This period is usually called new time. These concepts appeared in the Renaissance era, when the history began to divide on ancient (antiquity), the average (Middle Ages) and a new one.
Europe and the world in the XVII century. Capitalism and upgrades.
1. First, Western Europe was the direct heiress of the Greek-Roman world, the world with an unusually high level of antiquity by the level of development of commodity-money relations, with the right to non-elected property, with an active creature orientation.
2. Secondly, the formation of capitalism would be impossible without urban communal movements. In the city, which took self-government and independence from state power was formed by the layer of people (third estimation), which has free capital, which gave the life of the future bourgeoisie.
3. Thirdly, the execution of active, defending their rights of the estates forced the state to cooperate with them. Pressure opportunities for society, on economic processesNaturally, remained (and used), but still were limited.
At the early imprint stage of the development of the bourgeoisie, there is a long gradual formation of new public institutions and elements of bourgeois formation, accumulation is accumulated initial Capital, Manufactory appears (manual production) - the first signs of capitalism.
The center of the development of bourgeois relations were cities. There was a new layer of people, consisting mainly of merchants, Roshovists and workshops. All of them have had capital, the shortest path to the acquisition of which was opened through trade and market surgery. These capital were not hidden in the chests, but invested in production. Moreover, in the production of a new type, more efficient, giving high profits. The development of capitalism was accompanied by technical progress, the destruction of traditional corporate ties, the folding of uniform markets - national and pan-European.
A new "hero of time" appeared in this era, an enterprising, energetic person who can withstand competition is to create capital in the literal sense of nothing.
The modernization process, i.e. The transition from feudalism to capitalism passes various phases of development: earlyindustrial (XIV-XV V.V.), medium ingraduate (XVI-XVIII V.V.), Lateindustrial (HIX century) and post-industrial (XX century).
Modernization is a complex, quite a long process that covers all areas of society. It includes:
1. Industrialization - Using machines in production
2. Urbanization is an unprecedented growth of cities;
3. Democratization of political structures - formation civil society and the rule of law. The authorities are perceived rationally, they are judged by the results of more or less successful actions of those whom the Society presented the Brazuds of the Board.
4. Enlightenment is an increase in knowledge about nature and society, as well as the liberation of spiritual and social life from the influence of the Church, the development of atheism.
All these processes that are inextricably linked with each other changed the appearance of a person, its system of values \u200b\u200band, above all, the presentation of their place and role in life. In the system of values \u200b\u200bof the European civilization of the new time, active, creative, transforming human activity was put forward to the fore. A modernized person is a mobile person who quickly adapts to changes occurring in the surrounding life.
How does the approval of capitalism relate to modernization? Capitalism has never been built in a traditional society. And this is natural: capitalism is focused on constant innovations, contradicts The very spirit of traditionalism. The future of a particular country depended on how actively it was poured into the modernization process, how fast the formation of capitalism was going on. Capitalism and modernization were even clearer than before, a distinctive line between the West and East. In this era, the superiority of the West was determined above the once mighty opponent.
2. Conditions for the emergence of capitalism in Europe.
Why did the bourgeois relationship self-conceived in Europe? After all, in other countries there were opportunities for the emergence of capitalism, for example, in China and especially in Japan. And although today, science has not yet made exhaustive answers to these questions, it is still possible to distinguish some of the special features of the Western European version of civilizational development.
First, Western Europe was a direct heiress of the Greco-Roman world, the world with an unusually high level of antiquity by the level of development of commodity-money relations, with the right to non-inflammed property, with an active creative identity orientation.
Secondly, the formation of capitalism would be impossible without urban communal movements. In the city, which took self-government and independence from state power was formed by the layer of people (third estimation), which has free capital, which gave the life of the future bourgeoisie.
Thirdly, the registration of active, defending their rights of the estates forced the state to cooperate with them. The possibilities of pressure on society, on economic processes, naturally, remained (and used), but still were limited.
And finally, the position of the Church in relation to economic issues and commerce. But since the XIII century. She softens his doctrines over those classes that were traditionally considered "unclean." Condeming usury, the church did not condemn bill, pledges, investment. This led to the fact that trade in the public consciousness gradually received "rights of citizenship", and after Renaissance and Reformation (the Renaissance) began to be considered a very worthy occupation.
Regions of pan-European interaction.
Western Europe is the first civilization among the countries of the world in which they originated, gained strength, and, in the end, won new bourgeois relations, i.e. There was a formation shift from feudalism to capitalism.
For the first time, bourgeois relations appeared in large shopping cities of Italy (such as Florence, Genoa), even at the end of the XIV century, but then there was a socio-economic regression there, i.e. Movement back, changing to the worst.
In XV-XVI V.V. Bourgeois relations spread in many countries of Western Europe. Starting from Holland and England, they switched to Florence, and then to Spain, Portugal, Germany. Over time, this process covered most of the world, but "pulling" in it already occurred in the context of elaborating Europe and the strengthening of connections and economic dependence on each other.
In economic terms in Europe, 4 regions are clearly allocated, each of which is in the specific social and economic situation. In the framework of the pan-European interaction system:
1) the region in which the early bank-capitalist structure dominated, the most fully expressed the essence of the actual manufactory phase of social production (England, Holland);
2) the region, where this phase of social proceedings was transmitted only in the structure remaining subordinates in the dominant feudal structure of production (France, Sweden, a number of German regions);
3) the region in which in the XVII century. There was a socio-economic regression compared with the XVI century. (Spain, Portugal, North. Italy, South-West Germany);
4) The region in which serfdom (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Baltic, Russia) is strengthened.
Economy of Western Europe XVI-XVIII V.V. It was mostly agricultural character. Agriculture was the sphere of material production, where traditions previous period (Middle Ages) were most sustainable.
Hand held manual labor. And against the background of this, capitalism appears and grows. Accumulate social factors Bourgeois development - class and professional bundle in society, rapprochement of trade and business bourgeoisie, the growth of the third estate.
For representatives of the rising class of the bourgeoisie were characterized by courage, energy, enterprise, assertiveness, the ability to take risk. No wonder the era of XVI-XVIII V.V. - This is the time of great adventurers. Bourgeoisie is selfish and calculated. Profit, native - the main incentives of its activities.
3. The appearance of manuff.
The formation of modern civilization was a rather complicated and long-term process, which has undergone various transformations as developing. This is a long historical period - approximately from the XV century. And to the present, and in some countries this period has not yet been completed.
The modernization process, i.e. The transition from feudalism to capitalism passes various phases of development: earlyindustrial (XIV-XV V.V.), medium ingraduate (XVI-XVIII V.V.), Lateindustrial (HIX century) and post-industrial (XX century).
In the early imprintrial stage of the development of the bourgeoisie, there is a long gradual formation of new public institutions and elements of the bourgeois formation, the accumulation of initial capital is accumulated, manuffs (manual production) appear - the first signs of capitalism.
The center of the development of bourgeois relations were cities. There was a new layer of people (third estate), consisting mainly of merchants, usurists and workshops. All of them have had capital, the shortest path to the acquisition of which was opened through trade and market surgery. These capital were not hidden in the chests, but invested in production. Moreover, in the production of a new type, more efficient, giving high profits.
In this era, a manufactory began to come to change the craft workshop. Manufactory is a major capitalist enterprise, as opposed to the workshop on the inner division of labor and hired strength. Manufactory was serviced using the hired labor; At the head of her stood an entrepreneur who owns capital, means of production. Manufactory primary forms Capitalist enterprise appear already in XIV-XV V.V.
There were two forms of manufactory: a centralized (merchant or entrepreneur himself created a workshop, shipyard or mine, it myself acquired raw materials, materials, equipment) and a much more common - scattered manufactory (the entrepreneur distributed raw materials to artisans and received from them ready goods or semi-finished).
The occurrence of manufactory meant a significant rise in the productive forces of society. Its technical basis still served the use of the same instruments of labor as in handicraft production.
Later, more or less complex technical devices for using water and wind energy are beginning to be applied in manufactories. The shafts, gears, gears, millstones, etc. are driven by a water-wheel wheel, and dr. Used in flour and cheerful business, to highlight paper, in sawmill, in the production of powder, to stretch the wire, cutting iron, bringing the movement of the hammer, etc.
In the manufactory era, deep shifts in the economic life of society, the catastrophic breakdown of the old economic life, the old painting of the world.
The main advantage of manufactory was that it was a major production and created opportunities for a narrow specialization of labor operations as a result of the technical separation of labor. It helped to increase the production of products by hired workers several times compared with the craft workshop, where all operations were carried out mainly by one master.
But no cars were invented, capitalist production was doomed only to remain in the system of the feudal economy.
Farm farms.
The bourgeois relationship is much slower than the city, the village was drawn up - the chief stronghold of feudalism. There formed farm farms, with the hired labor of peasants who have lost its land as a result of transformations, i.e. Stopped to be peasants in the full sense of the word. This projecting process went through different intermediate forms, as a rule, through the transition to rent, which meant the abolition of fixed payments and the rights to the hereditary holding of the Earth.
In the village in the role of entrepreneurs, rich peasants, merchants or sometimes feudalists themselves could speak. So it happened, for example, in England, where the process of so-called enholes was walking, i.e. The rapid camp of peasants from the ground to turn it into a pasture for sheep, whose wool was on sale.
From the speed of penetration of bourgeois relations to the village, much more conservative than the city, but the main part of the products, depended on the pace of capitalism. Faster than this process was walking in England and the Northern Netherlands, where the drill flourishing of the Manufactory coincided with the village oburisation.
In England and Holland in the XVI-XVII V.V. Intensive bourgeois restructuring agriculture; The large capitalist rental lease was approved while preserving the noble land ownership Landlordov (landlords). In these countries, it was already observed in the practice of new types of agricultural tools of labor (lightweight plow, harrow, seeder, thump and dr.)
The bourgeois progress of agriculture provided raw Resources and the influx of labor into the industry, because Peasants, remaining without land and not finding work in the village, went to the city.
The development of capitalism was accompanied by technical progress, the destruction of traditional corporate ties, the folding of uniform markets - national and pan-European.
A new "hero of time" appeared in this era, an enterprising, energetic person who can withstand competition is to create capital in the literal sense of nothing.
But in the XVI-XVII V.V. Even in those countries where bourgeois relations have successfully developed, the new construction still existed in the "context" of feudal relations, even quite strong and not wanting to give up voluntarily.
The capitalism base was rather weak, so there were opportunities for moving back, which happened in a number of European countries. Among them were Italy, Spain, Portugal, Germany.
Life. The era of the initial capital accumulation, the origin and development of manufactory production marked the offensive of the new time. Europe becomes the center of the progressive development of humanity, the formation of new political institutions, the hearth of new ideology and culture. Thus, a new time is an era that laid the foundations of modern civilization in which we are now ...
Sea to the Indian Ocean), Cape Town (Cape of Good Hope in South Africa), Singapore (Indian Threshold), Hong Kong (Chinese Threshold) Basic Principle: "Separate and conquer!"; 1857 - The beginning of the seizure of India (Bengal) "White" colonies (people inhabited from Europe): Canada (from 1867. Dominion), Australia, New Zealand France 1804g. - Napoleon - Emperor France; I empire (1804-14) 1805g. - Start...
And already by the middle of the Xih century. The Bulgarian population played a crucial role in small-handed production. The social and political crisis in the Bulgarian lands reached the highest point when Turkey suffered a defeat in wars with Russia and Austria in the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, Turkish Sultan Selim III began to hold the reforms of the Timaritsky troops and the Yana Corps, and also tried to change ...
Practices, like a gymnastic movement, opposed to international comparison of the achieved indicators, it began to perceive as one-sided. The new rhythm of life needed more gaming and more complex movements and impressions. Modern public sport as synthesis of movements more than mostly satisfied people's requests for physical culture than the dismembered, isolated ...
Capitalism is just one of the world existing socio-economic formations. The history of its formation is related to such phenomena as the colonial expansion and operation of workers, for which the 80-hour working week became the norm. T & P publishes an excerpt from the book of Cambridge economist Ha-Jun Chang "How is the economy?" which recently reached the MIF publisher.
Western European economy really
grew slowly ...
Capitalism originates in Western Europe, in particular, in the UK and Benilyuks countries (to which Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg include today), in the XVI-XVIIIs. Why he originated there, and not, say, in China or India, which then were comparable to Western Europe by level economic Development- The subject of intensive and long discussions. As an explanation was offered everything - from the contempt for the Chinese elite to practical training (such as trade and industry), to the map of coal deposits of Great Britain and the fact of the opening of America. Let's not talk about this discussion for a long time. We will take this given that capitalism began to develop in Western Europe.
Prior to his appearance, Western European societies, like all others in a processful era, changed very slowly. People were mainly organized around agriculture, in which only the same technologies with a limited degree of commerce and craft production were used for many centuries.
Between the X and the XV centuries, that is, in the era of the Middle Ages, the income per capita increased by 0.12 percent per year. Consequently, incomes in 1500 were only 82 percent higher than in 1000th. For comparison, this is a magnitude that China with its 11 percent of growth per year has reached in six years between 2002 and 2008. It follows that from the point of view of material progress, one year in China today is equivalent to 83 years in medieval Western Europe (three people could be born and die during which time - in the Middle Ages, the average life expectancy was only 24 years).
 ... But still faster than economics
any other country of the world
Despite the foregoing, the growth of the economy in Western Europe was still a much advanced similar indicator in Mostasi Asia and Eastern Europe (including Russia), which were estimated three times slower (0.04 percent). This means that for 500 years, the incomes of the local population have become above just 22 percent. If Western Europe moved like a turtle, then other countries have more resembled snails.
Capitalism appeared "in slow motion"
Capitalism appeared in the XVI century. But his distribution was so slow that it is impossible to accurately establish the exact date of his birth. In the period between the 1500th and 1820, the growth rate of incomes per capita in Western Europe was still 0.14 percent - in essence, it was the same as in the Middle Ages (0.12 percent). In the UK and the Netherlands, the acceleration of the growth of this indicator was observed at the end of the XVIII century, especially in the sectors of the production of cotton tissues and ferrous metals. As a result, from 1500 to 1820, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands reached the rate of economic growth per capita at 0.27 and 0.28 percent, respectively. And although according to modern standards, such indicators are very small, they halvedly exceeded the average Western European figure. This led to a number of changes.
Beginning of colonial expansion
Since the beginning of the XV century, the countries of Western Europe began to expand rapidly. Camered for the decency of the epoch of great geographical discoveries, this expansion included expropriation of land and resources and enslave the indigenous population by establishing a colonial regime.
Starting from Portugal in Asia, as well as Spain in North and South America, from the end of the 15th century, Western European peoples began to ruthlessly seize new lands. By the middle of the XVIII century, North America was divided between England, France and Spain. Most countries of South America were under the rule of Spain and Portugal until 1810-820s. Parts of India were under the authority of the British (mostly Bengal and Bihar), French (Southeast Coast) and Portuguese (various coastal areas, in particular Goa). At about this time, the settlement of Australia begins (the first correctional colony appeared there in 1788). Africa at that time was "mastered" not so good, there were only small settlements of Portuguese (previously uninhabited Islands Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe) and the Dutch (Cape Town, founded in the XVII century).
Francis Himan. Robert Clive meets with the world of Jafar after the battle of Plesi. 1757.
Colonialism was based on capitalist principles. It is symbolic that until 1858, the British Board in India was carried out by the Corporation (East India Company), and not by the Government. These colonies brought new resources to Europe. At first, the expansion was motivated by searching precious metals For use as money (gold and silver), as well as spices (especially black pepper). Over time, plantations were created in the new colonies - especially in the United States, Brazil and the Caribbean countries, where the work of slaves was used, mainly exported from Africa. The plantations were based to grow and supply new agricultural crops to Europe, such as cane sugar, rubber, cotton and tobacco. It is impossible to imagine times when there were no traditional chips in Britain, in Italy - tomatoes and pollen (made from corn), and in India, Thailand and Korea did not know what Chile was.
Colonialism leaves deep scars
For many years, disputes have been conducted on whether capitalism would have developed in the XVI-XVIII centuries without colonial resources: precious metals used as money, new food, such as potatoes and sugar, and raw materials for industrial production, such as cotton. Although there is no doubt that colonializers have benefited from their sale, most likely, in European countries, capitalism would have developed without them. At the same time, colonialism, no doubt, ruined colonized societies.
The indigenous population was exterminated or put on the edge of extinction, and his land with all resources was selected. Marginalization of local peoples turned out to be so deep that Evo Morales, the current president of Bolivia, elected in 2006, just the second head of the state in the American continent - a feet of the indigenous population who came to power from the moment Europeans arrived there in 1492 (The first was Benito Huares, President Mexico in 1858-1872).
Many Africans - in general assessment, about 12 million - were captured in slavery and exported to Europe and Arab countries. This not only became the tragedy of those who lost freedom (even if they managed to survive a hard journey), but also exhausted many African societies and destroyed them social structure. The territories have acquired arbitrary boundaries - this fact affects the internal and international  polymatics of a number of countries to this day. The fact that in Africa so many interstate borders have the kind of straight line, serves as a visual confirmation, since natural borders are never straight, they usually pass along rivers, mountain ranges and other geographic objects.
Colonialism often implied intentional cessation of existing production activities in economically developed regions. For example, in 1700, the United Kingdom banned the importation of Indian Citz (we mentioned it in Chapter 2) to promote the development own productionThus, she inflicted a heavy blow to the Indian cotton industry. This industry was completely destroyed in the middle of the XIX century by the flow of bridge tissues, while the mechanized method already produced in Britain. Being a colony, India could not apply tariffs and take other political measures to protect their manufacturers from British imports. In 1835, Lord Bentink, the Governor-General of the Ost-India Company, said the famous phrase: "India's plains whiten of weaver bones."
Start of the industrial revolution
Capitalism really went to take off for about 1820 throughout Western Europe, and then in European colonies in North America and Oceania. The acceleration of economic growth was so sharp that the next half a century after 1820 began to be called an industrial revolution. During these fifty years, income per capita in Western Europe has grown by 1 percent, which is very little on modern standards (in Japan there was such an increase in income during the so-called lost decade of the 1990s), and compared with the growth rate of 0, 14 percent observed between the 1500th and 1820 year, it was a real turboactive acceleration.
80-hour work week: Some sufferings
people just intensified
However, such an acceleration of income growth per capita at first for many was accompanied by a decrease in living standards. Many people whose skills are outdated - for example, artisans producing textiles - lost jobs, because they were replaced by machines that managed cheaper unqualified workers, among which there were many children. Some cars were even designed for the growth of the child. People who hired at the factory or in small workshops supplying raw materials for them, worked a lot: 70-80 hours a week were considered the norm, someone worked for more than 100 hours a week, and for rest usually allocated only half a day on Sunday.
Working conditions were extremely dangerous. Many English cotton industry workers died from pulmonary diseases due to dust formed in the production process. The urban working class lived very armsily, sometimes in the room juts 15-20 people. It was considered quite normal that hundreds of people use one toilet. People died like flies. In the poor areas of Manchester, life expectancy was 17 years, which is 30 percent lower than the same indicator on the territory of the UK to the Norman conquest, which happened in 1066 (then the life expectancy was 24 years).
The myth of the free market and free trade:
as capitalism actually developed
The development of capitalism in the countries of Western Europe and their colonies in the XIX century is often associated with the distribution of free trade and free. It is believed that the governments of these states were not taxed and did not limit international trade (called free trade) and did not interfere in the functioning of the market (free market). Such a state of affairs led to the fact that these countries managed to develop capitalism. It is also assumed to believe that the United Kingdom and the United States have been led among other states, because the first market and free trade took the first market.
Free trade applies mainly due to distant funds
Although free trade was not the cause of capitalism, it really applied throughout the XIX century. Partially appeared in the heart of the capitalist world of the 1860s, when the United Kingdom adopted this principle and signed bilateral free trade agreements (CST), in which both parties canceled restrictions on imports and customs duties for export for each other, with a number of states Western Europe. However, it spreads the strongest on the periphery of capitalism - in the countries of Latin America and Asia, and as a result of the fact that no one does not associate with the word "free", - the use of force or in any case the threat of its use.
The colonization was the most obvious way to spread the "non-free free trade", but even many countries that were not contemplated by the colonies, also had to take it. According to all other things, the tariff autonomy (the right to establish their own tariffs were forced by the methods of "Counting Diplomering". It was allowed to use only a low single tariff rate (3-5 percent) - sufficient to increase some government revenues, but too small to protect the rapid industries. The Nanjing Treaty is considered the most shameful of such facts, which China had to sign in 1842 after the defeat in the first opium war. But unequal agreements also began to be subscribed to the countries of Latin America, until they gained independence in 1810-1820. Between 1820 and 1850, a number of other states were also forced to sign such contracts: the Ottoman Empire (the predecessor of Turkey), Persia (today's Iran), Siam (today's Thailand) and even Japan. The term of Latin American unequal agreements expired in the 1870-1880s, while agreements with Asian countries acted in the 20th century.
This statement is too far from the truth. The government played a leading role at the initial stage of development of capitalism both in the UK and in the United States and other countries of Western Europe.
The inability to protect and defend the young branches of its industry, whether as a result of direct colonial domination or non-equivance contracts, significantly contributed to the economic regress of Asia and Latin America in that period: there was a negative increase in per capita income (at speed -0.1 and - 0.04 percent per year, respectively).
Capitalism switches to higher transmission: the beginning of mass production
The development of capitalism has become accelerated around 1870. Between 1860 and 1910, clusters of new technological innovations appeared, resulting in the rise of the so-called heavy and chemical industry: the production of electrical equipment, internal combustion engines, synthetic dyes, artificial fertilizers and other products. Unlike the technologies of an industrial revolution invented by practical men with good intuition, new technologies were developed as part of the systematic use of scientific and engineering principles. Thus, any invention could very quickly be reproduced and improved.
In addition, the organization of the production process in many industries has experienced a revolution due to the invention of the mass production system. Thanks to the introduction of a moving assembly line (ribbon conveyor) and interchangeable parts, costs have sharply decreased. Nowadays, this is the main (almost universally used) system, despite the frequent statements about its death, which sounded since 1908.
New economic institutions emerged to control the growing scale of production
During his peak, capitalism acquired the main institutional structure that exists today; It includes limited liability companies, bankruptcy law, central bank, social security system, labor legislation and much more. These institutional shifts occurred mainly due to changes in basic technologies and policies.
In connection with the growing need for large-scale investments, the principle of limited liability, which was previously applied only in privileged companies, was widespread. Consequently, now he could use any company that performs certain minimum conditions. Having access to an unprecedented scale of investments, limited liability companies became the most powerful means of developing capitalism. Karl Marx, who recognized their enormous potential earlier than any thorough supporter of capitalism, called them "capitalist production in its higher development."
Before the British reform of 1849, the essence of the Bankruptcy Law was the punishment of an insolvent businessman in the worst case of a debt prison. New laws introduced in the second half of the XIX century, gave victims to entrepreneurs a second chance, allowing not to pay interest to creditors during the reorganization of their business (according to Chapter 11 Federal Law On the bankruptcy of the United States introduced in 1898) and forcing the latter to write off part of the debts. Now the business has become not so risky.
The Rhodes Colossus.Striding from Cape Town to Cairo 1892
Banks began to enlarged both banks. At that time, there was a danger that the bankruptcy of one bank can destabilize all financial systemSo, to combat this problem, central banks were created, acting as a lender of the last instance, and the first in 1844 was the Bank of England.
Due to the wide distribution of socialist agitation and increased pressure on the government on the part of reformists regarding the provision of the working class, from the 1870s, a number of laws were introduced social security Both work: insurance against accidents, medical insurance, old-age pensions and unemployment insurance. In many countries, the labor of small children (as a rule, under the age of 10-12 years) and limited the number of working hours for older children (originally only until 12 o'clock). New laws also regulated the conditions and time of work for women. Unfortunately, it was made not from knightly motivations, but because of an arrogant relationship to the weak floor. It was believed that, unlike men, women lacking mental abilities, so they can sign an employment contract unfavorable for them, in other words, women needed to protect themselves. These social security and labor laws smoothed the gross verge of capitalism and made the life of many poor people better - let it first at first.
Institutional changes contributed to economic growth. Limited liability companies and loyal bankruptcy laws reduced the risk associated with entrepreneurial activities, thereby encouraging the creation of material goods. Activity central BankOn the one hand, and the laws on social security and labor - on the other, also contributed to growth due to increasing, respectively, economic and political stability, which made it possible to increase investment, and therefore, and speed up the further rise in the economy. The growth rate of incomes per capita in Western Europe has grown from 1 percent per year during the peak of 1820-1870 to 1.3 percent during 1870-1913.
Conditions for the emergence of capitalism in Europe.
Why did the bourgeois relationship self-conceived in Europe? After all, in other countries there were opportunities for the emergence of capitalism, for example, in China and especially in Japan. And although today, science has not yet made exhaustive answers to these questions, it is still possible to distinguish some of the special features of the Western European version of civilizational development.
First, Western Europe was a direct heiress of the Greco-Roman world, the world with an unusually high level of antiquity by the level of development of commodity-money relations, with the right to non-inflammed property, with an active creative identity orientation.
Secondly, the formation of capitalism would be impossible without urban communal movements. In the city, which took self-government and independence from state power was formed by the layer of people (third estimation), which has free capital, which gave the life of the future bourgeoisie.
Thirdly, the registration of active, defending their rights of the estates forced the state to cooperate with them. The possibilities of pressure on society, on economic processes, naturally, remained (and used), but still were limited.
Finally, the position of the Church in relation to economic issues and commerce was important. But since the XIII century. She softens his doctrines over those classes that were traditionally considered "unclean." Condeming usury, the church did not condemn bill, pledges, investment. This led to the fact that trade in public consciousness gradually received "rights of citizenship", and after Renaissance and Reformation (the Renaissance) began to be considered a very worthy occupation.
Regions of pan-European interaction.
Western Europe is the first civilization among the countries of the world in which they originated, gained strength, and, in the end, won new bourgeois relations, i.e. There was a formation shift from feudalism to capitalism.
For the first time, bourgeois relations appeared in large shopping cities of Italy (such as Florence, Genoa), even at the end of the XIV century, but then there was a socio-economic regression there, i.e. Movement back, changing to the worst.
In XV-XVI V.V. Bourgeois relations spread in many countries of Western Europe. Starting from Holland and England, they switched to Florence, and then to Spain, Portugal, Germany. Over time, this process covered most of the world, but "pulling" in it already occurred in the context of elaborating Europe and the strengthening of connections and economic dependence on each other.
In economic terms in Europe, 4 regions are clearly allocated, each of which is in the specific social and economic situation. In the framework of the pan-European interaction system:
the region in which the early bank-capitalist structure dominated, the most fully expressed the essence of the manufactory phase of social production (England, Holland);
region, where this phase of social proceedings was embodied only in the structure remaining subordinates in the dominant feudal structure of production (France, Sweden, a number of German regions);
region in which in the XVII century. There was a socio-economic regression compared with the XVI century. (Spain, Portugal, North. Italy, South-West Germany);
the region in which the serfdom (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Baltic, Russia) was strengthened.
Economy of Western Europe XVI-XVIII V.V. It was mostly agricultural character. Agriculture was the sphere of material production, where the traditions of the previous period (Middle Ages) were most sustainable.
Hand held manual labor. And against the background of this, capitalism appears and grows. Social bourgeois development factors accumulate - class and professional bundle in society, rapprochement of the trade and entrepreneurial bourgeoisie, the growth of the third estate.
For representatives of the rising class of the bourgeoisie were characterized by courage, energy, enterprise, assertiveness, the ability to take risk. No wonder the era of XVI-XVIII V.V. - This is the time of great adventurers. Bourgeoisie is selfish and calculated. Profit, native - the main incentives of its activities.
The appearance of manuff.
The formation of modern civilization was a rather complicated and long-term process, which has undergone various transformations as developing. This is a long historical period - approximately from the XV century. And to the present, and in some countries this period has not yet been completed.
The modernization process, i.e. The transition from feudalism to capitalism passes various phases of development: earlyindustrial (XIV-XV V.V.), medium ingraduate (XVI-XVIII V.V.), Lateindustrial (HIX century) and post-industrial (XX century).
In the early imprintrial stage of the development of the bourgeoisie, there is a long gradual formation of new public institutions and elements of the bourgeois formation, the accumulation of initial capital is accumulated, manuffs (manual production) appear - the first signs of capitalism.
The center of the development of bourgeois relations were cities. There was a new layer of people (third estate), consisting mainly of merchants, usurists and workshops. All of them have had capital, the shortest path to the acquisition of which was opened through trade and market surgery. These capital were not hidden in the chests, but invested in production. Moreover, in the production of a new type, more efficient, giving high profits.
In this era, a manufactory began to come to change the craft workshop. Manufactory is a major capitalist enterprise, as opposed to the workshop on the inner division of labor and hired strength. Manufactory was serviced using the hired labor; At the head of her stood an entrepreneur who owns capital, means of production. Manufactory, primary forms of the capitalist enterprise appear already in XIV-XV V.V.
There were two forms of manufactory: a centralized (merchant or entrepreneur himself created a workshop, shipyard or mine, it myself acquired raw materials, materials, equipment) and a much more common - scattered manufactory (the entrepreneur distributed raw materials to handmands-artisans and received ready-made goods or semi-finished products from them).
The occurrence of manufactory meant a significant rise in the productive forces of society. Its technical basis still served the use of the same instruments of labor as in handicraft production.
Later, more or less complex technical devices for using water and wind energy are beginning to be applied in manufactories. The shafts, gears, gears, millstones, etc. are driven by a water-wheel wheel, and dr. Used in flour and cheerful business, to highlight paper, in sawmill, in the production of powder, to stretch the wire, cutting iron, bringing the movement of the hammer, etc.
In the manufactory era, deep shifts in the economic life of society, the catastrophic breakdown of the old economic life, the old painting of the world.
The main advantage of manufactory was that it was a major production and created opportunities for a narrow specialization of labor operations as a result of the technical separation of labor. It helped to increase the production of products by hired workers several times compared with the craft workshop, where all operations were carried out mainly by one master.
But no cars were invented, capitalist production was doomed only to remain in the system of the feudal economy.
Farm farms.
The bourgeois relationship is much slower than the city, the village was drawn up - the chief stronghold of feudalism. Farm farms were formed there, with the hired labor of peasants who were deprived of their land as a result of transformations, i.e. Stopped to be peasants in the full sense of the word. This projecting process went through different intermediate forms, as a rule, through the transition to rent, which meant the abolition of fixed payments and the rights to the hereditary holding of the Earth.
In the village in the role of entrepreneurs, rich peasants, merchants or sometimes feudalists themselves could speak. So it happened, for example, in England, where the process of so-called enholes was walking, i.e. The rapid camp of peasants from the ground to turn it into a pasture for sheep, whose wool was on sale.
From the speed of penetration of bourgeois relations to the village, much more conservative than the city, but the main part of the products, depended on the pace of capitalism. Faster than this process was walking in England and the Northern Netherlands, where the drill flourishing of the Manufactory coincided with the village oburisation.
In England and Holland in the XVI-XVII V.V. Intensive bourgeois restructuring of agriculture was performed; A large capitalist lease was approved while maintaining the noble land ownership of Landlordov (landlords). In these countries, it was already observed in the practice of new types of agricultural tools of labor (lightweight plow, harrow, seeder, thump and dr.)
The bourgeois progress of agriculture provided commodity resources and influx of labor into the industry, because Peasants, remaining without land and not finding work in the village, went to the city.
The development of capitalism was accompanied by technical progress, the destruction of traditional corporate ties, the folding of uniform markets - national and pan-European.
A new "hero of time" appeared in this era, an enterprising, energetic person who can withstand competition is to create capital in the literal sense of nothing.
But in the XVI-XVII V.V. Even in those countries where bourgeois relations have successfully developed, the new construction still existed in the "context" of feudal relations, quite strong and not wanting to give up voluntarily.
