The economy plays a huge role in the life of society. First, it provides people with the material conditions of existence - food, clothing, housing and other consumer goods. Secondly, the economic sphere of society's life is a system-forming component of society, a decisive sphere of its life that determines the course of all processes taking place in society. It is studied by many sciences, among which the most important are economic theory and social philosophy. It should also be noted such a relatively new science as ergonomics (it studies a person and his production activity, with the goal of optimizing tools, conditions and the labor process).
The economy in a broad sense is usually understood as a system of social production, that is, the process of creating material goods necessary for human society for its normal existence and development.
Economy - it is such a sphere of activity of people in which wealth is created to satisfy their various needs. Need is the objective need of a person for something. Human needs are very diverse. According to the subjects (carriers of needs), individual, group, collective and public needs are distinguished. According to the object (subject to which they are directed) - to material, spiritual, ethical (related to morality) and aesthetic (related to art).
According to the areas of activity, the needs of labor, communication, recreation (rest, recovery) are distinguished.
Organizing their economic activity, people pursue certain goals related to obtaining the goods and services they need. To achieve these goals, first of all, a labor force is needed, that is, people with abilities and work skills. These people use the means of production in the course of their labor activity.
The means of production are a combination of objects of labor, i.e., from which material goods are produced, and means of labor, i.e., by what or with the help of which they are produced.
The totality of the means of production and labor power is commonly called the productive forces of society.
productive forces - these are people (the human factor) who have production skills and carry out the production of material goods, the means of production created by society (the material factor), as well as the technology and organization of the production process.
The whole set of goods and services necessary for a person is created in two mutually complementary spheres of the economy.
In the non-productive sphere, spiritual, cultural and other values are created and similar services (educational, medical, etc.) are provided.
Service refers to the expedient types of labor with the help of which certain needs of people are satisfied.
Material production produces material goods (industry, agriculture, etc.) and provides material services (commercial, communal, transport, etc.).
History knows two main forms of material social production: natural and commodity. Natural production is called such production, in which the products produced are intended not for sale, but to satisfy the producer's own needs. The main features of such an economy are isolation, conservatism, manual labor, slow rates of development, direct links between production and consumption. more dynamically, since the manufacturer constantly monitors the processes taking place on the market, fluctuations in demand for a particular type of product and makes appropriate changes to the production process.
The most important role in material production belongs to the equipment and technology used by the manufacturer.
Originally, the ancient Greek word techne meant art, skill, craft. Over time, the meaning of this concept narrowed, and today technology is called the means created by people, with the help of which the process of material production is carried out, as well as serving the spiritual, domestic and other unproductive needs of society. Like other subsystems of the economy, technology has gone through a number of different stages in its development: the periods of its evolutionary development were replaced by “jumps”, due to which its level and nature changed. Such jumps are called technical revolutions.
For the entire economic history There have been three technological revolutions in manufacturing.
During the first - Neolithic - revolution, the emergence of a producing economy and the transition to a settled way of life became possible. This contributed to a sharp increase in the population: the so-called first population explosion occurred - the growth rate of the Earth's population almost doubled. Production at this pre-industrial stage was characterized by the predominance of Agriculture, the dominance of manual labor and the primitive forms of organization of the latter. Such production is still typical for some African countries (Guiana, Guinea, Senegal, etc.).
The second - industrial - revolution falls on the second half of the XVIII - 50-60s. 19th century It is called industrial because the main content of this revolution was industrial revolution- the transition from manual labor to machine labor. From now on, mechanical engineering becomes the main sphere of production, and the bulk of the population now works in industry and lives in cities. This stage of development of the economy, called industrial, is associated with the second population explosion, during which the population of the planet increases by almost seven times. However, the achievements of the industrial economy are not enough to meet the needs of all inhabitants of the industrial developed countries. From a certain moment, the contradiction between the relatively limited production possibilities and a completely new - both quantitative and qualitative - level of people's needs is more and more clearly felt. This contradiction is resolved in the course of the 1940s-1950s. 20th century scientific and technological revolution.
The scientific and technological revolution was a qualitative leap in the development of the productive forces of society, its transition to a new state based on fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.
The main directions of the scientific and technological revolution:
1) automation and computerization of production;
2) introduction of the latest information technologies;
3) development of biotechnologies;
4) creation of new structural materials;
5) development of the latest energy sources;
6) revolutionary changes in the means of communication and communications.
The result of this revolution was the transition to the post-industrial stage of production and the information society. The services sector, which employs 50 to 70% of the able-bodied population, is now receiving the greatest development. The social structure of society is changing, the number of people with higher education is growing significantly.
Each of the above technical revolutions entailed the replacement of the dominant technological mode of production with a new one, more in line with the increased needs of society. History knows four successive technological methods of production:
1) appropriator;
2) agrarian-handicraft;
3) industrial;
4) information and computer.
Each technological mode of production was characterized by specific tools and system of labor organization inherent only to it alone.
In the course of practical activity, people producing material goods are faced not only with a certain level of development of technology and technology, but also with the relations that have developed on this occasion, which are commonly called technological.
Technology Relations - this is the relationship of the producer of material goods to the object and means of his labor, as well as to the people with whom he interacts in the technological process, which develops on a certain technical basis.
Another system of relations is economic, or production. The main one is the ownership of the means of production.
Today, the economic sphere occupies a leading place in the system of social relations, determines the content of the political, legal, spiritual and other spheres of society. The modern economy is a product of a long historical development and improvement of various forms of organization of economic life. In most countries, it is a market economy, but at the same time it is regulated by the state, which seeks to give it the necessary social orientation. For the economy modern countries the process of internationalization of economic life is characteristic, the result of which is the international division of labor and the formation of a single world economy.
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There are major and minor roles in our life. Our life can be divided into different spheres of social life. One of the elements of society is the economic sphere. The economic sphere is the main sphere of society, it determines the course of all the processes taking place in it.
The economy plays a huge role in the life of society. It provides people with the material conditions of existence - food, clothing, housing and other consumer goods. The economy usually includes everything that is connected with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods created by human labor. the main objective and the role of the economy is to meet the needs of each individual, the needs of organizations and enterprises, as well as the whole society as a whole. economics material society welfare
For many centuries, the problem of how to satisfy the numerous needs of people was solved through the extensive development of the economy, that is, the involvement in the economy of new spaces and cheap natural resources.
With the development of scientific and technological progress, it became clear that this approach to the use of resources has exhausted itself: humanity has felt their limitations. Since then, the economy has been developing mainly in an intensive way, implying rationality and efficiency in the use of resources. According to this approach a person must process the available resources in such a way as to achieve maximum results at a minimum cost.
The whole set of goods necessary for a person is created in two mutually complementary spheres of the economy: material production and spiritual production. The production of material goods - (bread, machine tools, electricity, etc.) is the basis of the life of human society. In the non-productive sphere, spiritual, cultural and other values are created, services are provided in the field of education, medicine (services mean expedient types of labor that satisfy certain needs of people). Production must be continuous.
The level of development of production is reflected in the spirituality of society. If production develops on an increasing basis, then the need for cultural values also increases. People, gaining confidence in the future, spend money on a variety of entertainment, purchase goods for consumption.
If production falls, then unemployment rises, uncertainty about the future appears, crime and drug addiction grow, people become isolated, as it were, in themselves. There is a so-called subculture. Overcoming negative processes in society is stretched for an indefinite period of time. And this hurts all the foundations of the state: the family, the rule of law, etc.
Thus, the standard of living depends on production and labor productivity. The wider and more varied the production, the higher the productivity of labor, the better the quality of life and the well-being of the people.
Under economy It is customary to understand the system of social production, the process of creating material goods necessary for human society for its normal existence and development, as well as the science that studies economic processes.
The economy plays a huge role in the life of society. It provides people with the material conditions of existence - food, clothing, housing and other consumer goods. Economic sphere- the main sphere of society, it determines the course of all processes occurring in it.
The main factors of production (or basic inputs) are:
the land with all its riches;
labor depends on the number of the population and its education and qualifications;
capital (machines, machine tools, premises, etc.);
Entrepreneurial ability.
The main questions of economics are what, how and for whom to produce.
Different economic systems solve them differently. Depending on this, they are divided into four main types: traditional, centralized (administrative-command), market and mixed.
WITH traditional economy manufacturing industry began. Now it has been preserved in a number of economically underdeveloped countries. It is based on natural form of economy. Signs of natural production are: direct relations in production, distribution, exchange and consumption; products are produced for domestic consumption; It is based on communal (public) and private ownership of the means of production. The traditional type of economy prevailed at the pre-industrial stage of the development of society.
Centralized (or administrative-command) economy based on a unified plan. It dominated the territory of the Soviet Union, in the countries of Eastern Europe, and a number of Asian states. Currently preserved in North Korea and Cuba. Its main features are: state regulation of the national economy, which is based on state ownership of most economic resources; strong monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy; centralized economic planning of the entire economic activity.
Under market economy is understood based on commodity production. The most important mechanism for coordinating economic activity here is the market. For existence market economy private property is necessary (that is, the exclusive right to own, use and dispose of goods belonging to a person); competition; free, market-determined prices.
The economic systems mentioned above are almost never found in their pure form. In each country, elements of various economic systems are combined in their own way. Thus, in developed countries there is a combination of market and centralized economic systems, but the former plays a dominant role, although the role of the state in organizing the economic life of society is significant. This combination is called a mixed economy. The main purpose of such a system is to use strengths and overcoming the shortcomings of a market and centralized economy. Sweden and Denmark are classic examples of mixed economies.
In connection with the transition of a number of former socialist countries from a centrally controlled economy to a market economy, they formed a special type of economic system called transition economy. Its main task is to build a market economic system in the future.
Section 3. Economics.
3.1. Economy, its role in the life of society.
The word "economy" appeared in ancient times. It belongs to Aristotle and comes from two Greek words "oikos" - household, house and "nomos" - law. In other words, the concept of "economy" can be defined as the laws of housekeeping, housekeeping. The basis of such an economy is the production and consumption of vital goods necessary for the life of people, members of this house.
In the 17th century, the term “political economy” was introduced into circulation, in which the word “politey”, meaning social structure, led to a new understanding of the economy at the level of not a single economy, but at the level of the whole society. Thus, the economy began to be interpreted as the laws of public economy. And this meant that each farm is in close connection with other farms and depends on their activities. All together they make up the national economy (the economy of a particular state), which are included in the global (world) economy of the planet Earth.
The economy is based on the needs of people and economic interests that force them to act in one way or another. As a result, relations arise between people regarding the production, exchange, consumption and appropriation of life's goods, which are usually called economic relations.
Economics in the modern sense - economic system ensuring the satisfaction of the needs of people and society by creating the necessary vital goods. V modern conditions this system includes production and infrastructure. Production covers: the material sphere, where material goods are created, the non-material sphere, where spiritual, scientific, cultural and moral values are created, the service sector, in which any needs are satisfied. For example, trade or notary service, transport or telephone connection, etc.
It is customary to interpret economics in three terms:
the economy as a system of relations between people, due to the production, exchange and consumption of vital goods,
the economy as the economy of an individual (family, enterprise, region, state, group of countries and the whole world),
economics as a discipline that studies the manifestations of the economic life of a person, company, society.
Economics has practical implications for business. Understanding the general nature of the functioning of the economic system helps the head of the enterprise to better determine his economic policy, to make reasonable economic decisions. Knowing the course of economics gives the individual as a consumer and as an employee some idea of what the best decisions will be when buying goods and hiring, what kind of job to choose, what to invest in.
Economics, for all its practical usefulness, is a predominantly academic subject.
Thus, economics is a science that studies the activities of an individual, a group of people, society as a whole to provide certain material conditions for the organization of life.
Economic theory consists of two sections: ^ Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior, economic life of households and individual firms. Its features are:
Study of the behavior of a firm, a household as economic agents in a market system and, therefore, taking into account the constant choice of decisions, price fluctuations in the process of interaction between supply and demand and the determination of costs;
Study of the impact of the state on firms, households;
Studying the conjuncture and the factors that determine it in private markets;
The study of such phenomena as the interests of individuals, the usefulness of goods and services, supply and demand.
Macroeconomics considers the behavior or functioning of the national (world) economic system as a whole. Its features are:
Research of branches and spheres of economy, economic relations between them, the development of the national and world economy,
The study of such phenomena and processes as employment and unemployment, the general dynamics of prices, national income, expenses, etc.
The main difference between micro- and macroeconomics is not in the scale of the objects they study, but in those that take place in national farms economic processes that make up these objects. P. Samuelson says that microeconomics is a separate tree in the forest, and macroeconomics is a forest.
3.2. Goods and services, resources and needs, limited resources.
Everything economic relations based on the production and sale of goods or services.
^ Material production (production of goods)
The key to the study of the economic life of society is the analysis of material production, since society cannot exist without the production of material goods necessary for the life of people. The production of the means of subsistence forms the starting point of the history of mankind, its first historical act.
This sphere is not only historically the first, it is also the "progenitor" of all other spheres of society's life - social, political, spiritual. It is the economic sphere as a basis that integrates the remaining subsystems of society into integrity.
In the process of material production, people interact with each other in order to effectively influence nature. In this area, the satisfaction of man and society with material goods takes place: food, clothing, housing, etc.
The mode of production of material goods (the economic mode of production) includes productive forces and production relations.
Productive forces are a system of subjective (human) and material (technical, objects of labor) elements necessary for the process of material production.
Man is the decisive element of the productive forces.
^ The means of labor is a complex of things that a person places between himself and nature to influence it. Among the means of labor, tools of labor are distinguished, with which a person directly affects nature.
^ Objects of labor - everything that human labor is aimed at. The relations of production that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods are called relations of production.
The relations of production represent a complex system imbued with a single principle. This means that in this system there are some fundamental relationships that cement it, act as backbone. First of all, this relation is the main production relation - the relation of ownership of the means of production. There are various forms of ownership - personal, private, public.
At present, most experts believe that private property is most closely connected with human nature, with its vital needs. It is she who gives people property independence, develops personal initiative, stimulates and improves entrepreneurial skills, instills a sense of responsibility in their business. Private property strengthens the legal consciousness, the culture of law-abiding. A person's life is manifested in his property.
In our country, the importance of private property was denied, but time proved the unreasonableness of this.
Resources and needs: Production resources - an economic category that denotes the resources actually involved in the production process.
V economic theory There are four main production resources:
"Earth" meaning:
A) all natural resources used in the production process;
B) an object of management in a number of industries (agrarian, mining);
B) property.
"Capital" - material and financial resources (all types of buildings, structures, machinery and machines for industrial purposes, equipment and tools; land; raw materials and materials; energy and ideas; computer software, various information economic content, money).
"Labor" is the part of society that is directly involved in the production process.
"Entrepreneurship" - combines all of the above resources in one enterprise.
Markets production resources- the sphere of commodity circulation of the most important groups of resources of economic activity: land, natural resources and artificial raw materials, labor resources of various specialties and qualifications, capital and technical resources, information, knowledge, intelligence, methods of their transfer.
The movement of production resources is mediated by the money and securities markets and is regulated by the economic policy of the state.
The demand for production resources has its own specifics:
The demand for resources has a derivative, secondary character in comparison with the demand for final consumer goods, since the need for them arises only if they can be used to produce consumer goods and services.
The demand for any resource can rise or fall depending on whether the demand for consumer goods produced by that factor of production rises or falls.
Demand for resources is presented only by entrepreneurs.
The demand for resources is an interdependent process, where the volume of each resource involved in production depends on the price level not only for each of them, but also for all other resources and factors associated with them.
Price is one of the most important conditions for changing the elasticity of demand for each production resource. Demand is more elastic, ceteris paribus, for those resources that have a lower price, because Replacing more expensive inputs with cheaper ones lowers production costs.
The supply of productive resources is the quantity that can be represented on the markets at the current prices. In the markets for inputs, demand creates supply. But the offer depends on the specifics of each particular resource. In general, the supply of productive resources is subject to the law of rarity, limited resources.
Needs: -biological (food, clothing, safety)
Spiritual (everyone else)
3.3. Economic systems and property.
Own.
Property is a system of economic and legal relations between people regarding the possession, disposal, management, use and appropriation of life's goods, due to any property (land, real estate, money, capital) or information.
Property relations are constantly (systematically) recurring, reproducible relations between people, inextricably linked with the property rights of possession, disposal, management, use and appropriation of the means of production and the results of their use.
Consequently, property relations are the rights to own and dispose of property (donation, sale, inheritance).
Appropriation is an economic bond between people that establishes their relationship to things as if they were their own. Appropriation can be combined with the opposite attitude - alienation. It arises, for example, if some part of society seizes all the means of production, and when products created by some people are appropriated by others without any compensation. Such were, say, the relationship between the feudal lords and serfs employed in corvee.
An example of relations for the economic use of someone else's property is a lease - an agreement on the provision of the property of a person for temporary use to another person for a certain fee. A similar picture is with a concession - an agreement under which the state leases to private individuals, foreign firms industrial enterprises or plots of land for a specific industrial activity.
After the state legally regulates property relations between persons, they are endowed with the right of ownership. This right includes the powers of the owner to own, use and dispose of the property.
Possession is the physical possession of a thing. This right of the owner is protected by law. Legal ownership of property always has a legal basis (law, contract, administrative act).
Use - consists in the right to consume productively or personally to satisfy one's own needs and interests, depending on its purpose (for example, to use a car to transport people and goods).
The owner can transfer his property to the use of other persons for some time and on certain conditions.
The boundaries of the right to use are determined by law, contract or other legal basis (for example, a will).
Disposition - the right to change the assignment (belonging) of property. It is most often carried out by making various transactions (purchase - sale, exchange of one thing for another, donation).
The powers of the owner indicated here may be temporarily limited at his initiative. Thus, a person who leases a thing to another person deprives himself of the right to own and use the thing for the duration of the property lease agreement.
^ Types and forms of assignment
General indivisible appropriation means that all people united in a collective treat the decisive means of production or other means of subsistence as jointly and indivisibly belonging to them, an indissoluble unity and equality of joint owners is established in relation to the main economic conditions of their life support. This suggests the following implications:
A) the alienation of workers from the means of production is not allowed;
B) collective appropriation of the products of common labor is generated;
C) a trend is developing towards an equal distribution of consumer goods.
The general inseparable assignment appears in the following specific forms:
A) primitive
B) family (in terms of jointly acquired property);
C) collective (collective enterprise with indivisible property);
D) public property.
^ Private appropriation means that individuals treat property as a personal source of enrichment. Private appropriation has two types that differ significantly from each other: ownership of the means of production by a person who himself works, and ownership of the means of production by a person who uses someone else's labor (slave ownership, feudalism and individual capitalism).
Two socio-economic methods of combining factors of production are used: a) non-economic (violent) coercion and b) economic attraction of workers to work.
In a slave-owning society, as is known, private property extended not only to the material conditions of production, but also to people.
In feudal society, the position of workers has changed significantly. Along with the property of the feudal lords, there was the sole property of peasants and artisans.
A profound qualitative change in the socio-economic methods of combining the factors of production occurred already at the initial stage of the development of capitalist society, when the sole ownership of the means of production by the bourgeoisie was established. Employees, being legally free, can choose the place and type of work at their own discretion. They receive wages for their work and are interested in the results of production to a certain extent. Therefore, as a rule, methods of non-economic coercion are not applied to them.
^ In joint-share (or mixed) ownership, the basic principles of general and private appropriation are organically combined. This is achieved in the following way.
Firstly, mixed ownership is formed by combining the contributions that all participants in the enterprise make to the common property.
Secondly, jointly-shared property is used for common purposes and under a single management.
Thirdly, the final results of the economic activity of the enterprise are distributed according to the share of ownership of each.
Jointly-shared property appears in specific forms:
Joint-stock company;
A cooperative based on shares of participants;
Partnership;
Large economic associations of enterprises (associations, unions, etc.)
Joint ventures (with the participation of national and foreign capital);
Jointly-shared property of the spouses who have concluded the corresponding marriage contract.
^ Economic systems and their main types
The economic system is a specially ordered relationship between producers and consumers of tangible and intangible goods and services.
Economic science distinguishes the following types of economic (economic systems):
Traditional (pre-capitalist);
Market (capitalist);
Planned (socialist);
Mixed.
These types differ in the type of ownership on economic resources, as well as by the method of solving the main economic issues(what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce), the method of coordinating the economic activities of people, firms, states. It is characteristic of the traditional economic system that land (the main means of production) and capital are in communal or state ownership. Resources are distributed in accordance with existing traditions. In this economic system, such questions as: what to produce, whether it is profitable, for whom to produce and how to produce, are not worth it. Factors of production are used inefficiently here.
In a market economic system, land and capital, as a rule, are privately owned, and limited resources are distributed by market mechanisms, the main issues of the economy are decided by the producer himself according to the laws of the market. The market system has a cyclical, spontaneous nature, subject to crisis phenomena. Therefore, it is no coincidence that as an antipode to this economy, a planned economy arises, in which land, capital, means of production are owned by the state, limited resources are distributed by the state in accordance with plans. The state also decides the main issues of the economy.
The introduction of a planned economy into economic life was not crowned with success. Currently, in most countries there is a mixed economic system in which both the market mechanism and state regulation operate.
Traditional system
The traditional system exists in underdeveloped countries. This system is based on a mixed economy, widespread manual labor and backward technology.
The multistructural nature of the economy means the existence of various forms of management. In a number of countries natural-communal forms based on extensive collective farming and natural forms of product distribution are preserved. In countries with a traditional system, small-scale production, based on private ownership of productive resources and the personal labor of their owner, plays an important role; this includes peasant and handicraft farms.
The life of the traditional system is based on traditions and customs, religious and cultural values, caste and class divisions that are passed down from generation to generation, acting as a brake on socio-economic progress.
The existing statutes in a traditional society hinder technological progress, which negatively affects labor productivity. The high birth rate given level economic development dooms a huge number of the population to a miserable existence. In the traditional system, the state plays an active role. The vast majority of the national income it is forced to allocate to provide social support to the population and the development of infrastructure.
In these countries, in conditions of relatively weak development of national entrepreneurship, an important role is played by foreign capital.
^ Market economy. Pure capitalism
This system took shape in the 18th century and existed depending on the dynamics of the development of countries until the beginning of the 20th century.
Many elements of this system function in the modern market economy.
Pure capitalism is characterized by private ownership of both production and labor resources. The market system itself acts as a coordinator of economic activity. The state does not interfere in its functioning, since it does not play any role in the distribution of resources, all decisions are made by market entities at their own peril and risk in order to maximize profits with minimal use of labor and investment resources.
Characteristics of a market economy Main features Main "pluses" ^ Main "minuses"
Private ownership of the means of production.
Stimulates high entrepreneurial spirit and efficiency.
Increases inequality in society.
Freedom of enterprise.
Rejects inefficient and unnecessary production.
Instability in the economy.
Freedom to choose economic partners.
Basically a fair distribution of income according to work.
He does not care about creating the necessary for society, but non-profit benefits.
Personal benefit of participants in economic relations.
More rights and opportunities for consumers.
Indifferent to the damage that business can cause to people and nature.
Self-regulation of the economy by market factors.
It does not require a large apparatus of managers.
Minimal state intervention in the economy.
^ Command system
The command (totalitarian) system is the exact opposite of a market economy. The command system dominated in the USSR, in the countries of Eastern Europe and a number of Asian states from 1917 to 1992. Characteristic features of the command system are public (state) ownership of virtually all economic resources and the collective adoption of economic decisions. The management of the country's economy was carried out centrally through state planning. The economic mechanism of the command economy through totalitarian control practically deprived the independence of economic objects. The absence of elementary market relations completely undermined the material interest of individuals and legal entities in the results of labor. Centralization in management led to the monopolization of production and marketing of products.
State regulation prices against the backdrop of monopolization of the economy, the slowdown of scientific and technical progress naturally gave rise to an economy of deficit. The paradox was that the deficit occurred in conditions of general employment and almost full capacity utilization. The reason for this is simple - the economy did not work on demand, since it was almost impossible to foresee and detail the structure of social needs and their changes from the center.
Characteristics of a command economy Main features Main "pluses" ^ Main "minuses"
State property for the means of production
A more sustainable economy.
Forms non-initiative workers who are not interested in the results of labor.
State planning of the entire economy.
More confidence in the future.
Economic inefficiency.
Administrative methods of economic management.
Less inequality in society.
Dictatorship of producers over consumers.
There are no economic incentives to work effectively.
A minimum of life support is guaranteed to everyone.
Low level the life of the people.
There is no employment problem.
^ Mixed economic system
The state in modern society plays a significant role, without crossing borders that would violate economic laws market. The state determines the customs and tax policy, regulates the activities of monopolies in the market. The state produces, and in some cases distributes, goods and services, controls some prices (for example, for energy carriers).
Today it is clear to everyone that the economy cannot be separated from the state, just as the state cannot function without relying on the economy. However, many countries decide the degree of state intervention in the economy in different ways.
3.4. Production, labor productivity. Division of labor and specialization.
Production is one of the possible activities of an organization or individual aimed at creating an end product or service.
In an economic sense, the process of creating different types economic product. The concept of production characterizes a specifically human type of exchange of substances with nature, or more precisely, the process of active transformation of nature by people in order to create the necessary material conditions for their existence.
A manufacturing plant is also called manufacturing.
Modern social production includes not only material production, but also the non-material sphere - the production of non-material goods and services (new scientific discoveries, technical inventions, public education, culture, art, healthcare, consumer services, management, financing and lending, sports and etc.). The development of non-material production and the service sector depends to a decisive extent on the production of material goods - its technical equipment and output.
Breeding of animal and plant products with the help of the natural forces of nature (agricultural production and its branches: forestry, cattle breeding, fish farming, etc.);
Processing of raw materials into a form suitable for human consumption (manufacturing industry);
Transfer of economic benefits from producers to consumers (trade (retail), organization of warehouses and transport (logistics)).
Financial activities: banking and insurance activities
Spiritual production: new scientific discoveries, technical inventions, programming, public education, culture, art, health care, consumer services, management, sports, etc.
Labor productivity - labor efficiency. Labor productivity can be measured by the amount of time spent per unit of output or by the amount of output produced by an employee over a period of time. Usually under labor productivity in economic statistics of course, the actual productivity of labor, but in economic cybernetics, in particular, in Stafford Beer's model of viable systems, the concepts of actual and potential labor productivity are introduced.
The growth of labor productivity means the saving of labor costs (working time) for the manufacture of a unit of output or an additional amount of output per unit of time, which directly affects the increase in production efficiency, since in one case the current costs for the production of a unit of output are reduced under the item “Wages the main production workers", and in the other - more products are produced per unit of time.
^ The actual productivity of labor is determined by dividing the actual output in units of measurement of this type of product (output) by the actual costs of living labor in units of time (labor intensity).
^ Available labor productivity is a calculated value that shows how much product can be produced under current conditions (for example, on existing equipment from available materials) if all downtime and delays are reduced to zero.
^ Potential labor productivity is a calculated value that shows how much production can be produced in theoretically achievable data natural conditions at a given level of civilization (for example, from the best materials available on the market, using advanced technologies and installing the most modern equipment available on the market) if all downtime and delays are reduced to zero.
^ Division of labor and specialization.
The division of labor is a historically established process of isolation, modification, consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which takes place in public forms differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.
For example, the main method of work in accounting is the division of labor of specialists. We distribute the work of employees by accounting areas under the guidance of leading specialists and auditors, which allows us to achieve maximum efficiency of their work. Thus, we dynamically combine experience in the field of accounting automation and experience in the field of administration of accounting services.
Distinguish: - the general division of labor in the branches of social production; - private division of labor within industries; - a single division of labor within organizations according to technological, qualification and functional characteristics.
It is the reason for the increase in the overall productivity of an organized group of specialists (synergistic effect) due to:
Development of skills and automatism of performing simple repetitive operations
Reduced time spent transitioning between different operations
The concept of the division of labor is quite fully described by Adam Smith in the first three chapters of his five-volume treatise An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
Allocate public division labor - distribution in society social functions between people - and the international division of labor.
The division of labor led to modern world to the presence of a huge variety of different professions and industries. Previously (in ancient times), people were forced to provide themselves almost completely with everything they needed, it was extremely inefficient, which led to a primitive life and comfort. Almost all the achievements of evolution, scientific and technological progress can be explained by the continuous introduction of the division of labor. Thanks to the exchange of the results of labor, that is, trade, the division of labor becomes possible in society.
The market sells and buys a special commodity - labor power.
The labor force is the physical and mental capabilities, skills, abilities that allow a person to perform certain types of work, while ensuring the necessary level of labor productivity and quality of manufactured products.
An integral element of the labor market is unemployment - this is a situation in the economy in which some people cannot find work. The state is working to reduce it. In the same time modern economy came to the conclusion that the complete eradication of unemployment is impossible, it is not necessary. Experts believe that it is necessary to have a natural level of unemployment, this helps to maintain the necessary competition in the labor market. But a high level of unemployment can lead to many negative phenomena in society and to social conflicts.
From a social and economic point of view, a long duration of unemployment is dangerous. Sociologists say that if a person does not work for 2 to 3 months, then his desire to work disappears, after 9 months the skill in work is lost, i.e. there is some disqualification.
Unemployment is conditionally divided into natural and involuntary.
The natural form includes the following types of unemployment:
frictional - the movement of people from one job to another, from one region to another. The movement itself takes a certain amount of time to find. new work. This type of unemployment is short-term;
institutional - provoked by the actions of the state itself, when it becomes unprofitable to work. For example, large payments from the social budget, imperfection tax system, at wages, which is lower than the unemployment pension, etc.
voluntary form. The name itself speaks for itself. There will always be people among the working-age population who, for certain reasons, simply do not want to work.
More difficult is involuntary unemployment, which, as a rule, exceeds the natural rate and is associated with events that do not depend on the will of employees. Involuntary unemployment has the following types:
Structural unemployment is associated with the release of labor under the influence of structural changes in the economy. There are changes in the demand for resources. The demand for certain professions and specialties is changing, one part of the people who do not meet the new technological requirements have to be fired, the other part, the most prepared and with sufficient education, are taught new specialties;
regional unemployment is formed under the influence of a combination of historical, demographic and socio-psychological factors. The solution of this problem is carried out on the basis of national targeted programs;
cyclical unemployment is associated with a cyclical decline in production and, as a rule, with a corresponding decline in the demand for labor.
hidden unemployment is most characteristic of modern Russia. Due to the incomplete use of production resources in conditions economic crisis enterprises, fighting for the safety of personnel, do not dismiss employees, but transfer them to a shorter working week, and in more difficult cases send employees on unpaid leave.
3.5. Exchange, trade.
The origins of market relations go back to ancient times, when people entered into a sale and purchase relationship through a simple (natural) exchange of goods, when they mutually acquired what they did not have, but which was vital for them.
Exchange in the economy - the movement of goods from one owner to another.
It can be violent or non-violent. Trade is a form of non-violent exchange.
The exchange presupposes the presence of a measure of equivalence of goods, which requires the comparison of things that are different in type, quality, form and purpose. This requires a single basis, which is the value of goods.
The exchange can take place both with the participation of money and without it (barter)
Trade is the process of exchanging goods, services, values and money. In a broad sense, a type of activity (including entrepreneurial) associated with the sale and purchase of goods. Distinguish between wholesale and retail trade.
Trade as an activity refers to intermediary services, that is, it is a third party between producers and buyers of goods.
Trade between countries ( international trade) is divided into imports and exports.
Invisible trade - services provided mainly transport companies when transporting goods and passengers of third world countries; implementation of insurance and credit operations; organization of foreign tourism; leasing equipment and real estate abroad.
Trade is a significant source of tax revenues to the budget of a country or region.
Profit in the most general terms can be defined as
The fundamental incentive for the development of production is consumption as a process of using the results of production to meet certain needs of people and society. Consumption affects the growth of the scale of production, the development of its industries.
An important manifestation of the economic life of society is the relationship of exchange between people, acting as an exchange of activities, goods and services. For what does the farmer exchange agricultural or livestock products in order to continue production and satisfy his personal needs? And what services does, for example, a doctor use in exchange for the provision of his professional services?
The development of society and its economic life are closely interconnected. They relate to each other as a whole and its part. Economic life, being influenced by all aspects of social life (social, political, spiritual), in turn, also significantly affects various phenomena of social life and society as a whole. This conclusion is supported by the following statements:
- the existence of society is impossible without the constant production of material goods;
- social production and, above all, the established division of labor and property relations determine the emergence and development of its social structure;
- economic relations actively influence the political life of society (economically dominant social groups, as a rule, seek to influence the work of the state apparatus, the activities of political parties, etc.);
- in the process of production, the necessary material conditions are created for the development of the spiritual life of society (library buildings, theaters, equipment for publishing books, newspapers, etc.).
What are the main trends in the development of the economic sphere of society at the turn of the two centuries? There have been significant positive changes. Economic changes were primarily the result of the scientific and technological revolution, the real transformation of science into a direct productive force. Computerization, informatization have become a reality of social production. Not only completely new technologies have appeared, but the speed of their implementation has also increased significantly. For example, 50% of American households had telephones 60 years after the invention of the telephone. Today, it took 5 years for a similar level of Internet penetration in the US. At the turn of the 1990s. what is now called the knowledge economy or the new economy was born. Its distinguishing feature is the accelerated development of the non-material sphere and the non-material environment of economic activity. The production, distribution and use of knowledge form the basis of the new economy. In fact, in the twentieth century leadership in social production passed to spiritual production, it was the human intellect (its capabilities) that turned into a factor that determines the scale and shape of modern production.
On the basis of all these changes, the material and spiritual wealth of mankind has sharply increased. In many regions of the world, societies have developed that provide high standards of consumption, comfort and services (welfare states). It is important to note here that changes in social production require the development of creative, individual qualities and abilities of the main participant in production - a person.
ECONOMY AND STANDARDS OF LIVING
An important indicator and result of the economic life of a society is the standard of living of its members, which is understood as the degree to which the population is provided with goods, services and living conditions necessary for a comfortable and safe existence. Why some countries manage to reach the highest level economic development and prosperity, while others will not get out of poverty?
For many centuries, the rulers were convinced that the wealth of the country and, accordingly, the well-being of its people is associated with the seizure of territories and the wealth of other peoples in the process of wars, with the presence of significant natural resources (timber, oil, gas). However, the modern history of the economic development of countries proves that these factors are not decisive. For example, Japan is considered today a rich country, although historically it has limited resources. The level of economic development allows the country to use these insignificant resources much more productively. Exactly effective use production resources (remember what are the factors of production) is today considered a valid criterion for the level of economic development of countries. But since the efficiency of an economy is difficult to calculate, economists most often use such an indicator as gross domestic product (GDP) per capita (the total value of all final products and services produced by the country in a year divided by the population). This meter economic activity serves as an indicator of the level of well-being or standard of living.
The standard of living in a broad sense includes many indicators: the level of people's health, the state of the environment, the degree of uneven distribution of income in society, the availability of culture, the subsistence minimum b etc. (Suggest the most important indicators of the level of socio-economic development for Russia that could be used for comparison with other countries.)
United Nations (UN) experts believe that the standard of living is characterized by a special indicator - the human development index, calculated on the basis of the following values: GDP per capita, average life expectancy and level of education.
The level of welfare of the state to a large extent depends on the perfection of economic mechanisms, that is, the methods and forms of combining the efforts of people in solving life support problems. Such economic mechanisms include the division of labor, specialization and trade already familiar to you from the courses of history and social science. They create conditions for the achievement of high labor productivity by the employee and allow producers to exchange the results of labor on a mutually beneficial basis. The significance of the operation of economic mechanisms for ensuring the level of people's well-being can be understood if we compare the standard of living of a society based on a subsistence economy (tribes of Africa, Latin America) and a commodity economy (developed countries of the West). (Remember the benefits latest form organization of economic life.
The reason for the low efficiency of the economy may be the use of outdated technologies, low qualifications of personnel, wasteful use of natural resources, etc. A low level of economic development leads to a decrease in consumption: in order to consume more, you need to produce more. Thus, the level of economic development directly affects the standard of living in the country.
The minimum level of consumption determines such an indicator as the poverty line (level, poverty threshold). The level of poverty is called the normatively established level of a person's monetary income for a certain period, which allows him to provide his physical (physiological) subsistence minimum. Perceptions of poverty in different countries different. As a general rule, the richer the country as a whole, the higher its national poverty line. Yes, currently The World Bank established the following poverty lines: for developing countries- USD 1 per person per day; for Eastern Europe and the CIS - 4 US dollars; for industrialized countries with a market economy - 14.4 dollars. The conditions and methods of Russia's transition to a market economy have turned poverty into a serious problem for our country as well.
The main condition for its solution is economic growth.
ECONOMY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
You already know that within a society as complex social system various communities and groups are formed and operate - clans, tribes, classes, nations, families, professional teams, etc. The social structure of society is an integral set of all communities taken in their interaction. The subject of further consideration will be the relationship and mutual influence of the social structure of society and its economic life.
One of the significant communities is the population, which is the most important condition for the life and development of society. The pace of social development, crisis or flourishing largely depends on such indicators as the total population, its growth rate, and health status. In turn, all these indicators are very closely related to the economic life of society. So, the birth rate is influenced primarily by the level of material well-being, housing, the degree of involvement of women in social production. For example, the birth rate in European countries with economies in transition (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc.) has fallen sharply over the past 5-10 years, due to the decline in living conditions that accompanied economic reforms. In Russia in the 1990s also, the number of births per 1,000 people of the population has decreased significantly.
There is also an inverse relationship when the population affects the economy. Acceleration or deceleration of economic development rates depends on the total population, population density (in a region with a small population, the division of labor is difficult, subsistence farming lasts longer), population growth rates (low rates make it difficult to reproduce the labor force and reduce production volumes, too high rates population growth forces significant resources to be devoted to its mere physical survival).
The health status of the population is also a factor in economic development. Its deterioration leads to a decrease in labor productivity in the economy, a reduction in life expectancy. In addition, one of the reasons for the sharp decline in life expectancy, for example, among men in Russia (in the 1990s from 64 to 58 years old) was the prevailing social conditions (reduction in incomes of the population, an increase in nervous stress due to socio-economic changes and instability in society).
The influence of the economic life of society on the formation of professional social communities is noticeable. In traditional societies, where the social structure is most stable, socio-professional groups associated with subsistence farming and small-scale production remain. In the developed countries of the West, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, a new middle class (intelligentsia, managers, highly skilled workers) is growing. At the same time, structural changes in the economy lead to a reduction in the industrial working class, the disappearance of clear boundaries between it and other social groups.
In the context of socio-economic transformations in Russia, the collapse of former social relations, people and groups are trying to master new niches of social and economic survival. feature recent years development of Russian society is the trend of increasing economic differentiation (differences), expressed in the division of society into groups with different incomes, living standards and consumption. The complication of the social structure manifested itself in the formation of new social groups and strata: entrepreneurs, financiers, stock brokers, merchants, etc.
The economic interests of various social groups are heterogeneous and often oppose each other. For example, in modern Russia, the economic interests of workers, entrepreneurs, and the intelligentsia are not the same. All of them are opposed by the interests of mafia groups. The social stratification of society exacerbates the contradictions between the interests of various social groups, including economic ones. In modern society, there is a problem of coordinating these interests.
Income inequality poses a particular threat to political and economic stability in society. Development of Russia in the 1990s led to significant income disparities. The market system, left to itself, gives preference to some social strata and, conversely, “punishes.) others. If this system is not corrected by a certain social policy, then it tends to degenerate into a system that operates in the interests of a minority of society (the elite) and against the majority.
In modern industrialized countries, welfare states are being created, that is, incomes are redistributed in favor of the poorer and disadvantaged strata, systems are being created social security (pension provision, health insurance, poverty benefits, etc.). Thus, in Sweden and the Netherlands, social redistribution accounts for about 30% of national income. Social politics Russian government involves: social support for low-income citizens, regulation labor relations and facilitating the employment of the unemployed population, freedom to choose a profession, sphere and place of work, ensuring the availability of education and assistance in retraining personnel, ensuring freedom of entrepreneurship, etc.
The problem of harmonizing the interests of various participants in the economic life of society remains relevant, therefore, the economic and social spheres must complement and mutually support each other.
ECONOMY AND POLITICS
Let's see how the main political institution, the state, influences the economic development of society. One of the public functions of the state is the use of available opportunities for economic development. Each country is faced with the problem of choosing the best option for such development, and the role of state policy is essential here. In recent decades, this policy has undergone a major reorientation.
Due to the collapse of the economic, political and social system based on central planning, market forces and free enterprise began to be seen as the basis of the viability of the socio-economic system.
In most countries that have chosen the path of market transformations in the economy, privatization and a reduction in the regulatory role of the state have become a prerequisite for economic growth. This is accompanied by a reassessment of the functions and policies of the state. Governments tend to interfere less in areas where the market works more efficiently. However, this does not mean the elimination of public administration, but rather a change in its forms and an improvement in its quality.
In a market economy, the main functions of the state are to facilitate and stimulate the action of market forces through government policies. The most general, important condition for the existence of a market economy is the implementation by the state of such political goals as the free development of society, the rule of law, external and internal security (highlighted by Adam Smith).
The free development of society is understood both as a social and as an economic category. The more valuable the freedom of an individual is recognized in society, the more significant economic freedom is perceived in the state.
The state is interested in ensuring the legal reliability of economic activity in order to enjoy its results. The creation of a legal order provides, first of all, ensuring, through laws, the right to property and its protection, to freedom entrepreneurial activity, on the system of economic contracts.
Ensuring external and internal security government involves the creation of institutions to maintain public order within the country and the presence of a professionally trained army capable of protecting the country from attack from outside.
An important task of the state is the protection and maintenance of competition in the national economy, the fight against the desire of firms for monopoly. For example, for the developing market economy of Russia, this is one of the most pressing problems. (Remember and give examples of antitrust regulation of the economy by the Russian government.)
And finally, in a market economy, the most important function of the state is the development of an optimal national strategy for economic development, the unification of the efforts of state bodies, private companies, and public organizations for its implementation. This function cannot be left to automatic market mechanisms. Thus, state policy plays an important role in financing education, healthcare, national culture, etc.
The goals of public policy may be: ensuring full time, fair distribution of incomes, protection of the natural complex, etc. Each government chooses the economic priorities necessary for society in its policy. (What, in your opinion, are the priorities of the policy of the modern Russian state in the economy?)
The economic life of society is also influenced by various political parties and associations.
As you can see, the political institutions of society actively influence the economy. Is the economy interested in supporting, for example, political democracy, the rule of law?
The experience of developed countries shows that a market economy provides a basis for supporting democracy, the rule of law, and civil society. The existence in a competitive environment of a variety of political and economic structures reduces the risk for a person to fall under the authority of an irresponsible employer or organization, giving him the opportunity to choose whom and in what to obey.
The conditions of market competition teach people a more responsible attitude towards their business, those around them, and decision-making. The freedom of entrepreneurship convinces a person that he can change his life for the better by his own choice of activity and initiative.
The market economy is interested in functioning within the framework of the rule of law. Thus, it is important for an entrepreneur to start his own business, knowing the “rules of the game” in the market space, that is, according to what known laws he can act, what taxes he must pay. And issues important to the economy, such as taxation, environmental laws, ordinances governing relations between employers and employees, should be openly discussed, taking into account the opinions of various parties.
In turn, the rule of law is based on civil society, which is made up of citizens who independently make personal decisions that realize private interests. Structural units of civil society in the economic sphere are private enterprises, cooperatives, joint-stock companies and other production cells created by citizens according to own initiative.
PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS
1 Follow the main trends in the country's economic development, the current problems of the current economic and social policy of the Russian government. This will help you competently defend your economic and social rights and interests.
2 Use knowledge of the interests, needs of various socio-professional groups and the possibilities of their implementation in modern economic conditions. This will give you an opportunity for sound professional self-determination.
3 Determine your position in relation to the economic policy of the state in order to choose the form of influence on this policy (participation in elections, in the work of parties or associations).
4 Try not to just analyze positive or Negative consequences economic transformations in the country, but to look for ways of civilized forms of participation in economic life.
Document
From the work of modern Russian scientists-economists "The market and social harmony".
By universal historical standards, the market mechanism cannot be regarded as a completely ideal form. Increasingly, researchers note in this context the so-called “market imperfection”, associated with the very problematic market opportunities in achieving an equitable distribution and use of resources on Earth, ensuring environmental sustainability, and eliminating unjustified social inequality. According to the UN, the absolute extent of poverty in the world is increasing: according to estimates, the share of 20% of the poorest strata of the world population accounted for only 4% of world wealth in the mid-80s, and the share of 20% of the richest strata - 50% of world wealth. Apparently, the future of the world economy should be associated with a more complex economic (socio-economic) mechanism than the actual mechanism of the market. In this mechanism, an increasing role will belong, along with market exchange relations, to various more subtle mechanisms that involve the achievement of social agreement between the multitude of subjects of socio-economic relations.
Questions and tasks for the document
1. Why do the authors of the document characterize the market mechanism of economic regulation as imperfect?
2. What evidence supports the deepening social inequality in the world?
3. Using the content of the paragraph, suggest possible (except for market exchange) mechanisms for achieving social harmony between participants in socio-economic relations.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS
1. What is the place and role of the economy in the life of society?
2. What determines the wealth and prosperity of the country?
3. What economic mechanisms contribute to the movement of society to a higher level of well-being?
4. How to ensure social peace in the face of increasing social differentiation of society?
5. Does a market economy need democracy?
6. Does government policy affect the conditions for the functioning of a market economy?
7. What are the priorities of the policy of the Russian state in the economy?
TASKS
1 Aristotle, discussing the role of the state in economic affairs, noted that "the goal of the state is a joint promotion to a high quality of life." Do you share this point of view? Justify your answer.
