the value added cost of labor, depreciation, taxes, interest and dividends; revenues from property - admission to all sectors of the economy in the form of dividends, rent, interest; Income from individual activity - incomes of small non-corporate organizations and free professions; Insurance revenues - the balance of annual payment benefits for insurance and insurance premiums (if the benefits are more contributions, the difference is taken into account with the "+" sign, if the benefits are less than contributions, then CO is "-"); Revenues from operations with the "other" world - turns on the balance of these income. As noted above, in the modern market economy, a certain part of the population receives transfer payments from the state ( different kinds benefits). Adding to the balance of national income after tax payments and transfer payments, we obtain such an economic indicator as a common personal income. This indicator describes the use of national income by individual individuals. However, to get a valid idea of \u200b\u200bthis magnitude, it is necessary to deduct all individual taxes from personal income. As a result, there is a disposable personal income - the income that is sent to the goal of final consumption and savings.
Up

Major macroeconomic indicators: gross Product, intermediate product, primary product, final product, gross national product, gross domestic product, national income, net national product, personal income, personal disposable income.

Let us dwell on the features of these indicators. The most simple of these indicators is gross product Calculated as a totality of goods and services created in society for a certain time. Gross product includes: investmentproducts (machines, equipment, vehicles, etc.); intermediate Products (semi-finished products, components, products of the unfinished technological cycle); end Products (consumer goods for households).

Gross domestic product - the aggregate market value of all final goods and services produced in the country through both national (country-owned) and foreign (owned foreign citizens) for one year.

GDP calculation methods:

1. By value added (production method). Value added is the difference between the total sales revenue and the cost of intermediate products, i.e. the value of raw materials and materials that each manufacturer (firm) buys from other firms.

2. By expenses (finite use method). Consumer expenses, gross investments, finite costs of government bodies, net exports

3. By income (distribution method). Payment of Labor, Rent, Rent, interest on deposits, profits, depreciation, indirect taxes (VAT).

4. On the gross regional product. GDP is calculated as a set of gross regional products across the territories.

System of national accounts (SNA) - a set of statistical macroeconomic indicators characterizing the magnitude of the aggregate product (release) and cumulative income to assess the state of the national economy. The SNA contains three main indicators of the total release (production volume): GDP, GNP, Pure National Product (CHDP). The net national product is the annual cost of finite goods and services remaining for consumption after replacing the written-off equipment.

SNS also includes three indicators of aggregate income: National Income (ND); personal income (LD); Personal disposable income (LR).

National income - Cumulative income earned by the owners of economic resources, i.e. the amount of factor income :

Personal income - Cumulative income received by the owners of economic resources.

Personal disposable income - used income, i.e. Households available.

47. Supply demand and aggregate offer: the concept and factors that determine them.

Cumulative demand (JSC) - The ability of economic agents to acquire GDP at different prices.

Cumulative offer (A5) - Business ability to produce GDP at different prices.

Cumulative demand - The ability of consumers in Macroeconomics to acquire finite goods and services (i.e. GDP) at different levels of prices. Cumulative demand (AP) It is the sum of polls of all macroeconomic agents (households, firms, states and foreign sector) to the final goods and services. Components of aggregate demand are: household demand (FROM); Demand of firms (D); Demand from the state (c); Demand of world economy. The components of demand comply with the calculation of expenditure GDP. The amount of total demand is the number of finite goods and services to which all macroeconomic agents will be presented at each specified price level. (WG).

Macroeconomics also acts the law of demand - the higher the price level, the lower the cumulative demand. Cumulative demand is non-ielastic (with a rise in prices 10 times, demand has decreased by 6 times), since the basic needs must be satisfied.

Cumulative offer (A5) -the number of finite goods and services that are offered on the market all manufacturers. This is not about the actual volume of production, but about the magnitude of the aggregate release, which all manufacturers are willing to produce and offer to sell on the market at a certain price level.

Determinants Offers in Macroeconomics, essentially coincide with determinants of proposals in microeconomics (prices for resources, number of sellers, business taxes, business subsidies, scientific and technical progress).

For macroeconomics under certain conditions, the law of proposals is fair: the higher the price, the more it is offered products for sale. The cumulative offer is inelastic; Due to the increase in prices, income grow faster than production volumes.

The SNA is a system of macroeconomic indicators, which reflect the most important and general aspects of economic development in their relationship and interaction. The main indicators of national accounts are: Gross National Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Pure National Product (CHDP), National Income (ND), Personal Income (LD).

All the most important indicators used in macroeconomic analysis are fundamentally divided into three groups: streams, stocks (assets) and indicators of economic conjutation. The flows reflect the transfer of values \u200b\u200bby the subjects to each other in the process of economic activity, stocks - the accumulation and use of values \u200b\u200bby the subjects. The flows are economic parameters whose value is measured per unit of time, as a rule, per year, the value of economic parameters is measured at a certain point. An example of streams - savings and investments, budget deficit, stocks - accumulated as a result of capital, public debt.

Gross release is the value of all goods and services produced in the economy for a certain period of time. Gross release includes absolutely all products produced in the economy, including those intended for the production of other goods and services, the latter constitute intermediate consumption.

Gross National Product (GNP) - represents the total market value of all goods and services intended for final consumption and produced using factors belonging to a given country for a certain period of time (usually year). GNP, in contrast to gross release, is cleared of intermediate consumption.

In this definition, attention should be paid to key phrases: "Market value", "final consumption", "factors belonging to the country". They concentrates the basic principles used in the GNP calculation. Thus, the concept of "market value" means that the assessment of goods and services included in GNP is produced in market prices. Market price includes indirect taxes (excise taxes, VAT, sales taxes, etc.). It is different from those factor prices that sellers of goods receive. The market price for a minus indirect taxes is equal to factor value. In GNP, goods and services are included at market prices. When calculating the GNP, only the final consumption is taken into account, Ie, only the cost of finite products. Under the final products are the goods and services that are purchased for end use, and not for resale or further processing. When calculating GNP measures only the cost of production produced by the factors of production belonging to the country. For example, the income received by a Moldovan citizen working in Greece is included in GREEN GNP, but does not turn on in Moldova's GNP, since it is not obtained in its territory. At the same time, this income is included in Greece GDP.

Describing the GNP as "the most accurate total meter of goods and services that the country will be able to produce (P. Samuelson), Western economic thought has developed three methods of its measurement: according to expenses for the products created in the country, in revenues received as a result of production, and Also by value added. The first method is the expense method. The value of the GNP is defined as a monetary evaluation of the final products and services produced in the year. In other words, it is necessary to summarize all the costs of acquiring (consumption) of the final product. The GNP indicator includes: consumer incomes of the population; (C); Gross private investment in the national economy; (Ig); Public procurement of goods and services. (G); Pure exports (XN); which represents the difference between the export and import of this country. Thus, the costs listed here make up GNP and show the market value of annual production:

C + Ig + G + XN \u003d GNP

The second method is the method of calculating the GNP for income. GNP, on the other hand, is the amount of income individuals and enterprises (salary, percentage, profit) and is determined in general as the amount of remuneration of production factors owners. This indicator also includes indirect taxes on enterprises, depreciation, property revenues. The GNP can also be determined as the amount of income of the sectors of the national economy. Both methods are considered equivalent and give the same result of the GNP. Exclude the double account allows the value added indicator, which is the difference between the sales of their finished products and the purchase of materials, tools, fuel and services from other firms. Value added is the market price of the company's products, minus the cost of consumed raw materials and materials purchased from suppliers. Summarizing the value added, produced by all economic entities, you can determine the GNP, which represents the market assessment of all issued goods and services.

The gross national product is calculated in current market prices, which represents its nominal value. To obtain the true magnitude of this indicator, it is necessary to clear prices from inflation influence, apply the price index, which will give the real value of the gross national product. The ratio of the nominal GNP to the real GNP shows an increase in the GNP due to the increase in prices and is called the GNP-deflator.

Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary evaluation of all finite goods and services in the economy during a certain period. It takes into account the annual volume of finite goods and services created by economic units that are residents of the country. That is, enterprises, financial institutions, government bodies and private non-commercial organizations serving households, etc., the center of economic interests of which is associated with the economic territory of the country during the year or more. Gross domestic product will succeed, if from the entire amount of the GNP subtracts the amount of pure exports:

GDP \u003d GNP-CE

Pure exports are the difference between the value of the export of goods and services and the value of importation from abroad. The difference between the indicators of the GNP and WFP is insignificant, it varies from - 1% to 1.5% of GDP. Based on indicators of GNP and GDP, a number of other important macroeconomic indicators are included in the National Accounts system (SNA) can be calculated. One of them -

Clean national product or CHDP. It is determined by following:

CHDP \u003d GNP - depreciation

It is known that buildings, equipment, cars that make up one of the main elements of production serve for several years. Therefore, in each unit of goods will contain part of their cost. The state legislatively establishes the service life of such assets, and thus determines which part of their cost will be monthly and daily contained in the manufactured weight produced. Thus, the revenue received from sales will be contained in cash and consumed (transferred) part of the cost of equipment and machines. Every year this part is withdrawn, accumulates and, when the service life ends, is used to purchase a new one. The considered mechanism of resumption of consumed factors of production is called depreciation. Obviously, in order to find out the true volume of finite products that can be used to improve the welfare of the population, from the GNP, it is necessary to deduct depreciation, i.e. That part of the cost that goes to the resumption of worn out factors of production. The remaining part of the GNP is called a pure national product. Next indicator -

National Income (ND):

ND \u003d CNP - indirect taxes on entrepreneurs.

Indirect taxes act in this case by the macroeconomic regulator between the prices for which consumers buy goods, and sales prices that are installed by firms. National income is a cumulative income that the owners of production factors are earned: labor owners (wages of hired workers), capital owners (profit and percentage), land owners (land rent). To determine the ND from the NDP, it is necessary to subtract indirect taxes. The latter are premiums to the prices of goods and services (excise taxes, VAT, duties, etc.). The meaning of this is that the state, invisible taxes, does not invest in production, so it cannot be considered as a supplier of economic resources. From the point of view of resources, ND is the meter of their income from participation in production for the current period. In Russian practice, a breakdown of two funds is applied:

the consumption fund is part of ND, which ensures the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of the people and the needs of society as a whole (for education, defense, etc.);

the accumulation fund is part of the ND, which ensures the development of production.

The SNA is usually determined by the rate of accumulation and the share of consumption, but as a percentage of GDP, and not from national income. After making certain adjustments to ND, such as deducting on social income tax, retained income of corporations, transfer payments (pensions, children's assistance, disability, unemployment, government subsidies, etc.), another macroeconomic indicator arises - personal income.

Disposable income (RD) or personal disposable income. It is an income received by households, differing from ND, which is earned income. It should be noted here that part of earned income - social insurance contributions, taxes on enterprises' income - does not flow at the disposal of the population. At the same time, transfer payments made by the state are not the result of the employee's economic activity, but represent part of their income. The disposable income as actually received income can be calculated by subtracting from the national income of social insurance contributions, taxes on the profit of enterprises, retained earnings, individual taxes (income, taxes on personal property, inheritance) and adding the amount of all transfer payments. The disposable income is at a personal disposal of members of society and is used to consume and savings of households. Personal income:

Personal income (LD) \u003d ND - social insurance contributions - retained corporate profits + income taxes + transfer payments + personal revenues received as a percentage, for example, interest on public debt.

For the economy as a whole, the national disposable income or the national disposable product, which can be defined as follows:

NSD \u003d GNP ± pure transfers from abroad (ie, donation, donations, humanitarian aid, etc.).

So, the relationship of macroeconomic indicators can be represented by the following scheme:

Gross domestic product (GDP) - amortization (a) \u003d

Pure Inner Product (ChVP) - indirect taxes \u003d

National Income (ND) - Company Profit Taxes - Social Insurance Contributions - Individual income taxes - unallocated income of enterprises + Transfer payments \u003d disposable income (RD).

Analysis of the sectoral structure of the economy is carried out on the basis of the indicator of GDP estimated by industry. First of all, the relationship between major national economic sectors of material and intangible production is taken into account.

Considered macroeconomic indicators are calculated on the basis of GNP and are in close relationship, characterizing various aspects of the country's economic life. Macroeconomic indicators act as a way to display in the statements of the state of affairs in the national economy. There are the most common (GNP, GDP) and more specific forms of macroeconomic indicators. They distinguish absolute and relative indicators, among which are of great importance to macroeconomic indexes. The main streams in the SNA are estimated at market prices, that is, in prices in which operations (producer prices and the final buyer) are performed. GDP is evaluated by the prices of the end buyer, the gross release is in the producer prices.

Products and services that do not accept commodity-money form are estimated at market prices for similar goods that are implemented on the market or cost if the market price is missing (services of government agencies, public organizations, etc.). The SNA makes it possible to create an information base for studying real processes that occur in a market economy, such as the development of production, the scale of inflation, unemployment, privatization, tax and customs activities. Below (see Appendix) shows the scheme of the National Accounts system.

The main macroeconomic indicators can be divided into three main groups characterizing:

1. National production volume.

2. Common price level.

3. Employment.

Indicators of national production are:

1. Gross National Product - GNP.

2. Gross domestic product - GDP.

3. National income (ND).

GNP is the annual market value of all goods and services produced by the factors of production belonging to citizens of a given country, regardless of their location.

GDP is a cumulative amount of products produced by all production factors located within the boundaries of the national economy, regardless of their affiliation.

Nominal GNP is the volume of production of goods and services, expressed in current prices. To estimate the volume of products, regardless of the price level, the concept of a real GNP is used, which reflects the cost of the created goods and services calculated at constant prices of a certain period of time called the base. Real GNP - the production of goods and services, expressed in constant prices.

It should also distinguish the actual and potential GNP. The actual GNP is actually produced during a certain period of time the volume of products. Potential GNP reflects the volume of products that can be produced with maximum use of all available production factors.

National income is the sum of all factor income (salary, percentage, rent, profits).

GNP (GDP) - Depreciation \u003d CNP (Pure National Product)

NGP - indirect taxes \u003d national income.

National Income - Corporate Profit Tax - Social Insurance Discovers - Retained Profit + Transfer Payments to the population \u003d Personal income.

Personal income - taxes and payments \u003d disposable income.

There are three basic methods for calculating GNP:

1. Calculation of GNP for income - as the sums of all revenues created in society. This is the amount of factor income (salary, rent, interest, profit), indirect taxes and depreciation.

2. Calculation of GNP according to expenses as the sum of all society expenses for final consumption: personal consumer spending of the population (c), government procurement of goods and services (G), investment costs of entrepreneurs (I) and net exports (X) (net exports \u003d export - Import) - C + G + I + X.

3. Calculation of GNP for production, when the GNP is determined by summing the added value of products produced by all enterprises of the country. This eliminates the re-invoice, in which the cost of the same parts of the products is taken into account more than once.

In addition to the gross national income, an indicator of pure economic welfare is applied, although it is not a specific statistical indicator and is not calculated in any country in the world. It is designed by American economies of W. Nordhaus and J. Tobin and is intended to reflect everything that contributes to an increase in the welfare of the country: use of free time to increase education, raising children; labor home owners on preserving vegetables, etc.; environmental pollution; overpopulation of cities; legal, but not taxable activities, for example, repair of houses, cleaning snow or leaves in separate households, etc.

The overall price level is their average level of a wide group of goods and services, measured using the following indicators:

1. The current year price index is the rating of the current year price to the prices of the base year, expressed as a percentage.

2. The inflation rate is the ratio of the price difference of the current and last period to the prices of the last period, expressed as a percentage.

3. The NGP deflator is the ratio of the nominal GNP to the real GNP. This is a price index, reflecting changes in the prices of all finite goods and services during the year.

Employment Indicators:

1. Working force (the number of busy plus unemployed).

2. The norm of unemployment (there is a ratio of the total number of unemployed to the number of labor force, expressed in percent)

The system of national accounts (SNA) represents interconnected indicators characterizing the production, distribution, redistribution and use of the final product and national income. The basis of national accounts constitutes consolidated accounts of the domestic product, national income, investment, income and expenditures of households and government agencies, foreign economic operations. In addition, the SNA includes balance sheets that decipher summary indicators or have an independent value.

Before the transition to the rail economy rails in Kazakhstan, as in all of the USSR, the balance of national economy (BNH) was used as a model of the national economy (Table. 14.1). In contrast, the SNS is based on the ideology of equality of the material production and sphere of intangible services, the reality of economic relations of independent economic entities in the context of separating direct public administration from economic activities. At the same time, the mechanisms of demand and supply, competition, natural overflow from some industries to others recognize as instruments of self-regulation of the market economy. SNA represents a more developed model of economic turnover, as it allows you to trace it from the production of products and services and education of income, redistribution and use of income to obtain the final financial results - Change financial assets and liabilities and characteristics of their composition.

For a better understanding of the SNA, it is necessary to know the classification of the subjects of the market economy (the nomenclature of agents) and the classification of market operations (the nomenclature of operations) between the subjects of the market economy.

Table 14.1 - The main differences in BNH and SNS

BNH.

SNS.

1. The distinction between the two spheres of the national economy: the material production and non-production sphere. 2. Maximum predominance of state ownership. 3. Administrative and command distribution system. 4. International incomparable results of the country's economic activity. 5. The concept of "product" as the result of labor in the field of material production. 6. Prices adjustable public Policy prices.

1. Equality of all areas of the economy. Givens any activity that affects income. 2. Inclusion of all forms of ownership. 3. Free market relations (financial and cash relations) 4. Compariability of international comparisons. 5. The product is the result of any economic activity. 6. Products receive an assessment on the market.

Classification of economic agents:

1. non-financial enterprises, or production firms;

2. Households;

3. State administrative institutions;

4. Financial institutions and organizations;

5. Zagred (economic agents outside the borders of this country).

Operation in market economy is called Moving, creating or

destruction of benefits, services or rights. The nomenclature of operations is divided into three large groups:

1. Operations with goods and services (operations for production, investment, consumption, import, etc.);

2. Distribution operations (salary, dividends, social insurance payments, etc.);

3. Financial operations (changes in assets and liabilities relating to money, operations with securities, currency, credit operations, etc.).

SNS represents two levels:

1) summary accounts (reflect the movement of GDP, national income, financing of investment, operations with other countries, etc.);

2) detailed accounts (show inter-sectoral connections, income movement, distribution and final consumption).

The system of national accounts of Kazakhstan currently includes the following accounts:

Account of goods and services;

Production account;

Income education account;

The distribution account of primary income;

Secondary income distribution account;

Income use account;

Account of operations with capital.

The most important starting concepts of Macroeconomics - National Product (NP) and National Income (ND). This is generalizing indicators. Methods of national accounting of these indicators with us and abroad were significantly different. In the conditions of the planned economy, our statistical authorities conducted this calculation based on the Marx provisions on dividing the sectors of the national economy for industrial and non-production spheres.

In modern economic science there is no division into productive and unproductive work. The cost of services is also included in the NP. With the transition to a market economy, the concept of national economy balances is replaced with the SNA (system of national accounts) used in the West on the recommendation of international bodies.

The main macroeconomic indicator of the SNA, for the real statistical measurement of the production and consumption of NP is the gross domestic product (GDP). GDP 2 - the cost of finite goods and services produced in the territory of a given country for a certain period of time (most often for the year).

In this definition, you need to pay attention to the word "final" (to exclude repeated account). That is, GDP is the sum of the total value. This does not include the cost of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products acquired on the side, as in the value of the final goods, all intermediate operations are taken into account. Intermediate products - Products that are subject to further processing or resale.

GDP does not include transactions for resale products. This does not include some financial transactions (gifts, donation, purchase and sale of securities, transfer payments).

GDP can be measured in two ways: by the summation of all the costs of the Company for the purchase of goods and services produced in this year, or by adding money income received as a result of production in the same year. Equality of income and expenses follows from the accounting rule: all costs for the purchase of products are necessarily income of producers of these products.

GDP in the flow of income is defined as the sum of three components:

1) income of production factors of production;

2) depreciation deductions;

3) indirect income.

GDP \u003d W + I + R + P + A + KN, where

W is the wages of wage employees (wages, including premiums, surcharges, surcharges, etc., calculated before taxes);

i - the percentage of capital use;

R - rental payments;

P - profit and income;

A - amortization;

CN - indirect taxes (primary state revenues).

Expenditures in GDP are divided into four large groups:

Consumption (C)

Investments (I)

Purchases (G)

Pure export (XN)

GDP \u003d C + I + G + XN.

This formula not only characterizes consumption, but also describes the structure of macroeconomic demand.

The largest component in the structure of consumption is personal consumption (C). This is the demand, on the part of households on consumption items.

I - gross private investment.

I \u003d a + in where

A - depreciation (investments going to capital recovery)

In - Pure private investments (investments going on the expansion of capital).

G - government procurement of goods and services are associated with the implementation of those political, economic and social functions that implements the modern state.

XN - Balance Foreign Trade.

The ratio between macroeconomic indicators.

The most important of the indicators used in modern SNS are:

1. GDP and GNI;

2. ChVP and Cund;

3. ND (in modern Russian statistics is not calculated);

GDP is the initial indicator of the entire SNA. Other indicators are obtained from GDP. Details: by adding or subtracting certain components from it. It is used in international comparisons, as a rule, per capita.

NIN (gross national income) is very close, although not identical GDP indicator. The fact is that there is a difference between the country in which country is created and which country is owned by NP. Recently, many workers from the CIS countries arrive in Russia. Part of the product created by them is paid to them in the form of wages and further divides into two parts: one is consumed in Russia, and the other is exported to their homeland. GDP answers the question where the product is created, and the GND is what country it belongs.

GND \u003d GDP + balance of income from abroad.

ChVP (pure inner product) is obtained by subtracting depreciation deductions from GDP, i.e. It differs from the latter by the fact that it is reduced by the amount of consumption (wear) of fixed capital. By virtue of this ChVP, more precisely, the GDP shows what the value of the goods created this year. Those. ChVP cleaned from a double GDP account.

Cund (net national income) is determined by subtracting depreciation from GNI.

The next phase of cleaning is achieved using the indicator ND(National income). ND equals ChVP minus CN. These revenues of the state are not related to making them any resources into the production process. CN increase prices, but do not create any economic benefits.

This important macroeconomic indicator in modern statistics is not calculated.

It is leapped by subtracting direct and indirect taxes from Cunda and the addition of private and state transfers.

Among all the SNA indicators, it describes the level and structure of income of individuals before taxes.

The RD is equal to LD minus individual taxes and shows what amounts can really manage the household.

Control questions:

1. What were the differences between NP counting in domestic and foreign statistics?

2. All GDP definitions. What methods can it be calculated? Expand the content of these methods.

3. List the main macroeconomic indicators. What is the relationship between them?