Each state has a number of features that researchers change using certain indicators. Their comparison and analysis allow drawing conclusions about the development and state of the economy, demography, and geography. is needed to determine the influence of each of them on the entire world order. Exchange of experience will help identify the strengths and weaknesses of the economic and social organization of states and improve performance.
Countries and territories
The economic definition of a country differs from the legal or even ordinary understanding by people.
The classification of countries can take into account both territorial units recognized by countries and those that are not. Such territories can pursue an independent economic policy and take into account their development. Therefore, they are taken into account when compiling the classification of countries by economic level of development. This applies to some of the island dependent territories of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands. The classification of countries considers such areas as separate economic units.
Universal international organizations collect and analyze information about their member countries. They include almost all world states.
Classification principle
Since the classifications of the countries of the world are carried out mainly by international organizations (UN, IMF, WB, etc.), the most common data collection systems are designed for the interests of these committees. Highlighted on the map below:
Green - economically developed countries;
Yellow - medium developed states;
Red - third world countries.
Thus, the World Bank collects information on the level of the economies of countries. At the same time, the UN draws attention to their demographic and socio-economic situation.
Scientists, however, identify several main types of data collection and processing, which include the classification of countries in the world.
According to the type of socio-economic system, there was a classification dividing the world into capitalist, socialist and developing states.
According to the level of development, countries are classified as developed and developing.
Geographic classification of countries takes into account the size and location of countries on the world map. Also taken into account is their number and structure of the population, natural resources.
Geographic classification
Determining and assessing the position of a country on the world map is quite important. This can be used as a basis for drawing up other classifications. The location of the country on the world map is also relative. After all, the boundaries of a certain territorial unit can change. But all changes and existing conditions are capable of influencing conclusions about the state of affairs of a particular country or region.
There are countries with a very large territory (Russia, USA, Canada, India), and there are microstates (Vatican, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco). Geographically, they are also divided into landlocked and landlocked. There are continental and island countries.
The combination of these factors often determines the socio-economic situation, which reflects the classification of the countries of the world.
Population classification
To build a system of world order, it is also important to take into account the classification of countries by population. It involves a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the demographic situation.
According to this point of view, all states are divided into countries with a large, medium and small population. Moreover, in order to draw adequate conclusions about this indicator, the number of people per territorial unit is calculated. This allows you to estimate the population density.
The number of the population is considered in terms of its growth. Compare fertility and mortality. If population growth is positive, this indicates an excess of the birth rate over the death rate, and vice versa. Today, the growth is observed in India, the USA, the UK and a number of African countries. Decrease in population - in the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia, Arab states.
The classification of countries by population is based on the demographic structure. The share of the working-age, educated population, as well as nationality, are important for the analysis.
Economic development classification
The most common classification used by many organizations and world research institutions is based on the economic development of countries.
The development of this typology was carried out on the basis of many years of research. It is constantly being improved and improved.
All world states, according to this approach, can be divided into highly, medium and underdeveloped economically areas. This is the most widely used method. The classification of countries according to the level of development does not take into account the post-socialist and
On the basis of the typology presented, international organizations draw conclusions about the advisability of financial assistance in the most
Each of these groups has its own subtypes.
Economically developed countries
The group of developed countries includes the USA, Canada, Western Europe, South Africa, the Australian Union, New Zealand.
These countries have a high economic level of development and a significant influence on the political situation in the world. Their role in general trade relations is predominant.
The classification of countries by level distinguishes this group of countries as owners of high scientific and technical potential.
Highly capitalist countries have the greatest influence on the world economy, six of which are members of the G7. These are Canada, USA, Great Britain, Germany, Japan, France, Italy. A more narrow specialization is in highly developed small countries (Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway, Denmark, etc.).
The socio-economic classification of countries in the group under consideration distinguishes a separate subgroup: South Africa, New Zealand, Israel, Australia. All of them were once. They have an agrarian and raw material specialization in world trade.
Medium developed economically countries
When classifying countries according to the development of economic relations, they distinguish a group that is historically and socio-economically different from the previous typology.
There are not so many such states, but they can also be divided into certain types. The first group includes countries that develop independently and have reached an average level in the field of economic activity. Ireland can be considered a striking example of such a state.
The classification of countries by the level of economic development identifies the next subgroup of states that have lost their former influence on the world economy. They lagged behind the highly capitalist states in their development. According to the socio-economic classification, this subgroup includes countries such as Greece, Spain, Portugal.
Developing countries
This group is the most numerous and diverse. It includes countries that have a number of difficulties in the field of economic relations, both internal and external. They lack skills and qualified personnel. The external debt of such countries is very large. They are highly dependent economically.
The classification of countries by development also includes states in whose territory wars or interethnic conflicts are waged. They predominantly occupy low positions in world trade.
Developing countries supply other countries mainly with raw materials or agricultural products. There is a high level of unemployment and a lack of resources.
This group includes about 150 countries. Therefore, there are subtypes here that deserve separate consideration.
Types of developing countries
The classification of countries by economic development in the group of developing countries distinguishes several subgroups.
The first of these are the key countries (Brazil, India, Mexico). They have the greatest potential among similar states. Their economies are very diversified. Such countries have significant labor, raw materials and economic resources.
The young liberated states include about 60 countries. There are many oil exporters among them. Their economy is still developing, and in the future its state will depend only on the socio-economic decisions made by the authorities. These states include Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait, Libya, Brunei, Qatar.
The third subgroup is the countries of relatively mature capitalism. These are the states where the dominance of the market economy has established itself only in the last few decades.
Classification of countries of relatively mature capitalism
In the subgroup of countries with relatively mature capitalism, a number of subspecies are distinguished. The first includes states of the resettlement type with the early development of dependent capital (Argentina, Uruguay). Their population is quite high, which was made possible by a number of new reforms.
The classification of countries in the subgroup under consideration distinguishes states of large-scale development of capitalism. Foreign injections into the economy are massive thanks to the export of raw materials from large mineral deposits.
The next subspecies characterizes the countries of the outwardly oriented adaptive development of capitalism. Their economies are focused on export and import substitution.
There are also countries of concessional development and resort-type "tenant" countries.
GDP and GNI
There is a widespread classification according to the level of GDP per capita. It highlights the central and peripheral areas. The central ones include 24 states, the total level of GDP in world production of which is 55% and 71% in total exports.
The group of central states has a GDP per capita of about $ 27,500. Near-periphery countries have a similar figure of $ 8600. Developing countries are classified in the far periphery. Their GDP figure is only $ 3500, and sometimes even less.
The World Bank's economic classification of countries uses GNI per capita. This makes it possible to distinguish 56 countries into the group of countries with the considered high indicator. Moreover, the G7 states, although they are included in it, are not in the first places.
The average level of GNI was recorded in Russia, Belarus, China and in 102 other countries. Low GNI is observed in the states of the far periphery. This includes 33 states, including Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.
UN classification
The United Nations has singled out only 60 developed countries that have high indicators in the field of market relations, scientific and technological progress, and production efficiency. The organization also takes into account the level of rights and social standards of the population. GDP in these countries per capita is more than $ 25,000. According to this indicator, Russia is also included in the number of developed countries. However, the qualitative indicators of economic and social processes do not allow considering the Russian Federation, according to the UN, a developed country.
All post-socialist countries are classified by the organization as states with economies in transition. The rest of the countries that were not included in the previous two groups are ranked by the UN as developing countries that have, to a greater or lesser extent, problems in the socio-economic sphere.
The listed factors and characteristics make it possible to group states into certain subspecies. Country classification is a powerful benchmarking tool against which to plan and improve their position in the future.
Highly developed countries, how are they distinguished from the total number of states? How to determine whether a particular state can be called highly developed?
International statistical services use a special indicator called HDI (Human Development Index) to rank countries. It is he who is the main criterion for determining the level of development of the country. Depending on its indicator, the level of development of the state can be characterized from "low" to "very high". Most highly developed countries Are those whose human development index is close to 1.
The value of the HDI depends on several factors. Such indicators as life expectancy, education level, quality of life, children's well-being, equipment and level of health care, economic well-being and simply human happiness of the population are assessed. Calculation formulas use all of these variables as factors. Based on the data obtained, the ten best countries for human life are determined. Critics (especially from those countries that did not make the top ten) consider the HDI assessment inaccurate and vague. However, having familiarized himself with the top list of ten highly developed countries, every sane person will understand that the error, if any, is very small.
Highly developed countries Top 10
1.Norway
Score: 0.943
The Kingdom of Norway is a country ruled by monarchs for a long time and boasts an excellent educational level and impressively low unemployment rates. This country, the first of all states, in 1163 officially proclaimed the right to inherit the throne. Much later, already in 1814, a constitutional monarchy was proclaimed in the country.
The average life expectancy of Norwegians is 80.2 years, and there are simply no people living below the poverty line in the country. Norway became one of the main founding countries of NATO, but the country rejected the proposal to join the EU. Despite this fact, Norway still maintains friendly neighborly relations with all European powers. In addition, Norway became one of the sponsors (besides being considered one of the founders) of the UN, it is also a leading member of the OECD and the WTO. The kingdom is rich, it owns the world's largest reserves of oil, gas, timber, various minerals, fresh water, and seafood. Norway has received universal international recognition for the development of world health care, the improvement of the advanced foundations of the education system, and the improvement of social security systems for citizens. It is thanks to these factors that the Kingdom of Norway deservedly takes the honorable first place in the rating of highly developed countries compiled by the UN.
2.Australia
Score: 0.929
In terms of economic development, Australia occupies only 13th place in the world ranking (its GDP is $ 918,978,000,000) and in terms of per capita income, it is 5th place ($ 40,836). In Australia, the form of government is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. This country takes the leading place in the rating for the quality of life: happy people live, there is high-quality health care and a good education system (100% literacy and a large percentage of educational institutions per population). It is important for every person that the rights and freedoms of citizens are respected in this country: full protection of human rights, economic and civil freedom.
22.7 million residents of the state are satisfied with a stable government that protects the interests of its citizens, peace and sustainable development of the state, measures to protect the environment, and life expectancy (81.2 years). In addition, Australians are happy that Australia is a fantastically popular country to visit: tourists from all over the world flock here to get in touch with the wild, protected by people, nature and to see beautiful cities, for example, Sydney.
3.Most developed countries: Netherlands
Score: 0.910
Nominally, the Netherlands (the more popular but officially incorrect name of Holland) is ruled by a monarch (King Willem-Alexander), but, in essence, the state is ruled by a democratic parliament. Over the years of development, the Netherlands has been able to achieve high levels of education and literacy, with a virtual absence of the poor and unemployment. The Netherlands plays a leading role in the activities of the WTO, EU, OECD and NATO. The state is often called the “legal capital of the world”, since it is the seat of the main legal instances of five international judicial systems. The national GDP ($ 832.160 billion) is impressive, which translates to $ 49,950 per capita. According to a 2011 survey, there are 16,700,000 people living in the Netherlands who consider themselves to be happy people. Holland is a country with a stable economy, honest government, low taxes and amazing cities (the capital Amsterdam is an example). People here live a full, healthy and happy life, its duration is 79.8 years on average.
4.United States of America
Score: 0.910
America has come a long way since 1776, when, after defeating the British in the American Revolution, a new state emerged. Today, having overcome many difficulties (civil war, Great Depression, participation in world wars), the United States has become the most influential state on the planet. The States have the largest GDP ($ 15 trillion, which equals $ 48,147 per capita). The United States is one of the world's top commodity importers and exporters. The United States is a very multinational state, for example, in California, out of almost 40 million inhabitants, 50% of the total number are from Asia, Latin America and Africa.
But in terms of human happiness in the United States, everything is not particularly rosy, here the States are losing points a lot. Of the 315 million people in the country's population, 15% are considered poor, unemployment averages 9% (and in some states it reaches 14%). Experts argue that the American education system lags far behind similar systems in most of the developed countries of the world. The United States is also losing points in health care as, although life expectancy is relatively high at 79 years, obesity is on the rise. This problem is present in 33% of the adult population; among children, the figures are almost the same. In addition, for many years America has a huge debt to other states.
5 New Zealand
Rating: 0.908
Geographically, New Zealand is located on a remote small group of islands. Thus, the state can be proud of the stunning scenery and the free life of animals. To admire the amazing flora and fauna of these places, many tourists visit the country every year. Although New Zealand is ruled by parliament, it is headed by a monarch, Elizabeth II. The country has excellent indicators in terms of living standards and happiness of its citizens. This state is an active supporter of peace, protector of the environment and animals. Zealand's GDP is $ 157.877 trillion ($ 35374 per person). The population of the island state is about 4.3 million people. Experts highly appreciate the education, literacy and sanitary standards of the country. Perhaps this explains the significant life expectancy (on average 80.2 years). In addition to the beauties of nature, New Zealand has something to admire. For example, great modern cities like Wellington.
6 canada
Rating: 0.908
In terms of the area occupied by the territory, Canada is the second country in the world after Russia. The country's parliamentary democracy gets along well with the constitutional monarchy. Even this country has two anthems - "Oh, Canada" and "God save the queen." Economically, the country is well developed (per capita GDP is $ 51,147 with a total GDP of 1,758 billion). The population of Canada is considered one of the most educated and intelligent in the world. This is confirmed by the fact that most Canadians speak two or even three languages. Thanks to a developed and well-functioning healthcare system, the average life expectancy of Canadians is at around 80.7 years. Taxes in the country are low, and the population of the country is approximately 34.7 million inhabitants. The country is visited by many tourists every year to look at Niagara Falls or visit the capital Ottawa and the ancient city of Quebec.
7 Ireland
Rating: 0.908
Ireland, which is governed by a parliamentary democracy, has a population of just 4.5 million. The Irish literacy rate is high (99%), with an average life expectancy of 78.9 years. GDP - $ 203.89 trillion ($ 45,497 per person). The state protects the rights and freedoms of its citizens. Ireland was hit hard by the economic crisis that began in 2008. The country has accumulated huge debts, nevertheless, the power is successfully cooperating with the leading EU states (with France and Germany) and is successfully moving forward in solving this problem.
8 Liechtenstein
Rating: 0.905
The small principality of Liechtenstein provides its citizens with a dignified, comfortable and joyful life. This country is one of the least populated countries in the world. For every person out of 35,000 of the population, there is a high GDP ($ 141,000). At the same time, the country has many zero indicators: zero poverty, unemployment and zero public debt. The principality is famous for its very low taxes. If ever you feel the urge to make an exciting trip to Europe, then go to Liechtenstein. There you can explore the capital of the Grand Duchy of Vaduz and visit the majestic Castle, which for many years has been the home of the princely family, as well as chat with some of the 5100 residents of the glorious cozy city.
9.Germany
Rating: 0.905
Germany is one of the most economically developed European countries. The high level of education ensured 100% literacy of the German population, and 82.2 million people live in the country.
German advanced technology, especially in the automotive industry, has proven itself well all over the world. German cars of various brands (Volkswagen, Mercedes, BMW) are popular due to their structural reliability and build quality, which became possible thanks to the use of a highly qualified workforce. The life expectancy of the Germans is 79.4 years. The country's GDP is $ 3.5 trillion, which is $ 40 631 per capita. Despite the fact that there is unemployment in the Federal Republic of Germany (it is about 7%), the poverty rate is extremely low.
10 Sweden
Rating: 0.904
The Kingdom of Sweden, with its capital Stockholm and a population of 9.3 million, is an economically stable European state. A small territory (the size of the country is comparable to the American state of California) did not prevent the state from becoming financially strong and independent. Swedes are among the wealthiest ($ 35,876 GDP per capita) and happiest people on the planet. In addition to economic stability, liberal Sweden is characterized by environmental sustainability, a significant life expectancy (80.9 years), a high level of health care and education.
Advanced economies or industrialized countries consolidated their dominant position in the international economy. These are countries that have a long history of market economy development, high (less often average) per capita incomes, stable financial markets, a wide and diverse structure of the economy, including the service sector, and significant export-import opportunities. They are distinguished by a high level of development of productive forces, information technologies, an intensive type of economic reproduction, mature relations between entrepreneurship and competition, high standards of living and well-being. Most of them have entered the post-industrial stage of social development.
This group of countries includes:
a) the main economically developed countries ("Big Seven" - Great Britain, Italy, Canada, Germany, USA, France, Japan); b) "small" economically highly developed countries of Western Europe - Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden; c) countries of the "resettlement type" - Australia, Israel, New Zealand, South Africa (in the past, together with Canada, they developed as "white" dominions of Great Britain); d) Western European countries of medium economic development - Greece, Spain, Ireland, Portugal; e) European "dwarf states" (they can be referred to this type of country conditionally). When comparing the national economies of developed countries, a set of "standard" values of macroeconomic indicators is used, which, for example, include: GDP growth - from 2-3% and above; inflation rate - 4-5% per year; state budget deficit - up to 9.5% of GDP; positive balance of payments of the country.
Industrialized countries have much in common in genetic and functional aspects.
Firstly, in socio-economic terms, the development of the economies of these countries is based on the capitalist mode of production, and, despite the socialization of property, its private form has been and remains an exit.
Secondly, developed countries are characterized by a high level of economic development. The implementation of the defining goal of production in a competitive environment - making a profit - encourages the introduction of new technology and an increase in labor productivity, which, in turn, leads to a reduction in the cost of production, expansion of sales markets, stimulates the growth of production volumes and the economy as a whole. A comparison of labor productivity in industrialized countries and in countries with economies in transition and in developing countries indicates a huge gap between the latter two groups of countries.
Thirdly, The socio-economic maturity of industrialized countries reflects fundamental changes in the social structure of society in comparison with other groups of countries, namely, the growth in the size and role of the middle class, an increase in the quality of human capital, as well as the proportion of those employed in intellectual work, and the like.
Developed countries are characterized by: a developed market economy; dominant position in the international economy, which makes it possible to intensively involve own and imported resources in the economic turnover; shifting the center of gravity of economic activity to the service sector, the functioning of a predominantly service economy; the very exhaustion of sources and factors of industrial development; outstripping post-industrial development, expansion of the UI of the technological order and the new economy.
The economic policy of developed countries has a decisive influence on the state and dynamics of the international economy, the main directions of its scientific and technological development and structural restructuring.
For the convenience of studying the material, the article is divided into topics:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Developed countries typically include the 24 high-income industrialized countries of North America, Western Europe and the Pacific. Among the industrial ones, the most significant role is played by the countries of the so-called Group 7 Big "7": USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, Great Britain, Italy, France.
As economically developed countries, the International Monetary Fund identifies states:
Countries qualifying by the WB and the IMF as developed economies in the late XX - early XXI centuries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA.
The more complete group of developed countries also includes Andorra, Bermuda, Faroe Islands, Vatican, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino.
Among the main features of developed countries, it is advisable to highlight the following:
1. GDP per capita averages about $ 20 thousand and is constantly growing. This determines the high level of consumption and investment and the standard of living of the population as a whole. The social support is the "middle class", which shares the values and basic foundations of society.
2. The sectoral structure of the economy of developed countries is evolving towards the dominance of industry and a pronounced tendency towards the transformation of an industrial economy into a post-industrial one. The service sector is developing rapidly, and it is in the lead in terms of the share of the population employed in it. Scientific and technological progress has a significant impact on economic growth and the structure of the economy.
3. The business structure of developed countries is not homogeneous. The leading role in the economy belongs to powerful concerns - TNCs (transnational corporations). The exception is a group of some small European countries where there are no world-class TNCs. However, the economies of developed countries are also characterized by a wide spread of medium and small business as a factor of economic and social stability. This business employs up to 2/3 of the economically active population. In many countries, small business provides up to 80% of new jobs and affects the sectoral structure of the economy.
The economic mechanism of developed countries includes three levels: spontaneous market, corporate and state. A developed system of market relations and diversified methods of state regulation correspond to it. Their combination leads to flexibility, quick adaptability to changing conditions of reproduction and, in general, high efficiency of economic activity.
4. The state of developed countries is an active participant in economic activity. The goals of state regulation are the formation of the most favorable conditions for the self-growth of capital and the maintenance of the socio-economic stability of society. The most important means of state regulation are administrative and legal (developed systems of economic law), fiscal (state budget and social funds), monetary and state property. The general trend since the beginning of the 60s is the decrease in the role of state property on average from 9 to 7% in GDP. Moreover, it is concentrated mainly in the field of infrastructure. Differences between countries in terms of the degree of state regulation are determined by the intensity of the state's redistributive functions through its finances: most intensively in Western Europe, to a lesser extent in the USA and Japan.
5. The economies of developed countries are characterized by openness to the world economy and a liberal organization of the foreign trade regime. Leadership in world production determines their leading role in world trade, international capital movement, and international monetary and settlement relations. In the field of international labor migration, developed countries act as the host country.
Developing countries
Developing countries represent today the most numerous group of countries (more than 130), which sometimes develop so significantly in per capita income, in the structure of the economy, in the social structure of society that sometimes there is doubt about the advisability of including them in one classification group.However, recognizing the extraordinary diversity of the Third World, it is necessary to assess the common that unites its participants not only formally, but also in reality, revealing a common position on world problems. The commonality of approaches to world problems is found in the general policy, for the more effective implementation of which developing countries create various intergovernmental organizations (for example, the Organization of African Unity).
Without pretending to be unambiguous, in our opinion, the following general characteristics of third world countries can be determined:
1) The scale of the spread of poverty.
Most developing countries are characterized by a very low standard of living of the population. It should be borne in mind that the bulk of the population of these countries has a low standard of living not only in comparison with developed countries, but also in comparison with the few rich groups of the population in their countries. In other words, there are rich people in poor countries, but no middle class. As a result, a system of income distribution is observed when the incomes of 20% of the upper strata of society are 5-10 times higher than the incomes of 40% of the lower strata.
2) Low level of labor productivity.
According to the concept of the production function, there is a systemic relationship between the volume of production and the combination of factors that create it (labor, capital) at the existing level of technology. But this concept of technical dependence must be complemented by a broader approach. For example, it is necessary to take into account such factors as management, employee motivation, and the effectiveness of institutional structures. Labor productivity in third world countries is extremely low compared to industrialized countries. The reason for this may be, in particular, in the absence or severe deficiency of additional factors of production (physical capital, management experience). To increase productivity, it is necessary to mobilize domestic savings and attract foreign capital for investment in material factors of production and in human capital. And this requires improving the system of general and special education, transformations, land tenure reform, tax reform, the creation and improvement of the banking system, the formation of a non-corrupt and effective administrative apparatus. It is also necessary to take into account the attitude of workers and management to improving their qualifications, the ability of the population to adapt to changes in production and society, attitude to discipline, initiative, attitude to power. The impact of low incomes on labor productivity in Third World countries is reflected in the poor health of the bulk of the population.
It is known that poor nutrition in childhood has an extremely negative effect on the physical and intellectual development of the child. An irrational and inadequate diet, the lack of basic conditions for personal hygiene can undermine the health of workers in the future and negatively affect work motivation. The low level of productivity in this situation is largely due to apathy, physical and emotional inability to resist competition in the labor market.
3) High rates of population growth. The most obvious indicator of differences between industrialized countries is the birth rate. No developed country reaches the birth rate of 20 births per 1000 people. population. In developing countries, the birth rate varies from 20 people (Argentina, China, Thailand, Chile) to 50 people (Niger, Zambia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda). Of course, the mortality rate in developing countries is higher than in industrialized ones, the improvement in health care in third world countries makes this development less significant. Therefore, the population growth rate in developing countries today averages 2% (2.3% excluding China), and in industrialized countries - 0.5% per year. Therefore, in third world countries, approximately 40% of the population is children under the age of 15 (less than 21% in developed countries). In most third world countries, the burden on the economically active part of the population (from 15 to 64 years old) in terms of supporting the disabled part of society is almost 2 times higher than in industrialized countries.
4) High and growing unemployment rate.
Population growth in itself is not a negative factor in economic development. But in the conditions of economic stagnation, additional jobs are not created, therefore, a high natural population growth generates huge unemployment. If you add hidden unemployment to visible unemployment, then almost 35% of the labor force in developing countries is not used.
5) Greater dependence on agricultural production and exports of fuels and raw materials.
Approximately 65% of the population of developing countries lives in rural areas, and in industrialized countries - 27%. Agricultural production employs more than 60% of the labor force in third world countries and only 7% in industrialized countries, while the contribution of the agricultural sector to the creation of GNP is about 20% and 3%, respectively. The concentration of the labor force in the agricultural sector and the primary sector of industry is due to the fact that low incomes force people to worry primarily about food, clothing, and housing. Agricultural productivity is low due to an excess of labor in relation to the natural area for cultivation, as well as due to primitive technology, poor organization, lack of material resources and poor quality of labor.
The situation is complicated by the land use system, in which peasants are most often not owners, but tenants of small plots. This nature of agrarian relations does not create economic incentives for productivity growth. But even in countries where land is surplus, primitive tools do not make it possible to cultivate an area of more than 5-8 hectares.
In addition to the dominance of the agricultural sector in the economy, in the third world countries there is an export of primary products (agriculture and forestry, fuel and other types of mineral raw materials). In sub-Saharan Africa, primary products account for more than 92% of foreign exchange earnings.
6) Subordination, vulnerability in the system of international economic relations.
It is necessary to emphasize the sharp inequality of the economic and political power of the third world and industrialized countries. It manifests itself in the dominance of rich countries in international trade, in the ability of the latter to dictate the terms of technology transfer, investment and foreign aid.
A significant, albeit less obvious, factor in the preservation of underdevelopment is the transfer to developing countries of the system of Western values, behavior and institutions. For example, the imposition in the colonies in the past of systems and educational programs that were not suitable for them, the organization of trade unions and administrative systems along Western lines. Today, the high economic and social standards of developed countries have an even greater impact (demonstration effect). The lifestyle of the Western elite, the desire for wealth can contribute to corruption, the plundering of national wealth in developing countries by a privileged minority. Finally, the brain drain from third world countries to developed countries also negatively affects the economic development of the emigration of skilled personnel. The cumulative impact of all negative factors determines the vulnerability of developing countries to external factors that can have a major impact on their economic and social situation.
The diversity of developing countries necessitates a certain classification that could reflect their differentiation.
The UN classification of developing countries makes it possible to distinguish 3 groups of countries: the least developed (44 countries), developing countries that are not oil exporters (88 countries) and the OPEC member countries (13 oil exporting countries).
Another classification is proposed by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes some countries and territories not covered by UN statistics. This classification includes low-income countries (61 countries), middle-income countries (73 countries), newly industrialized countries (11 countries), oil exporting countries, OPEC members (13 countries).
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has developed its own classification system. This classification includes 125 countries (developing and developed), each with a population of more than 1 million people. Then these countries are divided according to the criterion of the level of per capita income into four groups: low income, middle income, upper middle income, high income. The first three groups cover 101 countries, mostly developing countries. The remaining 24 high-income countries are divided into 2 groups: 19 countries are typical industrialized countries, and 5 countries (Hong Kong, Kuwait, Israel, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates) are classified by the UN as developing countries.
To assess the degree of differentiation of developing countries, 7 indicators can be applied:
1) Size of countries (territory, population and per capita income).
Of the 145 UN member states, 90 countries have a population of less than 15 million. Large countries coexist with small ones. A large territory usually gives advantages: possession of natural resources and large potential markets, less dependence on imported raw materials.
2) Features of historical development and the colonial period.
Most of the developing countries were in the past colonies of Western European countries, the USA, and Japan. Economic structures, social institutions of the colonies were created on the model and likeness of the metropolises.
3) Provision with material and labor resources. Some developing countries are very rich in mineral resources (the countries of the Persian Gulf, Brazil, Zambia), others are very poor (Bangladesh, Haiti, Chad, etc.).
4) The role of the private and public sector.
In general, the private sector in the economy is more developed in Latin America and Southeast Asia than in South Asia and Africa.
5) The nature of production structures.
There is a certain differentiation in the sectoral structure of the economies of developing countries, although most of them are agricultural raw materials. Subsistence and commercial agricultural production provides employment for most of the population. But in the 70s and 90s, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Malaysia dramatically accelerated the development of the manufacturing industry and actually turned into industrial countries.
6) Degree of dependence on external economic and political forces.
The degree of dependence on external factors is influenced by the provision of the country with material resources, the structure of the economy and foreign economic relations.
7) Institutional and political structure of society.
The political structure, interests of social groups and alliances of the ruling elites (large landowners, the comprador part of big business, bankers, military men) usually predetermine the development strategy and can be a brake on progressive changes in the economy and society, conserving economic backwardness if the ongoing changes seriously infringe on their interests.
It should be noted that no matter how the balance of power develops between the military, industrial and large landowners in Latin America, between politicians, high officials and leaders of tribal clans in Africa, between oil sheikhs and financial tycoons in the Middle East, most developing countries are open or covertly ruled by a small but wealthy and powerful elite. Democratic attributes (elections to local authorities and parliament, freedom of speech) are often just a screen that covers the real power in the country.
Industrialized countries
Industrialized countries include 24 countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand. Norway, Portugal, San Marino, USA, Finland, France, Sweden, Switzerland. Japan. Since 1996 the industrialized countries began to include Singapore.The main features of industrialized countries:
1) High level of GDP per capita. In most industrialized countries, this figure ranges from 15 to 30 thousand dollars per capita per year. In industrialized countries, GDP per capita per year is about 5 times higher than the world average.
2) Diversified structure of the economy. At the same time, the service sector currently provides production of more than 60% of the GDP of industrialized countries.
3) The social structure of society. Industrialized countries are characterized by a smaller income gap between the poorest and richest 20% of the population and the presence of a powerful middle class with high living standards.
Industrialized countries play a leading role in the global economy. Their share in the world gross product is over 54%, and their share in world exports is over 70%. Among the industrialized countries, the most important are the so-called countries of the seven, or C-7. These are the USA, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan. They provide 47% of the world's gross product and 51% of world exports. Among the seven countries, the US dominates.
In the 90s, the US economy steadily ranks 1st in terms of competitiveness, but the US economic leadership in the world tended to weaken. Thus, the share of the United States in the GDP of the non-socialist world decreased from 31% in 1950. up to 20% now. The share of the United States in the export of the non-socialist world has dropped especially significantly - from 18% in 1960 to 12% in 1997. The United States' share of global foreign direct investment has declined from 62% in 1960 to 20% today. The main reason for the relative weakening of the position of the United States in the world economy is the high rates of economic growth in Japan and Western Europe, which quite quickly, using American aid according to the Marshall Plan, rebuilt the war-torn economy and made profound structural changes in the economy, creating new industries. At a certain stage, Japanese and Western European sectors of the economy achieved international competitiveness and began to successfully compete in the world market with American companies (for example, German and Japanese automobile corporations).
However, despite the relative weakening of the economic positions of the United States, the role of the United States in the world economy after World War II has always been the leading one. Firstly, in comparison with any country in the world, the United States has the largest GDP - more than 7 trillion. dollars per year and, accordingly, the most capacious domestic market in the world. But the main factor in the US economic leadership is leadership in the field of scientific and technological progress, the implementation of its results in production. The United States today accounts for 40% of the world's R&D expenditures (research and development). The share of the United States in the world export of science-intensive products is 20%. Most notably, the United States leads the way in information technology. Currently, the United States contains 75% of the data banks of all industrialized countries. In addition, the United States leads the world in food production, providing, in particular, more than 50% of world grain exports.
After the collapse of the USSR and the world socialist system, the United States became the only world superpower, which is the economic, political and military leader of the modern world. The preservation and strengthening of the leading role of the United States in the world is officially enshrined in the US National Security Concept.
The second center of economic power is Western Europe.
In Western Europe, two models of the market economy prevail: democratic corporatism and the social market model.
Both models have a lot in common, so there is no hard boundary between them:
1. Democratic corporatism.
Typical for countries such as Sweden, Austria. This model is characterized by a high share of state entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services, in investments. The promotion of economic growth and general welfare is carried out through the coordination of public and private interests. The labor market is characterized by strong unions and sectoral labor agreements. Preference is given to the adaptation of the labor force to the labor market through professional retraining. The state pursues an active employment policy and provides a high level of unemployment benefits.
2. Social market model.
This model is more typical for the Federal Republic of Germany. The share of state entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services, in investments is insignificant. This model provides for the support of both individual groups of the population (young people, low-income people) and entrepreneurs who cannot resist large corporations (small businesses, farmers). The social market model is based on an unspoken consensus of social and political forces.
The economic development of Western Europe after World War II is inseparable from the integration process that swept the whole of Western Europe.
The economic development of Western Europe in the post-war period, which took place in the context of deepening and expanding integration, was dynamic and successful. Western Europe quickly rebuilt the war-torn economy and created modern, competitive sectors of the economy, increasing its share in world production and exports compared to the United States.
The world leadership of Western Europe can be characterized by the following components:
1) Western Europe today is the main center of international trade, providing more than 50% of world exports, ahead of the United States and Japan. The share of Western Europe today accounts for more than 40% of the world's gold and foreign exchange reserves.
2) Western Europe is leading in the pharmaceutical industry, in certain branches of transport engineering, in some branches of light industry. In addition, Western Europe is a major center for international tourism.
Major economic problems
The share of Western Europe in the world economy has slightly decreased over the past 20 years, the rates of economic growth have been low, and many traditional industries have survived the crisis (metallurgy, textile industry). European firms have failed to achieve high competitiveness in electronics and telecommunications, where the US is leading. In the sphere of mass production of high technology goods, Western Europe lags behind Japan and the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia. But the main economic and social problem of Western Europe remains mass unemployment, the level of which reaches 10% of the labor force, which is significantly higher than in the USA and Japan.
The third center of the world economic is Japan. The concept of hierarchical corporatism is currently used to characterize the economic model of Japan.
The characteristics of this model include the following features:
1) insignificant participation of the state in the production of goods and services, in sales, in investments.
2) active participation of the state in stimulating business activity, in changes in the structure of the economy.
3) in the labor market, the simultaneous conclusion of labor agreements at the firm level is practiced. Labor relations are characterized by corporate paternalism (the system of life-long employment, the company is our common home).
4) Firms and the state pay special attention to improving the qualifications of the workforce, involving workers in production management.
In the economic literature, the concept of Japanese economic miracle is used to characterize the economic development of Japan, which emphasizes the phenomenal success of a country that has turned from a second-rate and isolated country into a world power with a dynamic and competitive open market economy.
Population of developed countries
The populations of developed countries are aging.For the majority of the population of developed countries, wages are the main source of livelihood; as a rule, it amounts to 2/3 to 3/4 of the national income.
The average standard of living of the population of developed countries is largely determined by unearned income, and the inequality of individuals is primarily associated with the uneven ownership of property. For example, in the United States, 1% of the population owns 19% of the total wealth of the country.
Credit is provided, first, to increase food production and improve the living standards of the poorest food insecure LDCs. Second, to increase the food production capacity of other developing countries to improve the lives of the poorest.
78% of the population of developed countries and 40% of the population of developing countries of the world will live in cities and urban agglomerations. The highest rates of urbanization are typical for Europe, North and Latin America, Oceania.
The most difficult at present is the complex of ethical problems associated with the inevitable decrease in the level of consumption of material goods by the population of developed countries and changes in social relations.
The reasons for the growing role of environmental management in the service sector are associated both with the aggravation of the environmental situation and with the formation of an environmental outlook among the population of developed countries.
The age pyramid of the population of developing countries narrows sharply from base to top, while the wall of the age pyramid of the population of developed countries is almost sheer, and sometimes even has a negative steepness - until the rise reaches the oldest age classes. These dramatic differences are partly due to the higher fertility and lower survival rates in developing countries.
The organization of a person is also characterized by his accuracy, discipline, obligation, law-abidingness. The population of developed countries has these qualities to a much greater extent than the population of other countries. This is due to various reasons, including traditions and the educational system.
But there are also pessimistic scenarios. The decline in the population of developed countries opens El Dorado to the countries of the big demographic boom. Peoples in unfavorable conditions, but on the rise of population growth, can appropriate - by good or by force - the lands and resources of the peoples of the rich, but in decline. These latter will gradually mix with the aliens until they lose their individuality. They will disappear, as many peoples have disappeared, having found themselves in a similar situation.
In recent decades, the population of developed countries has been focused on finding social compromises. The majority of residents prefer to solve social problems rationally, without extremes, on the basis of the rules determined by existing laws.
A change in the position of a person as a consumer of material and spiritual benefits is also associated with the scientific and technological revolution. In the context of satisfying the most pressing needs of the overwhelming majority of the population of developed countries, the evolution of needs that stimulate production goes in the direction of not quantitative, but qualitative improvement in all aspects of people's lives. At the same time, both the process of unification of the needs of various groups and strata of society is traced, which erases the visible boundaries between these social formations, and the process of individualization of needs associated with a more general movement aimed at increasing the autonomy of the individual in the light of the less rigidity and greater mobility of social ties of a modern person.
When analyzing the quality of life in the country, the distribution of the population by income is essential. Distribution curve typical for Russia in the late 80s. It has been repeatedly noted that in a normally functioning economy, the differentiation of personal income can be approximated by a logarithmically normal distribution law.
Thus, 25% of the world's population living in developed countries consumes 80% of the world's gross product. Fertility rate dynamics. In developed countries, the total population growth rate (minus mortality) is 0 6% / y, and in developing countries it reaches 2 1% / g. Using these data as a starting point, it can be obtained that the doubling time of the population of developed countries is 117 years , and developing - only 33 5 years.
According to the forecast, the population under the working age will decrease by 5-5 million people. The risk of dying at a younger age among the population of Russia is noticeably higher than that of the population of developed countries. The working-age population is more likely to die due to external causes, which include accidents, poisoning, and injury. The population of older and middle ages is most likely to die from cardiovascular diseases.
The gap between the two groups of countries in per capita terms is especially pronounced. In developing countries, per capita output of heavy industry is 30 times less, and metalworking output is 60 times less than per capita in developed countries.
The embryonic state of technology in the less developed countries alienates these states from the frontiers of technological progress. The vast amount of technological knowledge accumulated by developed countries could be used by less developed countries without significant research costs. For example, the use of modern experience in crop rotation and contour farming does not require additional investment, but significantly increases labor productivity. Large grain losses can be avoided by simply increasing the bin height a few inches. Such technological changes may seem very trivial for the population of developed countries. But for poor nations, productivity gains from such changes can mean ending hunger and reaching levels high enough to survive.
Developed country levels
The stage of a country's economic development largely determines its level of economic development, i.e. the degree of economic maturity of the national economy. According to the level of economic development, countries (more precisely, their economies) are divided into two large groups - developed and less developed. Almost all developed countries are members of an international organization called the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and therefore it is often identified with the club of developed economies, although the OECD also includes several less developed countries (Turkey, Mexico, Chile, countries of Central and Eastern Europe ). Less developed countries are often referred to as developing countries, emerging market countries, although sometimes these terms are given a narrower meaning. Therefore, cautious researchers refer to the entire group of less developed countries by the term emerging market and developing countries or developing and transition economies.Among developed and less developed economies, various subgroups are distinguished, although they are more often referred to as groups. For example, the group of twenty (G20) of the largest economies in the world is distinguished - from the developed countries these are the seven leading developed economies plus the country - the chairman of the EU plus Australia and South Korea, and from the less developed countries these are the BRICS countries (English BRICS - Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) plus Mexico, Argentina, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia. These countries account for 90% of world GDP, 80% of world trade and two-thirds of the world's population.
Among developed countries, the group of seven (G7) of the largest developed economies is often analyzed - these are the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada (during political meetings of this group, Russia is also included in it). There is also such a group of developed newcomer countries as South Korea, Singapore, Fr. Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Among the less developed countries under the abbreviation BRICS, there are five leading economies on their continents. At the same time, other groups are also being analyzed: these are the newly industrialized countries (NIS), which are at the stage of active industrialization, led by China, India and Brazil; countries with economies in transition, which include former socialist countries that are transitioning to a market economy; countries - exporters of fuel, as well as countries - exporters of other raw materials, in which fuel or other types of raw materials account for more than half of their exports; the least developed countries, whose GDP per capita is less than $ 750, a low human development index, and economic growth is highly unstable; debtor countries, to which the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ranks countries with a negative current account balance over the past four decades, as well as poor countries with large external debt. Many countries fall into several groups at the same time, such as Russia: it is part of the BRICS, is a country with an economy in transition and belongs to the fuel exporting countries.
The typology of countries by the level of economic development differs from one international organization to another. The following is the typology of the IMF, combined with its statistics on the share of groups, subgroups and individual countries in world GDP production (calculated in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) of national currencies, i.e. in American prices).
Traditional and socialist economies
The traditional economic system (traditional economy), often called precapitalist, continues to dominate only in the backward countries of Asia and Africa, which are still at the stage of economic development when labor and land remain the main economic resources.
The traditional system is characterized by the dominance of such forms of ownership as communal (mainly in the form of communal ownership of land), state (again, mainly on land), and earlier also such forms of ownership as feudal (ownership of land is characteristic on the basis of fulfilling feudal duties). In this system, the freedom of economic agents is severely constrained by the community, state and feudal lords. Economic decisions are made not only in conditions of constraint on private property rights, but also on the basis of time-honored traditions (in medieval Russia they tried to "live in the old days"), which also reduces the independence and, accordingly, the activity of economic agents.
Previously, the traditional system dominated all countries for thousands of years and hence its name. There are no more states in the world in which it dominates, but there are many countries where it coexists with a market system. Such islands of the traditional economy in the market system are called structures.
The socialist economic system (socialist economy, socialism) functions now only in the DPRK and Cuba, although in the last century it existed in our and many other countries. It is based on the domination of public, primarily state, property (mainly state-owned or cooperative enterprises), which greatly constrains the independence of economic agents. In such a system, it is not customary to reward entrepreneurs other than managers of state-owned firms. Key economic decisions are ultimately made by the main owner - the state, mainly in the form of directives (orders) for enterprises.
The shortcomings of the socialist economic system led to the transition of the overwhelming majority of the states of this system to the rails of the market system, and therefore their economies are often called transitional, and they are countries with transitional economies.
Socially developed countries
The world economy is a system of national economies of individual countries, united by the international division of labor, trade and production, financial, scientific and technical ties. This is a global geo-economic space in which, in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production, goods, services, and capital: human, financial, scientific and technical, freely circulate. The world economy is an integral, but at the same time contradictory system of national economies. Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of the level of their development and the socio-economic organization of production in the complex structure of the world economy, the center and the periphery are quite clearly visible. The center is mainly industrialized countries with efficient, to a greater or lesser extent regulated market economy, capable of quickly adapting to the world economic situation and mastering the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and exporting high-tech products. The periphery is primarily developing countries, as a rule, with a specialization in raw materials, an insufficiently effective mechanism of self-development, a relatively low level of an integrated economy.The center is made up of a relatively small group of industrially developed countries (24 states (USA, Canada, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, New Zealand)), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports. These countries have highly efficient and well-organized economies and are developing according to the type of “social market economy”. Their economic mechanism, which has a high elasticity, makes it possible to flexibly adapt to the world economic situation. They quickly implement the achievements of scientific and technical thought.
The periphery includes mainly developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be distinguished:
The multifaceted nature of the economy with a predominance of off-market relations and non-economic levers for organizing the economy;
Low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
Raw materials specialization.
On the whole, they occupy a dependent position in the world economy.
Center and periphery are two pluses of a single world economy. They are not isolated, but, on the contrary, are closely interconnected. However, economic cooperation between them is quite contradictory, since they are aimed at solving various problems.
Having achieved a high standard of living, developed countries are creating a qualitatively different structure of production and consumption, which are increasingly associated with the leisure and service industries, while in many developing countries there is not even enough food. In general, the difference in living conditions between the center and the periphery of the world economy continues to grow.
The main groups of countries: developed countries with market economies, countries with economies in transition, developing countries. The most complete picture of the groups of countries in the international economy is provided by data from the largest international organizations in the world - the UN, the IMF and the World Bank. Their assessment is somewhat different, since the number of countries participating in these organizations is different (UN - 185, IMF - 182, World Bank - 181 countries), and international organizations monitor the economies of only their member countries.
For the purposes of economic analysis, the UN divides countries into:
Developed countries (states with market economies);
countries with economies in transition (formerly socialist or centrally planned countries);
developing countries.
Let's consider the features of each of the selected subsystems. Countries with developed economies are considered to be those states that are characterized by the presence of market relations in the economy, a high level of rights and civil liberties in public and political life. All countries with developed economies belong to the capitalist model of development, although the nature of the development of capitalist relations has serious differences here. The level of GDP per capita in almost all developed countries is not less than 15 thousand dollars per year, at a fairly high level the level of social protection guaranteed by the state (pensions, unemployment benefits, compulsory health insurance), life expectancy, quality of education and medical care, level development of culture. Developed countries have passed the agrarian and industrial stage of development with a predominant role and contribution to the creation of GDP in agriculture and industry. Now these countries are at the stage of post-industrialism, which is characterized by a leading role in the national economy of the sphere of intangible production, which creates from 60% to 80% of GDP, efficient production of goods and services, high consumer demand, constant progress in science and technology, strengthening of the state's social policy ...
The IMF classifies the group of countries with developed economies, first of all, the leading capitalist countries, called the Big Seven (G7), which includes the USA, Japan, Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy and Canada. These states occupy a dominant position in the world economy, primarily due to their powerful economic, scientific, technical and military potential, large population, high level of aggregate and specific GDP. Further, the group of developed countries includes relatively small in comparison with the potential of the G7, but highly developed economically and scientifically, the countries of Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand. Such states as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan (the so-called dragon countries of Southeast Asia) and Israel began to be considered economically developed. Their inclusion in the group of developed countries was a merit for the rapid progress in economic development in the post-war period. This is a truly unique example in world history, when they were absolutely nothing of themselves back in the 1950s. countries seized the world economic leadership in a number of positions and turned into important world industrial, scientific, technical and financial centers. The level of GDP per capita, the quality of life in the dragon countries and in Israel have come close to the indicators of the leading developed countries and in some cases (Hong Kong, Singapore) even surpass most of the G7 countries. Nevertheless, in this subgroup there are certain problems with the development of the free market in its Western understanding; it has its own philosophy of the formation of capitalist relations.
The UN includes South Africa among the developed countries, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) also includes Turkey and Mexico, which are members of this organization, although they are rather developing countries, but they entered it on a territorial basis (Turkey belongs part of Europe, and Mexico is a member of the North American Free Trade Agreement - NAFTA). Thus, the number of developed countries includes about 30 countries and territories.
The developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In the late 90s. they accounted for 55% of world GDP, 71% of world trade and most of the international capital flows. The G7 countries account for more than 44% of world GDP, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are part of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union - the EU (20% of world GDP) and the North American Free Trade Agreement - NAFTA (24%).
Countries with economies in transition
This group includes states that from the 80s-90s. carry out the transition from an administrative-command (socialist) economy to a market economy (therefore they are often called post-socialist). These are 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 15 countries - former Soviet republics, and according to some classifications they also include Mongolia, China and Vietnam (although formally the last two countries continue to build socialism). Sometimes this entire group of countries is classified as developing (for example, in the statistics of the IMF), based on the low level of GDP per capita (only the Czech Republic and Slovenia have it more than 10 thousand dollars), and sometimes only the last three countries are referred to them.
Countries with economies in transition produce about 6% of world GDP, including the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (excluding the Baltics) - less than 2%, the former Soviet republics - more than 4% (including Russia - about 3%). The share in world exports is 3%. China produces about 12% of world GDP. There are countries here that have achieved significant success in economic development over ten years of market reforms: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. In some of them, the standard of living has almost come close to the standards of the countries of Western Europe, while the rates of economic growth remain stably high and even exceed those of Western Europe. The main structural transformations in the economy have already been carried out, and the issue of integration into the single European market is on the agenda.
Other states, such as Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Albania, Macedonia, are in the process of transforming the entire economic system, and they have yet to solve rather difficult problems of the transition period. There are also countries that are experiencing stagnation and have already stopped moving towards a market orientation. These include, for example, Belarus, where market reforms have failed, and there is a serious threat of a return to the old administrative-command system. Countries that have been seriously affected by the hostilities as a result of the violation of their territorial integrity and numerous ethnic conflicts also belong to this group. Such states are now simply not up to reforms, they are faced with the problem of rebuilding the war-torn economy. These are Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
If in this youngest group of countries we try to distinguish subgroups, then different classification is possible. The former Soviet republics, which are now united into the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), can be distinguished into one group. This allows us to make a similar approach to reforming the economy, a similar level of development of most of these countries, unification in one integration group, although the subgroup is rather heterogeneous.
The other subgroup could include the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states. These countries are characterized by a predominantly radical approach to reforms, a desire to enter the EU, a relatively high level of development of most of them. However, a strong lag behind the leaders of this subgroup, less radical reforms lead some economists to the conclusion that it is advisable to include Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and some republics of the former Yugoslavia in the first subgroup.
A separate subgroup can be distinguished by China and Vietnam, which are carrying out reforms in a similar way and had a low level of socio-economic development in the first years of reform, which is now rapidly increasing.
From the former large group of countries with administrative- by the end of the 90s. only two countries remained: Cuba and North Korea.
Developing countries (DCs)
The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) includes states with a market economy and a low level of economic development. Of the 182 member countries of the International Monetary Fund, 121 are classified as developing countries. Despite a significant number of these countries, as well as the fact that many of them are characterized by a large population and a huge territory, they account for about 40% of world GDP, their share in the world exports 26%.
They represent the periphery of the world economic system. This includes the countries of Africa, the countries of the Asia-Pacific region - Asia-Pacific (except for Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the dragon countries of Southeast Asia and the Asian CIS countries), the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Subgroups of developing countries are also distinguished, in particular, a subgroup of APR countries (Western Asia plus Iran, China, countries of East and South Asia - all other countries of the region), a subgroup of African countries (Sub-Saharan Africa minus Nigeria and South Africa - all other African countries, excluding Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Tunisia).
The entire grouping of developing countries is very heterogeneous, and, rather, it would be correct to call it third world countries. Developing countries include, in particular, those states that, in terms of many indicators of the level and quality of life, are higher than any developed country (United Arab Emirates, Kuwait or the Bahamas). GDP per capita, the volume of social expenditures of the government here corresponds to or even exceeds those of the G7 countries. In the group of developing countries there are medium-sized ones with a good level of development of economic and social infrastructure, there are also a significant number of countries with extremely backward national economies, the majority of whose population is below the poverty line, corresponding, according to the UN method, to one dollar of spending per day per inhabitant. It also cannot be argued that they are all economies of an agrarian or agrarian-industrial type.
The name of the group - developing countries - reflects, rather, the model of their national economy, in which the role of market mechanisms and private entrepreneurship is extremely small, and subsistence or semi-subsistence farming is of primary importance for development, the predominance of the agricultural and industrial sectors in the sectoral structure of the economy, a high degree of state economic interference and low levels of social protection. Due to the general nature of the aforementioned features, it is quite legitimate to classify among developing countries as the majority of transitional economies, in which the standard of living has significantly decreased due to ineffective management of economic transformations. In view of such difficulties in classification and the diversity of developing countries, it is easiest to classify them by the method of exclusion. Accordingly, developing countries should be considered those states that are not included in the group of countries with developed market economies and are not the former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe or the former republics of the former USSR.
For the purposes of specific economic analysis, developing countries are divided into:
Countries - net creditors: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia;
net debtor countries: all other RSs;
energy exporting countries: Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Venezuela, Vietnam, Gabon, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Cameroon, Qatar, Colombia, Congo, Kuwait, Libya, Mexico, Nigeria, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador;
energy importing countries: all other RSs;
Least Developed Countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Bhutan, Vanuatu, Haiti, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Zambia, Yemen, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Kiribati, Comoros, Laos, Lesotho, Liberia, Mauritania, Madagascar, Rwanda, Western Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia.
Developed countries problems
The functional illiteracy, which will be discussed in the article, is somewhat similar to an iceberg: the visible, but smaller part is outside, the large, but hidden, inside. This phenomenon is complex and multifaceted. Currently, it is being studied by scientists and comprehended by the general public in many countries. They argue about it, look for approaches, develop special programs, etc. The information presented below represents one of the attempts to approach this problem and in no way pretend to be a comprehensive analysis of it. However, in our opinion, they are necessary, since for Russia, this problem is likely to become extremely aggravated in the near future. In the early 1980s, a number of developed countries were struck by reports of the presence in them, hitherto considered cultural, of a paradoxical phenomenon called "functional illiteracy." This was the beginning of widespread awareness of the new process, which later led to significant reforms of educational systems and socio-cultural policies. "The nation is in danger," "a reading crisis has come," "are we becoming proletarians?" - these and other similar expressions reflected the acute concern of different strata of society in America, Canada, Germany, France and other countries about new social cataclysms.What exactly was it about? Functional illiteracy is not adequate to the traditional concept of illiteracy. As defined by UNESCO, the term is applicable to anyone who has lost significant reading and writing skills and is unable to comprehend short and uncomplicated text relevant to everyday life. The problem turned out to be so acute that 1990, at the initiative of UNESCO, was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly as the International Year of Literacy (IYY). During 1991, the results of relevant events in many countries and international organizations were summed up. Currently, on their basis, legislative acts, decisions, plans and programs are being developed for the continuation and development of the movement for overcoming and preventing illiteracy in its various forms.
How does functional illiteracy manifest itself in everyday life, why did it come to be regarded as a phenomenon posing a danger to society, what are the reasons for the development of this process? Experts from different countries interpret this phenomenon in different ways and emphasize its various aspects. The terms used are also different: “functional illiteracy”, “secondary illiteracy”, “semiliterate”, “dyslectic”, “dyslexic” (“ do not speak a dictionary, with bad vocabulary "), etc. In the United States in recent years, the term" family litOracy ", which is related to this problem, has been widely used, as well as the term" at-Risk "-" those who relate to risk group ", or" is in danger. " But by "danger" and "risk" here is meant not at all what is usually meant, since this “risk” is associated precisely with a low level of education, in other words, with functional illiteracy. The term took root in the United States after the report "A nation at risk".
Illiteracy statistics in the United States
To illustrate the scale of this phenomenon, here are some impressive numbers. According to American researchers, one in four adults is poorly literate. There is also such a phenomenon as passive literacy, when adults and children simply do not like to read. In the Nation at Risk report, the National Commission cites the following figures, which it views as “risk indicators”: about 23 million American adults are functionally illiterate, find it difficult to cope with the simple tasks of daily reading, writing and counting, about 13% of all 17-year-old US citizens may be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy among young people can rise to 40%; many of them do not have a whole range of intellectual skills that one would expect from them: about 40% cannot draw conclusions from the text, only 20% can write an essay with convincing argumentation, and only 1/3 of them can solve mathematical a task requiring phased actions.
According to D. Kozol (1985), data from various sources show that approximately 60 to 80 million Americans are illiterate or semi-literate: from 23 to 30 million Americans are completely illiterate, i.e. cannot actually read or write; between 35 and 54 million are semi-literate - their reading and writing skills are much lower than it is necessary to "cope with the responsibilities of daily life." The author provides compelling evidence of how "illiteracy takes a heavy toll on our economy, affects our political system, and, more importantly, the lives of illiterate Americans."
According to the researchers, this problem is especially difficult because it is latent in nature. Adults usually seek to hide the defects of their education and upbringing - inability, ignorance, poor information content and other skills and qualities that interfere with prosperity in the modern information society.
A functionally illiterate person really has a hard time even at the everyday level: for example, it is difficult for him to be a buyer and to choose the necessary product (since these people are guided not by the information about the product indicated on the packaging, but only by the labels), it is difficult to be a patient (i.e. because when buying a medicine, the instructions for its use are not clear - what are the indications and contraindications, side effects, rules of application, etc.), it is difficult to be a traveler (navigate in road signs, terrain plans and other similar information, if he has not been before in this place; the problem is to calculate in advance and plan travel costs, etc.). Other problems include paying bills, filling out tax receipts and bank documents, processing postage and letters, etc. Functionally illiterate people experience problems related to raising children: sometimes they cannot read the teacher's letter, they are afraid of visiting him, it is difficult for them to help the child with homework, etc. Problems with household electrical appliances, the inability to understand the instructions for them, lead to their damage, and sometimes to household injuries of the owners. Functionally illiterate people cannot work with computers and other similar systems. According to experts, functional illiteracy is one of the main causes of unemployment, accidents, accidents and injuries at work and at home. Losses from it amounted to, according to the calculations of specialists, about 237 billion dollars.
Millions of indigenous people in developed countries who have studied at school for a number of years have either practically forgotten and lost their reading and elementary calculation skills, or the level of these skills and knowledge, as well as general educational knowledge, is such that it does not allow them to “function” effectively enough in an ever more complex society. In Canada, among people aged 18 and over, 24% are illiterate or functionally illiterate. Among the functionally illiterate, 50% have been in school for nine years, and 8% had a university degree. The results of a survey in 1988 indicate that 25% of French people did not read books at all during the year, and the number of functionally illiterate people is about 10% of the adult population of France. Data presented in a 1989 report by the Ministry of National Education indicate a low level of schooling: about one in two college students can write reasonably well, 20% of students do not have reading skills. Meanwhile, academic success is closely related to the level of reading activity.
According to French researchers, not all functionally illiterate people can be classified as persons rejected by society in a professional or economic sense. However, all of them to one degree or another are culturally limited and divorced from social and intellectual communication. Regardless of age, economic status and life experience, a functionally illiterate person can be characterized as follows: poor performance at school, negative attitude towards cultural institutions due to inability to use them and fear of being condemned by experts, etc. It follows from the characteristics that the difficulties experienced by these people are not so much pragmatic difficulties as cultural and emotional ones.
Weak readers
The group of people closest to the functionally illiterate, or to some extent coinciding with them, can be called "weak readers" - weak readers, which are characterized by "passive reading". This includes adults and children who do not like to read. This group of readers was recently surveyed by French sociologists.
The definition of "weak reader" indicates the level of mastery of cultural skills and experience, depending primarily on education, social background, and especially - on changes in family, professional or social relations. The authors emphasize that usually the “weak reader” is presented as a person who does not have time to read. In reality, we are talking about a reason of a psychological nature: neither his life circumstances nor professional orientation contribute to the transformation of reading into a permanent habit. He reads from time to time and does not spend a lot of time on it, considering this occupation inappropriate. In reading, such people are usually looking for "useful" information, ie. information of a practical nature. In addition, in their environment they often read little and rarely talk (or do not talk at all) about books. For this category of readers, the world of culture is beyond the limit - the barrier of their own ignorance: the library evokes a feeling of shyness and is associated with an institution intended for the initiated, bookstores also offer too much choice, which is more an obstacle than an incentive to read. School literary education, received in childhood and falling on poorly prepared soil, caused rather rejection from literature (largely due to the compulsory nature of education), and did not contribute to the development of interest in reading and self-education skills.
Experts have not yet come to a consensus on whether a "reading crisis" really existed and still exists, or whether the reason lies in something completely different - the ever-increasing gap between the level of "school products" provided by modern sides of society and its social institutions.
The peculiarities of the modern development of society are informatization, the development of high technologies and the complication of the fabric of social life. The competitiveness of developed countries and their participation in the world market for the division of labor are increasingly dependent on the level of education of workers, their skills and abilities for continuous professional development (lifelong learning - lifelong learning, that is, continuous self-education). The above Nation in Risk report states: “... these shortcomings have emerged at a time when the demands placed on highly skilled workers in new fields are becoming increasingly complex. For example ... computers, computer-controlled equipment penetrates all aspects of our life - into homes, factories and offices. One estimate is that by the end of the century, millions of jobs will include laser technology and robotics. Technology is being radically transformed in many other pursuits. These include health care, medicine, energy, food processing, renovation, construction, science, education, military and industrial equipment. "
As you can see, the attitude to the level of development of the reader's culture of the individual, as well as to the process of reading activity, has changed today and is acquiring paramount importance for society. According to French sociologists, the idea of reading as a skill acquired in school is not correct enough, because in fact, reading is the result of cultural experience, the degree of mastery of which depends to a large extent on social conditions, educational level and age.
Many researchers of "poor reading" and functional illiteracy believe that the roots and causes of the development of these phenomena lie in early childhood and stem not only from the school, but also from the preschool period of the child's personality development. And a huge, decisive role here is played by the family, its socio-cultural environment and the reading culture of the parents. The level of literacy and reading culture of children and adolescents is of concern today among parents, teachers, librarians in different countries. For example, in the Netherlands in 1984, among 12-year-old children, 7% were unable to understand the simplest text. In Poland, Germany and the United States, about 40% of school-age children find it difficult to understand the simplest literary texts.
There are practically no absolutely illiterate people in Sweden. However, among the 8.5 million population, about 300-500 thousand adults experience difficulties in reading and writing. It is estimated that 5-10% of the 100,000 schoolchildren who graduate from first degree school each year cannot read and write with ease. Secondary school teachers report meeting too many 16-20 year olds who are unable to read what they want and what they need to read. These are young people whose chances in life after graduation are severely limited by their inability to absorb print information. Swedish experts emphasize that this is a nationwide problem that is steadily escalating.
What lies at its foundation? The heated debate among specialists mainly focused on improving teaching methods, but some of them believe that the main reason is most likely the lack of development of the child's linguistic capabilities in preschool age. Teachers emphasize that parents have neither the energy nor the opportunity to engage in the language development of their children. Many of them fail to show children the value of books and reading. Too many students say that their parents are so busy watching television that they simply don’t have time to talk to their children. To quote one teenager: “My parents are much more interested in people from Dallas ... than me! They cannot even imagine that I am at least as interesting as these stereotypes of theirs ”, which illustrates a typical picture of leisure in such families. Meanwhile, it is parents in early childhood who bear a huge responsibility for the child's speech development. Society, however, cannot vouch for the correction of all previously made mistakes and negligence in family education. However, Swedish teachers believe that school and society must ensure that students leave secondary school without adequate reading and writing skills.
Signs and characteristics of a weak reader (a person who cannot read)
What are the characteristics of "weak readers"? First of all, by the fact that they are bored and tedious to read. But these readers have other features as well. And the most common of them are reading errors. So, these readers can not always correctly correlate the symbol - the letter of the alphabet with the corresponding sound. This, firstly, leads to the fact that they have to pause in order to understand the text they have read, and, secondly, it leads to guessing. Guessing while reading, changing a few is different (this is especially true for long words). But even small mistakes with replacing and rearranging letters lead to a change in the meaning of the text. The weakest are characterized by slow reading, abrupt, constant repetition of phrases, stammering at the beginning of reading words, reading syllables. They make morphological and syntactic mistakes, mistakes from rearranging letters, etc., and also lose their rhythm when reading. Many of them treat reading as hard work, boring, gloomy and dull, because they lack words and expressions. Many schoolchildren can read quite correctly phonetically, but words and images do not mean anything to them. They only read because they have to. But at the same time, they never think about what they read, and do not pay attention to the content. Reading for them is something unpleasant that needs to be endured and followed. Of course, those who lack words and expressions, and those who struggle with their extremely poor reading technique, do not enjoy it. Reading is hard work! Typically, child development adults spend a lot of time and energy trying to find the best books for kids and teens. When they begin to offer them, they often encounter stubborn resistance from such readers.
Teachers emphasize that students whose reading skills are at the initial level cannot always, even if they want, read what is meant by "good literature." And only by the end of school, these students begin to realize that they need to improve their reading skills. As a rule, this leads them to low self-esteem and an inferiority complex. Young people enter life with receiving, which gives them half-knowledge and half-understanding, so they feel half-capable of fulfilling activities. And this group of people is large enough today in any, even the most developed society with cultural traditions.
So, from early childhood to old age, functional illiteracy accompanies a person, introducing troubles and additional suffering into his life. However, today modern developed countries are making a number of efforts to solve this problem, which affects wide sections of the population and affects almost all spheres of life.
Markets of developed countries
The economic development of countries is largely determined by the nature and depth of the social division of labor, in the process of which the development of domestic markets takes place. The conditions of their functioning affect the efficiency of production of both its individual types and the economic system as a whole. The internal market, which is understood as a system of exchange within the national economy without an export-import sector, is the primary element of the entire system of functioning of the world economy.It includes internal connections that characterize the scale and forms of interaction of various types of production that make up the economy. External relations serve the participation of the national economy in the world economy. Analysis of domestic markets shows the driving forces of economic processes in each individual country and, to a certain extent, in the subsystem as a whole.
If for the first half of the XX century. Since the traditional directions of capital flows were developing countries, the last decades have been characterized by an increase in the mutual intertwining of the capital of developed countries. The average annual growth rate of foreign direct investment in developed countries exceeds the growth rate of GNP and merchandise exports. At present, in France and England, foreign investments account for one-fifth of all manufacturing products, in Italy - a quarter, in the Federal Republic of Germany - about one-third. Britain and the United States, which traditionally were the largest exporters of capital, now act as its main importers.
In the 80s, the countries of Latin America went through a period of the most severe economic crisis. The average rate of economic growth in the region fell from 6% in the 70s to 1.8% in the 80s, inflation and unemployment rose significantly. There was a sharp decline in the inflow of foreign investment, and many countries were forced to temporarily stop servicing their external debt.
Developing countries are one of the main borrowers in the international capital market - they attract an average of about US $ 26 billion per year. Most of the external debt is short-term floating rate debt, with approximately 80% of the debt attributable to the government.
Tight monetary policy and fiscal expansion carried out by a number of developed countries, and especially the United States and Great Britain, led to an increase in real interest rates and a decrease in economic growth in them.
Developing countries are characterized by a fundamentally different structure of financial markets and a scheme of interaction between fiscal and monetary policies than in developed countries.
Financial market capacity in developing countries is relatively small compared to the government's need to finance the budget deficit. High investment risks and significant emission volumes lead to a high cost of raising funds for the state, which necessitates the use of seigniorage to finance the gap between revenues and planned government spending.
As a result, the need to finance current government spending, including the cost of servicing previously accumulated debt, becomes the most important motive for the formation of money supply in the country.
The low capacity of the financial market and low confidence in the state on the part of investors are one of the main reasons for the growth of money supply and the increase in the rate of inflation.
The above factors also determine the need for governments of developing countries to borrow in the international financial market by issuing bonds denominated in foreign currency. The value of funds raised in this way depends on interest rates in developed countries, as well as on the prices of exported and imported goods. The reasons for the increase in the cost of servicing external debt for developing countries may be the rise in interest rates in developed countries, a decrease in the cost of an export unit and an increase in the cost of an import unit.
The limited funds available for investment leads to the emergence of competition for capital between the state and the private sector. Additional placement by the state of its debt obligations leads to a reduction in investment in private production, that is, there is a substitution effect between public spending and private investment. Foreign capital entering the financial market plays a dominant role in the pricing process. The prices of financial instruments are weakly dependent on fundamental economic indicators.
Due to the fact that in developing countries there is a high state participation in the capital of the banking system and a low professional level of banking personnel, the distribution of credit resources often depends not on economic factors (profitability and profitability). Associated with this is the low efficiency of investments. State participation also stipulates that in the event of the end borrower's insolvency, servicing private debt may fall on the shoulders of the state budget.
The main foreign investors in emerging markets are the so-called qualified investors (banks, investment funds, speculative hedge funds) who are able to adequately assess the risk and potential return on investments and invest their funds mainly in the most liquid instruments (government bonds and securities of export-oriented companies , belonging to the number of "blue chips"). Such investors are mainly focused on making short-term investments, making a profit on arbitrage and speculative operations.
Lack of domestic financial resources and underdevelopment of domestic financial markets, leading to the high cost of borrowed capital for the producer, government intervention and an unfavorable structure of public debt are one of the main reasons for the high dependence of emerging markets on shocks in the international capital market. Expansionary monetary and / or fiscal policies and negative current account balances are other important factors in generating financial crises.
Little developed countries
The least developed countries represent a special category on a global scale. These states have extremely low levels of poverty, their economies are very weak, and people and resources are exposed to natural disasters.According to recent studies and estimates, 48 of the existing countries are classified as the least developed countries in the world. Changes to this list are made every 3 years. Checks and calculations are carried out by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). And the composition of the group of least developed countries is approved by the UN. A similar term for underdeveloped states was adopted in 1971. In order to be included in the list of least developed countries, it is necessary to meet three criteria put forward by the UN, and in order for a country to be excluded from the list, it is necessary to exceed the minimum threshold for two values.
Proposed criteria:
Economic vulnerability (instability of exports, agriculture, industry);
low level of income (calculation of GDP per capita for the past 3 years is made. For inclusion in the list - less than $ 750, for exclusion - more than $ 900);
low level of human resources development (the real standard of living is assessed in terms of health, nutrition, adult literacy, education).
In any case, although it is based on economic performance, the ranking of the least developed countries is subjective.
List of underdeveloped states
Over the past 40 years, only 3 countries have managed to leave this list. These are the Maldives, Botswana and Cape Verde.
The list of least developed countries is also referred to as the “fourth world”. They are distinguished from the countries of the "third world" largely due to the lack of any progress. Most often, states do not develop due to civil wars.
Most of the least developed countries are located in Africa (33 countries), Asia is the second largest group (14 countries), and one country is located in Latin America - this is Haiti.
The most famous states include the following:
Least developed countries in Africa - Angola, Guinea, Madagascar, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia;
The least developed countries in Asia are Afghanistan, Nepal, Yemen.
A clear example of the difference between developed countries and countries of the "fourth world" is the fact that 13% of the world's population is forced to survive for 1-2 dollars a day, at the same time, a person in a developed country spends the same amount for a cup of tea.
World community and underdeveloped states
Often, developed and developing countries, to help the least developed countries, relieve them of the obligation to pay duties and fulfill quotas on imports of goods. The international community develops and adopts programs to support such states. A special role in such assistance is played by powers that have never owned colonies, but have the experience of an underdeveloped country behind them. These states can help in the necessary manner, and not selectively and selectively, like countries with a long history of colonization, paying special attention to their former colonies and neighboring territories.
The last UN conference on least developing countries was held in Istanbul. There was adopted a program of development, support and control for the next 10 years, it is recorded in the "Istanbul Declaration". Also, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey made a proposal to change the name of this group of countries. He suggested calling them "Developed countries of the future" or "Potentially developing countries." This proposal was accepted for consideration. There are opinions that the conference in Turkey could become a turning point in the development of world states, the fight against poverty and entering a new stage of the world economy.
Developed countries policy
Developed countries policy. Demographic policy in economically developed countries is carried out exclusively by ECONOMIC MEASURES and is aimed at stimulating the birth rate. The arsenal of economic measures includes cash grants - monthly allowances for families with children, benefits for single parents, promotion of increasing the prestige of motherhood, and paid parental leave.In some countries where the position of the Catholic Church is strong (for example, in Ireland, the USA, in Poland), laws on its demands have recently been discussed in parliaments that would criminalize a woman who terminated a pregnancy and a doctor who had an abortion. The attitude in Western countries to demographic problems is defined as egalitarian, including the observance of the principles of democracy, social justice and human rights.
They presuppose the exclusion of repressive measures, the superiority of an individual solution. Most industrialized capitalist countries have a vague sense of low fertility.
The policy to increase the birth rate was noted in France, Greece, Luxembourg. This does not mean that Western governments do not have demographic goals. Most likely, they do not express them explicitly. Germany has a policy of encouraging fertility. The FRG government in 1974 allowed the distribution of contraceptives and lifted restrictions on abortions in the first three months of pregnancy, but early next year, the country's Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional to allow abortions "at will" and limited the right to them only "for medical reasons" or other emergency circumstances.
In our time, Germany has adopted a complex system of encouraging measures of demographic policy, which is divided into three main groups: Family allowances and allowances; Childbirth benefits; Housing benefits. 4. Russian Politics Russia entered the 20th century with a record high birth rate. Even in 1915, when a significant number of men were drafted into the army, the country's population continued to grow.
In the near future, the generation born in 1980-1987 is entering its childbearing age. The last numerous generation capable of replacing their fathers and mothers. The state demographic policy of Russia should be aimed at stimulating the birth of a second and third child, because it still remains an acceptable value and is possible with the creation of appropriate material and living conditions.
Expenditures on demographic policy should take first place in the state budget. The volume of benefits and incentive payments for two- or three-child families must reach a level at which such families will be materially more profitable than one-child families. The current situation in the field of demography in the Russian Federation is characterized by a number of negative trends. In Russia, there is a depopulation of the population, which is due to low fertility on the one hand (the parameters of which are almost 2 times less than required for replacement of generations) and a high mortality rate, especially in infancy and working age.
Among those who died of working age, men account for about 80%, which is 4 times higher than the death rate for women. The main causes of death are accidents, poisoning and injuries, diseases of the circulatory system and neoplasms. The health status and mortality rate of the population are reflected in the indicators of the life expectancy of the country's population.
The average life expectancy of the country's population was 65.9 years. The difference in life expectancy for men and women is 12 years. The goal of the demographic policy for the medium term is to take measures to reduce the mortality rate of the population; creation of prerequisites for the stabilization of birth rates. In this regard, the main tasks of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of demographic policy are: development of the main directions of action for the implementation of the demographic policy of the Russian Federation in the long term, including specific measures for the implementation of the Concept of demographic policy, taking into account the prospects for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Federation, individual ethnic groups of the population and regional characteristics of demographic processes; development and implementation of a set of federal targeted programs for the protection of public health, including the prevention and treatment of arterial hypertension among the population of the Russian Federation; providing cancer care to the population of the Russian Federation; prevention and fight against AIDS, etc. development of measures providing for certification of workplaces in order to identify unfavorable factors on the health of workers, as well as the procedure for economic incentives for employers to improve working conditions and safety; development and implementation of measures for the prevention of offenses, drunkenness and drug addiction.
The All-Russian Population Census, as well as the creation of the State Population Register of the Russian Federation, will be of great importance for obtaining the most complete and reliable information about the population of the country in its various aspects, for conducting a wide range of studies on the formation and adjustment of demographic policy.
In the field of creating conditions for the life of a family that make it possible to raise several children, the main direction should be to ensure that the demographic aspect is taken into account in the development and implementation of state housing policy, including: maintaining the system of housing standards, ensuring a favorable regime of the system of housing standards for families with children; promoting the development of market-based forms of ensuring the affordability of housing that best meet the housing needs of families in the active phase of the reproductive cycle; taking into account the number of children in a family in need of better housing conditions when determining the amount of assistance from the state (gratuitous subsidies for the purchase of housing, assistance in repaying mortgage loans, etc.). The natural decline in the population of Russia was 4.8 people per 10 thousand citizens. According to ITAR-TASS, such data were cited today, speaking in the State Duma, by the Minister of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation Alexander Pochinok.
He said that last year the Russian population dropped to 145.6 million.
A. Pochinok noted the generally unfavorable demographic trend in the country.
Moreover, the minister specified, such forecasts were calculated from the account of the positive migration balance. Without taking this factor into account, according to A. Pochinka, the population of Russia may reach 171 million people, as a result of which the country will drop from the seventh place in the world in terms of the number of its citizens to the fourteenth. Such a demographic situation, according to A. Pochinok, can lead to a "catastrophe" of the Russian pension system and a shortage of labor in the country.
Serious, consistent measures are needed to prevent the demographic crisis, the minister said. The government has already developed a concept for the demographic development of the Russian Federation, which provides for the implementation of a number of social programs, in particular, to reduce the level of sudden mortality, protect working conditions, and combat tuberculosis and drug addiction. A. Pochinok also noted that in order to increase the birth rate in the country, it is necessary to significantly increase the socio-economic standard of living of people. "In order for a family to bear children today, they need confidence in the future," the minister said. 5. Conclusion Difficulties in the socio-economic development of the Third World countries contributed to the growth of the priority of demographic policy, i.e. purposeful activity in the field of regulation of demographic processes.
This was facilitated by the position of the industrially developed countries of the West, which believe that control over population growth is also a necessary condition for socio-economic development.
In a joint communiqué of the heads of state and government of the leading Western countries in Houston, it was noted that sustainable development in a number of countries requires population growth to be in a reasonable balance with economic resources, and maintaining an inflated balance is a priority for countries that support economic development.
The importance of demographic policy is not the same for different subsystems and countries, depending on the level of their economic development and the stage of demographic transition. In particular, in one fifth of all countries, where 26% of the world's population lives, it is believed that population growth or natural increase has little impact on the development of the country and does not need to achieve special goals in this area.
Demographic policy, being part of socio-economic policy, is not always clearly manifested. It is carried out with the greatest certainty when its direct goal is to influence demographic development. Demographic policy has an impact on two aspects of the reproductive behavior of the population - on the realization of the need for children and on the formation of the need for an individual and a family for such a number of children that would correspond to the interests of society.
This is achieved by economic, administrative-legal and socio-psychological measures. A characteristic feature of these measures is their durability due to the fact that demographic processes are characterized by significant inertia, determined by the stability of the standards of demographic behavior. The peculiarity of the measures taken lies in their impact on the dynamics of demographic processes, mainly not directly, but indirectly, through human behavior.
Structure of developed countries
The developing countries are the countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America - former colonial, semi-colonial and dependent countries that became politically independent states after the collapse of the colonial system of capitalism. Composition and structure of developing countries: Capital-surplus oil countries: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia. NIS, including: city-states: Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore. Countries with a more capacious domestic market: South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, etc. Comparatively developed small countries: Bahrain, Cyprus, Lebanon. Agricultural and raw material exporters, including: oil exporters: Algeria, Iraq, Iran. Other agricultural and raw material exporters: Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, Malaysia, Morocco, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Philippines, Sri Lanka.Countries of endogenous development, including: large countries: Pakistan, India. Backward agrarian countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Bhutan, Mauritania, Nepal, Sudan, etc. Let's consider briefly the main characteristics of groups and subgroups: 1 Capital-surplus oil countries. The main characteristics of the group: high rates of GDP growth in the 70s; significant surplus of the balance of payments; massive export of capital; the highest level of per capita income; a high degree of dependence on external factors of development; one-sided diversified structure of GDP and exports. The main and rapid factor in the rise of the countries of this group was oil. A sharp and repeated increase in oil prices on the world market in the early 1980s led to a significant inflow of petrodollars to these countries, however, their economies were unable to absorb this inflow. In recent years, the situation on the oil market has deteriorated sharply, oil production has declined, which, combined with the fall in world prices, has sharply exacerbated the economic problems of these countries. As a result of the budget deficit, foreign assets are gradually being “sold”. Economic restructuring and diversification of the sectoral structure are proceeding slowly. Newly industrialized countries (NIS). The main features of the group: the highest GDP growth rates; relatively high level of GDP per capita; active involvement in the international division of labor; industrial export specialization; export-oriented development strategy.
In the group, there are certain differences between the countries included in it. Hong Kong, Singapore and Macau (to a lesser extent), in addition to the export of industrial products, have important intermediary functions in the world capitalist economy (re-export, transit, financial transactions, tourism, etc.). In the city-states there is no agricultural sector, such a category as the domestic market is practically inapplicable to them. The subgroup, which includes South Korea and Taiwan, has a relatively large domestic market, the existing agricultural sector is much less developed than the industrial one. The involvement of South Korea and Taiwan in the international division of labor is slightly lower than that of city-states.
Comparatively developed small countries. Common to this group are the following characteristics: industrial specialization of exports; rather high level of GDP per capita. At the same time, serious economic problems for Cyprus and Lebanon are generated by internal and external political instability. For this reason, Lebanon has practically lost its role as a financial, trade, transit and tourist center of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Bahrain in economic development is making an evolution from a capital-surplus oil exporter to the NIS group. Bahrain is gradually turning into a major trade and financial center of the Mediterranean-Middle East region. Bahrain has practically no agricultural sector and, accordingly, no agricultural exports. Agricultural and raw material exporters. The largest and most heterogeneous group. Factors determining the similarity of agricultural commodity exporters: moderate GDP growth rates; the relative balance of exports and imports; a higher share of the agricultural sector than in capital-surplus and newly industrialized countries; the significant role of mineral raw materials in exports. In terms of the commodity structure of exports, there are three countries in the group: Algeria, Iraq and Iran, which form a subgroup of oil exporters.
These oil exporters differ significantly from the capital-surplus oil countries in a more diversified sectoral structure of the economy, a more capacious domestic market, the presence of an agricultural sector in the national economy, and smaller oil reserves. Among other agricultural and raw material exporters, there are many countries that export oil: Indonesia, Tunisia, Egypt, Malaysia, Syria. In addition to oil, they export non-ferrous metal ores, natural rubber, timber, food and industrial goods. Countries of endogenous development. The main factors of similarity between countries are: low per capita income; low share of exports in GDP; significant share of the agricultural sector; relatively weak involvement in the international division of labor.
The main difference between the subgroup of large countries is that the foundations of a perfect reproduction complex have already been created in them, the import-substituting stage of industrialization has practically been completed. The export structure of these countries (especially India) is quite diversified, and the share of manufactured goods in exports is growing. The countries of the subgroup have their own research and development base, they carry out nuclear and space programs. However, the growing industrial potential of large countries is under pressure from a backward and numerous agrarian periphery. As for the subgroup of backward agrarian states, the backwardness of their ecological structures, limited access to external resources, narrow export base, underdevelopment of the domestic market, etc. does not allow these countries to achieve a change in their economic status in the future.
Newly developed countries
South KoreaArea: 98.5 thousand sq. km.
Population: 48,509,000
Capital: Seoul
Official name: Republic of Korea
Government: Parliamentary Republic
Legislature: Unicameral National Assembly
Head of State: President
Administrative structure: Unitary country (nine provinces and six cities under central jurisdiction)
Common religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity (Protestants) UN member
National holiday: Republic proclamation day (September 9), State foundation day (October 3)
EGP and natural resource potential. The state is located in East Asia, on the Korean Peninsula, washed by the waters of the Japanese and Yellow Seas, borders the DPRK on the thirty-eighth parallel, has sea borders with China and Japan. It also maintains the closest ties with Western countries and the United States. The country's government is trying to intensify external relations and economic cooperation with North Korea.
In the bowels of the country there are deposits of coal, iron and manganese ores, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, gold, silver, thorium, asbestos, graphite, mica, salt, kaolin, limestone, but its own mineral the base is not enough for the development of the economy.
The population of the country is almost 99.8% of Koreans, there is a twenty thousandth Chinese community, the official language is Korean. The population density is 490 people. sq. km. The urban population is about 81%. Before the outbreak of World War II, quite a few Koreans migrated to China, Japan and the USSR. About 3.3 million people returned to the country after 1945. About 2 million Koreans fled from the Democratic People's Republic of Korea to the Republic of Korea. The largest cities are Seoul, Suwon, Daejeon, Gwangju, Busan, Ulsan, Daegu.
Seoul, the capital of the republic, the largest transport hub (Kimpo international airport, Incheon seaport), cultural, scientific, financial and economic center of the country, is one of the most densely populated cities in the world.
The city was first mentioned in the 1st century. AD, in the XIV century. was called Hanyang, the modern name that means "capital", the city received in 1948 after it was declared the capital of South Korea.
Together with Incheon, the city's economy provides about 50% of the country's industrial production. The enterprises of the light, textile, automotive, radio-electronic, chemical, cement, paper, rubber, leather, and ceramic industries operate. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering are well developed. In 1974 the subway was built. The layout of the city in some parts is very dependent on the hilly terrain. A number of districts of the old city are built up with modern high-rise buildings.
Seoul is home to the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts, Seoul National University, Korea University, Hanyang and Seogan Universities, the National Museum, traditional dance theater, drama and opera theaters.
The country's economy ranks 12th in the world in terms of GDP. Developed science-intensive mechanical engineering, electronics. The country owes large-scale American, Japanese and Western European investments to the policy of economic openness to foreign investors (since 1979). Since the end of the 80s of the last century, their own Korean conglomerate companies - the world famous Samsung, LG and others began to compete with Western transnational companies. GNP per capita is about $ 18,000. Industry. Industry provides 25% of the country's GDP, it employs a quarter of the working-age population. Most businesses are small, family-owned, with a small number of firms listed on the national stock exchange. About 20 large companies produce up to a third of all industrial products. Industrial production in the Republic of Korea has shifted from textiles to electronics, electrical goods, machinery, ships, petroleum products and steel.
The mining industry is engaged in the development of graphite deposits, the extraction of kaolin, tungsten and low-quality coal, which is used in the energy sector. The economy of the Republic of Korea, like the Japanese economy, is evidence that a country can be rich thanks to imported raw materials.
Agriculture accounts for a small percentage of GDP, but fully provides the population with food and creates its residues for export. It employs one seventh of the working-age population. After the land reform of 1948, a significant part of the large farms were restructured, now they are dominated by small family farms, which cultivate almost a fifth of the country's territory. Half of the land is irrigated. The government purchases most of the crop at stable prices.
The main crop is Rice (gives 2/5 of the value of all products in the industry). In addition to rice, barley, wheat, soybeans, potatoes, vegetables, cotton, and tobacco are grown. Horticulture, ginseng cultivation, fishing and seafood catch are developed, the industry fully meets the needs of the population, and the surplus of fish and seafood is exported). Pigs and cattle are raised on family farms.
Transport. The tonnage of the country's merchant marine fleet is over 12 million dwt. The main seaports are Busan, Ulsan, Icheon. Rivers are also used for navigation in the middle of the country. Railway transport is much less developed than automobile transport, the length of roads of which is 7 and 60 thousand km. There are international airports in Seoul and Busan.
Foreign economic relations. The main foreign trade partners of the country are the USA, Japan, and the countries of Southeast Asia. The country exports products of manufacturing industries - Transport equipment, electrical engineering, cars, ships, chemicals, footwear, textiles, agricultural products. Imports oil and oil products, mineral fertilizers, engineering products, food.
Singapore
Area: 647.5 sq. km.
Population: 4,658,000
Capital: Singapore
Official name: Republic of Singapore
Legislature: Unicameral Parliament
Head of State: President (elected for a term of 6 years)
Administrative structure: Unitary Republic
Common religions: Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism
Member of the UN, ASEAN, since 1965 is a member of the Commonwealth
National Day: Independence Day (August 29)
EGP and natural resource potential. Singapore is a state in Southeast Asia, on about. Singapore and the adjoining 58 small islands, off the southern end of the Malacca Peninsula. The largest wealth of the island is considered to be a convenient deep-water harbor in the southeastern part of it. From the north, the island of Singapore is separated from Malaysia by the Johor Strait about 1 km wide, the shores of which are connected by a dam. Separated from Indonesia in the west by the Strait of Malacca. The relief of the island is flat, the shores are low-lying, significantly swampy, and have a significant number of estuarine-type bays. In the southwest, there are clusters of coral reefs. The highest point of the island is the Bukittimah hump (177 m).
The climate is equatorial monsoon with no distinct seasons. Temperatures throughout the year are constant from 26 to 280C. High humidity and rains are observed throughout the year, with 2440 mm of precipitation per year. The monsoon season lasts from November to February. On the islands there are remnants of tropical rainforests, mangrove bushes, recreation cities for migratory birds. There are no mineral deposits in the country, even neighboring Malaysia supplies drinking water by water supply, and only on the shelf off the Malay Peninsula are oil and natural gas deposits discovered.
Population. Almost the entire population of the country lives in its capital - the city of Singapore, in addition to it, there are several other settlements on the island.
Immigrants from the predominantly southern provinces of China make up 77.4% of the country's population, 14.2% are Malays, 7.2% are Indians and 1.2% are from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Europe. Almost a third of the population professes Buddhism, a fifth - Confucianism is Christianity, Islam, Hinduism.
Singapore - One of the most densely populated countries in the world with a population density of over 4,884. per sq. km. Singapore, the capital of the eponymous state of Singapore. Located on the low-lying coastal area of the Calang and Singapore Rivers on the southern coast of Singapore Island and the adjacent small islands of the Singapore Strait. It is connected with the Malacca Peninsula by rail and road.
The city began to be called Singapore in 1299 (translated from Sanskrit - "Lion City"). Due to its convenient location on the island of Singapore, the city has become a crossroads of sea routes for traders from India, China, Siam (Thailand) and the Indonesian states. During its history, the city was repeatedly plundered and destroyed by Javanese and Portuguese. Since 1824, Singapore has been recognized as the possession of England and for more than a century has served as its main naval and commercial base as the "eastern pearl of the British crown."
In 1959, Singapore became the capital of the "self-governing state" Singapore, and in December 1965 the capital of the independent Republic of Singapore.
Singapore is divided into several districts, contrasting with one: the central or colonial and business districts, Chinatown.
Today Singapore is one of the largest commercial, industrial, financial and transport centers in Southeast Asia; one of the world's largest ports with a cargo turnover of over 400 million tons per year; Changi International Airport operates here; the Singapore currency exchange is the fourth in the world after London, New York and Tokyo; the largest electronics industry center in Southeast Asia. The city has metalworking, electrical, shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises. The city's oil refining industry processes more than 20 million tons of crude oil per year. Also developed are chemical, food, textile, light industries, primary processing of rubber and other agricultural raw materials. The city has about 135 large banks, one of the world's largest rubber exchange.
Singapore is a significant scientific and cultural center of Asia. At the University of Singapore, which was founded in 1949, the Center for Economic Research operates, there is also Nanyang University, the Polytechnic Institute, the Technical College, the Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, the Institute of Architecture, scientific societies and associations in the city. The National Library, founded in 1884, has more than 520 thousand volumes.
The city has the National and Art Museums, Philately, Navy Museums, World War II Memorials, National Theater, Victoria Concert Hall, Drama Center, numerous theaters and cinemas, Wayang Chinese Street Opera, Botanical Garden with Orchid Garden, Marine Aquarium , a bird and reptile park and a zoo, numerous architectural monuments, Hindu, Confucian-Buddhist, Buddhist temples and Muslim mosques.
The so-called "city of the XXI century" is being built in the northeastern part. A large oil refinery has been established on the islands of the new western port of Jurong. Singapore has several small islands, one of which, Sentosa Island, has become a resort area of the city.
Economy. The country is one of the largest trade, industrial, financial and transport centers of Southeast Asia, the basis of the economy of which is made up of traditional foreign trade operations (mainly re-export), as well as export industries operating on imported raw materials. Singapore is the largest investor in the economies of Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. In terms of investment, it is second only to Japan.
The country's government has taken vigorous measures to stimulate economic development: provided significant tax incentives to industrialists whose enterprises produced export products; incentives were introduced for industrial investors and exporters. In the 1990s, Singapore becomes one of the largest regional and international centers for trade, finance, marketing and the development of the latest technologies. In terms of the level of computerization, it ranks second in Asia after Japan.
Industry. The country's industrial enterprises operate on imported raw materials. Products made from imported raw materials are often imported. There are metalworking, electrical, radio-electronic, optical-mechanical, aviation, steel-making, shipbuilding and ship-repairing, oil refining, chemical, food, textile, and light industries enterprises in the country. Singapore ranks second in the world (after the United States) in the production of mobile well equipment for the development of offshore oil fields, second (after Hong Kong) in the handling of sea containers, and third (after Houston and Rotterdam) in oil refining. The country has a highly developed military industry. There are enterprises for the primary processing of tea, coffee, natural rubber.
Agriculture occupies an insignificant place in the total volume of production. The coconut palm, rubber-bearing hevea, spices, tobacco, pineapples, vegetables, and fruits are cultivated. Pig breeding, poultry farming, fishing and sea fishing are developing.
Transport. Singapore is one of the largest (second largest in the world in terms of cargo turnover) ports in the world. The length of the railways is 83 km, the motor roads are over 3 thousand km. Tonnage of the merchant marine fleet 6,900,000 reg. gross. Changi International Airport ranks among the best in the world in terms of quality and efficiency of passenger service. It welcomes up to 36 million passengers a year and houses more than 100 shops, 60 restaurants, a large swimming pool and several free cinemas, 200 Internet zones with a free worldwide network and the largest art gallery in Asia.
Foreign economic relations. The country exports office equipment, oil products, television and radio equipment. The country's economy receives significant funds through the sale of exotic fish and orchids. Major foreign trade partners: USA, Japan, Malaysia, etc.
Its location at the crossroads of trade routes from European states to the Far East has boosted Singapore's growth into the largest port of re-export trade in Southeast Asia. Today, re-export operations account for almost 30% of foreign trade. It is a global financial and investment center. A major center for international trade and industrial exhibitions.
Import consists of foodstuffs necessary for the country (up to 90% of the country's needs). A spare water pipeline was built from Indonesia. More than 8 million tourists visit the country annually, which brings significant income to the country.
Taiwan (Ukraine is not recognized as a state)
Area: 36.18 thousand sq. km.
Population: 22.7 million
Capital: Taipei
Official name: Republic of Taiwan
Government: Republic
Legislature: National Assembly
Head of State: President (elected for 4 years)
Administrative structure: Unitary state
Common religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism
Member of the United Nations
Public Holiday: Taiwan Day (October 10)
EGP and natural resource potential. The country's territory consists of the island of Taiwan, the Penghuledao archipelago (Pescadores), the Jinmen islands, the Mazu islands, the Paracel Islands, the Pratas and Spratly islands. More than half of the territory is occupied by mountains, there are active volcanoes, and earthquakes are frequent. The flat areas of the islands are covered with tropical rainforests, the timber of which is an important natural resource of the country.
The climate is from subtropical to tropical monsoon with air temperatures from 15 to 280C. annual precipitation is 1,500 - 5,000 mm. Typhoons occur from July to September. Mineral resources include oil, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt, limestone, and marble. The population of the country is 98% Chinese, the indigenous population of the islands - Goashan is 1.5%. The most widespread and officially recognized religion is Buddhism; in addition, Taoism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam are widespread.
Largest cities: Taipei, Kaohsiung, Taichung, Tainan. Taipei, the largest city on the island of Taiwan, the administrative center of the province of Taiwan, the capital of the country, the largest industrial and cultural center where enterprises of metallurgy and mechanical engineering (production of electronic calculators, tape recorders, televisions, computers), cement, chemical, woodworking, food industries operate. Jilong sea port, Taoyuan and Songshan international airports are built here. Taipei became the main city of Taiwan in 1956. The tallest skyscraper "Taipei-101" (509 m, 101 floors) was erected here, which became the tallest building in the world. The lower floors of the skyscraper are reserved for restaurants and shops, and the upper floors are for offices. It is here that the fastest elevators in the world operate, with the help of which in just 39 seconds you can climb to the 88th floor with an observation deck.
Economy. Both Taiwan and the PRC are nominating programs for unification into a single country, but significant disagreements between the two countries do not allow this to be done. Since the late 1980s, travel has resumed, cultural, scientific and personal ties between citizens of the two parts of China are developing. Since the 90s of the last century, economic and cultural contacts between Taiwan and mainland China began to actively develop. Taiwanese investment in the Chinese economy is growing every year. The relationship is regulated on both sides by non-governmental organizations.
Taiwan - Economically highly developed area, is one of the so-called "newly industrialized countries". Its GNP since 1995 allowed the country to enter the top twenty of the world's leading countries, the country ranks second in the world after Japan in terms of foreign exchange reserves.
The country's industry is characterized by high-tech products known throughout the world. Taiwan produces so many goods and components for the global computer market, which is called "Silicon Island". Developed manufacturing industries: radio-electronic, chemical, instrument and shipbuilding, textile, leather and footwear, sewing. Taiwan is the world's largest camphor producer. The industrialization of cranes has had a significant impact on the state of its environment.
Agriculture. Only 30% of the territory is suitable for agricultural cultivation. The industry accounts for only 4% of GDP. Farmers collect 2-3 crops per year. Rice, cereals, sugarcane, betel nut, coconuts, bamboo, sorghum, tea, yutut, tropical fruits and vegetables are grown. Developed fishing, pig breeding, poultry farming.
Transport. The length of the railways is about 4 thousand km. Highways over 17 thousand km. The main ports are Kaohsiung, Jilong, Taichung, Hualien, Suao.
Foreign economic relations. In terms of total foreign trade, Taiwan ranks 14th in the world. The country's exports are textiles, information technology, electronic products, sugar, camphor, metal products. They import weapons, metals, oil, etc. The main trading partners are the USA, China, Japan.
Experience of developed countries
The world experience has shown the active development of the following directions for retail trade: hypermarket chains, large trade enterprises such as shopping and entertainment centers (SEC), malls, discounter shops and "pocket supermarkets" united in trade networks. Today these areas are the most promising in Moscow and the Moscow region.All over the world, hypermarket chains are economically sustainable entities, are in demand and continue to develop. The construction of hypermarkets in the Moscow region is favored by the changed rhythm and lifestyle of Muscovites and residents of the region. We are now reaching the level when families can go out on weekends (including out of town) and make comprehensive purchases, as well as use additional services (for example, such as a hairdresser, beauty salon, etc.), therefore, it is worth considering it as the most promising direction for the development of trade. In addition, the hypermarket is also becoming a place of recreation, where visitors do not waste time, but spend it with pleasure. On its territory, you can locate a cinema, restaurants, cafes, children's rooms, etc., which is already being done.
Active access to the regions is also due to another factor - the shortage and high rental value of land in Moscow. Rental prices for retail space ranged from $ 150 to $ 4500 per sq. m per year, while the bulk of the supply was made up of areas in the price range from $ 500 to $ 1,000.At the same time, an increase in the level of consumer demand and toughening of requirements for trade enterprises on the part of retailers are already stimulating developers to improve the quality and efficiency of the concepts of facilities being built trade.
Today in the West, a shopping type is actively developing - the mall. In Russian practice, some experts regard the mall as a synonym for a hypermarket, while others note the difference between them, which lies in the principle of trade: the basis of a mall, as a rule, is a number of large stores called anchors. They are interconnected by covered galleries, which house many small shops (boutiques), restaurants, cafes, hairdressers, dry cleaners. The galleries are closed in a ring through which the customer walks.
The mall is a huge shopping, cultural and entertainment center, designed to be visited by a large number of people at the same time. In Russia, so far there are only projects for the construction of European malls. Today, only the Mega Mall located in Moscow is closest to it, which shows good economic results, which makes it possible to make forecasts regarding the active development of this format of the trading enterprise of the future.
However, experts say, it is premature to talk about the widespread construction of malls. In the very near future, shopping centers will be actively developing. The malls offer the buyer a fairly large assortment of products, represented by different brands. The malls serve the middle class, which, although it does not travel outside the Moscow Ring Road once a week to spend half of its salary, at the same time does not have time to go shopping every day. The shopping center can be called a kind of compromise between a hypermarket and many separate small stores.
A shopping and entertainment center (SEC) is the same shopping center, only providing a wider range of services to the buyer. This is an opportunity to relax and shop. There is less choice here than in a hypermarket or mall, but they are located closer to residential areas. Often, the owners of the shopping and entertainment center resort to organizing concerts, performances or drawing lotteries on the territory of the complex; all visitors are invited to join the game, which retains buyers and encourages repeated visits to the shopping enterprise.
Chain stores will also not lose their pace of development in the future. They are likely to replace one-off stores, which will find it increasingly difficult to stay on the market on their own. The development of networks is evidenced not only by their growing number, but also by the opening of their own production of goods by the networks as an important condition for creating a company name and forming an image.
Perhaps one-off stores will cease to exist as a trade format altogether or will have little weight in trade. In any case, if they are not crowded out as a result of competition between the chain and the shopping center, then they can be attracted by the franchise market. One way or another, there is no clear future for single stores. An exception may be a shop at a factory, but it should rather be positioned as a boutique, because the manufacturing company will in any case find the financial means to support its brand store.
An example is the Danone store, located two hundred meters from Red Square, which to this day perfectly fulfills its role: it helps to strengthen the Danone company image, and also serves as a kind of advertisement for fresh dairy products.
The store annually sells up to 600 tons of Danone products, it is visited daily by 1,500 to 3,500 people, not only Muscovites, but also residents of other Russian cities who come to Moscow and specially visit this trading enterprise.
Chain stores do not pose a "danger" for company stores, because Psychologically, the buyer considers the branded store products to be fresher and more complete in terms of assortment, and cheaper in price than in any retail trade enterprise, although this is not always the case.
Discounter is a relatively new but actively developing format in Russia. In the West, it has long been ubiquitous and enjoys a well-deserved favor among the local population. Discount stores have a number of common features, such as: the use of simpler equipment, some of the goods in the hall are offered directly in production or transport containers, a minimum number of personnel is used, and as a result of all this, distribution costs are reduced and prices are set.
The trade margin in discount stores is 16 - 18%, and the mark-up for consumer goods is set at a minimum level of 12%, while for cosmetics - from 25% to 40%, which is higher than that of competitors. For a discounter, the zone of influence is defined as two bus stops (about 500 m). The retail space of a discounter in Russia averages about 1,500 sq. m, while in the West - only 400 - 800 sq. m.
Germany is an example of the widespread use of discounters. Discounters - food, household goods, household and perfumery goods, footwear - are located one after another on a street dominated by apartment buildings. A feature of discounters in Germany is their division into cheaper and more respectable (prestigious) ones. But the prices of goods in the store and its appearance may not be related.
For example, the stores Aldi, Schlecker, DR (drogerie merkt), Kaiser’s have good finishes, wide aisles between the rows of equipment, and the equipment itself is new and of high quality. At the same time, for example, Aldi is a classic discounter with a minimum assortment matrix (800 - 900 items).
There are no specialized discounters in Russia yet. There is no division into expensive and cheaper, most likely, such a division will occur in the future, when their number reaches the threshold limit of competition in their format. Russian discounters so far can boast of a wider assortment over Western ones, which amounts to about 800 - 1400 items.
Discounter is not the only format that is gaining more and more popularity in Europe. Today, shops operating on the principle of "pocket supermarket" are also promising, in which, in contrast to large trade enterprises, prices are much higher. The success of this format, which originated in the United States, is quite interesting, the trend of its spread, which is gaining momentum every year.
The "secret" of this store is the convenience of its location. It is located in the immediate vicinity of consumers' residence, in those places where it is difficult to organize other trade enterprises or their maintenance will not be economically profitable. Their peculiarity is in a limited assortment and relatively high prices. Nevertheless, similar shops in the USA and Europe are very popular.
One example is Klein Eiche (Little Country) located in Brandenburg, Germany and serving an area of 2,000.
Klein Eiche is an SB store. Its area is 100 sq. m. Employees (two sellers and a cashier) strive to ensure that in a small area the buyer can get everything they need - from a daily newspaper to meat cuts, from fresh fruit to animal feed. Present all groups of goods on the territory of 100 sq. m is impossible, therefore in "Klein Eich" you can easily place an order for almost any product. That is, if the product you need is not on sale today, then by leaving the appropriate entry, you can receive it tomorrow or within the agreed period.
The organizers of the "convenience store" strive to ensure that all goods in the sales area are clearly visible, and the assortment matrix is clearly thought out. Near the "pocket supermarket" there is usually a parking lot for 10 - 15 cars and flower beds. The territory is equipped in such a way that shopping cart can drive purchases directly to the car.
The company usually has an "extended" working day. The optimal operating mode is from 7 to 23 hours or round the clock. It is important to note that the service in such stores is based on a "family" principle. Buyers need to feel like they are always welcome. Convenience store prices are set 5–8% above average, but this does not deter European buyers.
Global trade development trends show that Western business leaders achieve savings by combining such factors of technological processes as a decrease in the average annual cost of inventories, a rational number of employees, an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the "load" per sq. m of retail space. The centralized model used in the West relies primarily on the advantages of Internet technology and allows you to consolidate orders to suppliers, quickly redistribute goods between stores depending on the level of demand. The work of Western networks is organized by region. The regional group includes 50-60 stores that are linked through one distribution center. The maximum possible number of functions is centralized. There are unified marketing policies, a merchandising system, a training center, each workplace is standardized, all procedures are scheduled. At the same time, nowhere in the world have the largest chains been created from scratch, by building or buying stores. Everywhere this took place through a voluntary association of already existing stores or joining this association of wholesalers.
Retail formats are developing all over the world according to a single logic, and the Russian retail market repeats the main stages in the development of the markets of more developed countries. Evolution is taking place against the background of the inevitable displacement of traditional forms of trade by more modern ones.
First, there are food formats that provide high customer traffic and fast turnover of goods. At the first stages, formats are developed that allow maintaining a high level of gross margin - supermarkets, soft discounters. The first supermarkets appeared in Russia in the mid-1990s: Seventh Continent, Perekrestok. Supermarkets attracted consumers with high-quality branded goods and quality of service never seen before by post-Soviet buyers: round-the-clock work, modern design and a wide range of products. Low competition allowed supermarkets to maintain a fairly high price level, while low effective demand initially limited growth opportunities. With the increase in competition and the appearance of several supermarkets in one region, the management of the companies faced an acute issue of optimizing their activities, which led to the development of the network business. Savings in this case are achieved due to discounts for a large volume of purchases, cost minimization, and centralization of management.
Soft discounters are the next stage in the evolution of retail formats after supermarkets. The rise in price sensitivity led to its emergence. In a soft discounter, prices are kept at a constantly low level, the assortment is reduced to goods that are sold most quickly, and services are minimized. The first representatives of this format in Russia were Kopeyka and Pyaterochka.
Following the soft discounters, hypermarkets began to actively develop, realizing the concept of "low prices and high quality in a large space." This marked a new stage in increasing the price aggressiveness and efficiency of the retail trade. The first hypermarket format in Moscow and St. Petersburg was presented by foreign players: Ramstore, Auchan. The response to the success of hypermarkets was the emergence of hard discounters, combining low prices with proximity and ease of transportation. This is the global trend in the evolution of formats, but in Russia the hard discounter has not yet developed, since this format places very high demands on the internal organization of the company and the quality of application of modern management technologies.
Simultaneously with hard discounters, cash & carry stores appear in many countries. This format is presented in Russia by the German company "Metro", as well as by the St. Petersburg "Lenta". The format is based on a focus on small-scale wholesale trade, on professional buyers - representatives of small and medium-sized businesses. The main clients of Metro are representatives of the restaurant and hotel business, the so-called HoReCa segment, small retail stores - traders who purchase goods in this network for subsequent resale, and representatives of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs who do not belong to the first two groups, but purchase related products.
However, the specificity of Russian cash & carry is that they work with retail customers as well. Considering the assortment line and the size of the retail space, as well as the terminology accepted in modern Russian retail, Metro Cash & Carry can be conditionally classified as a hypermarket.
Simultaneously with hypermarkets, hard discounters and cash & carry centers in Russia, the development of a format was taking place, offering a unique assortment in places most convenient for the buyer - convenience stores.
The next stage in the evolution of retail is the development of non-food formats, specialized formats, the so-called category killers - DYI, BTE, perfumery and cosmetic chains, pharmacies, drogeries, etc. The format of large chain department stores is entering the market; with the development of the market infrastructure, distance selling is becoming more active.
The format evolution cycle in Russia is faster than in Western and Eastern Europe. This is due to the fact that the world has accumulated extensive know-how in retail, there are many examples of successful retail practices, which are actively used by leading Russian players. In addition, the entry of the largest global players into the market also contributes to the active development of retail technologies in Russia.
Features of developed countries
Industrialized countries - countries that are members of the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). These include Australia, Great Britain, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Spain, Iceland, Italy, USA, Finland, etc. There are 24 states in total. Developed countries have the following main features: - A high level of such an economic indicator as GDP, calculated per capita per year.Basically, its value should be in the range of 15-30 thousand dollars. Developed countries have such an annual per capita GDP that it is five times higher than the world average. - Diversified economic structure. It is also necessary to consider the fact that today the volume of the service sector is capable of providing production of over 60% of GDP. - The structure of a socially oriented society. For states of this type, the main feature is the presence of a small gap in income levels between the poorest and the richest, as well as a powerful middle class, which has fairly high living standards. The Role of Developed Countries in the World Economy Developed countries play a vital role in the world economy. Basically, in the total gross product, their share is over 54%, and in world exports - over 70%. Among the states of this level for the national economy, those that are part of the seven (Canada, USA, Germany, Great Britain, France, Japan and Italy) are of particular importance. The listed developed countries provide about 51% of all exports and 47% of the total gross product in the world. The dominance among them over the past decades has been maintained by the United States. The role of the United States in the world economy.
For example, the American economy was fairly consistently ranked first in terms of the degree of competitiveness. Recently, however, this state's economic leadership has significantly weakened. This fact is primarily manifested in a decrease from 30% to 20% in the share of the United States in the total GDP of states with a non-socialist economic orientation.
The main reason for this weakening of America's position in the economy of the world is the fact that such developed countries as Japan and the states of Western Europe began to actively develop. And the impetus for this was precisely American aid. According to the US Marshall Plan, certain financial resources were allocated to restore the destroyed economy as a result of hostilities.
Thanks to these measures, profound structural changes in the economy were carried out, completely new industries were created. At this stage, both Japanese and Western European economic systems have achieved high competitiveness of the international level (examples are the Japanese and German automotive industry). However, we must not forget that, despite some weakening of the influence of the United States on the world economy, the role of this state has always remained the leading one.
Group of developed countries
The group of developed (industrially developed countries, industrialized) includes states with a high level of socio-economic development, the predominance of a market economy. GDP per capita in PPP is at least $ 12,000 in PPP.The developed countries and territories, according to the International Monetary Fund, include the United States, all Western European countries, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Israel. The UN joins them with the Republic of South Africa. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development adds Turkey and Mexico to their number, although these are most likely developing countries, but they entered this number on a territorial basis.
Thus, about 30 countries and territories are included in the number of developed countries. Perhaps, after the official accession to the European Union of Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Estonia, these countries will also be included in the number of developed countries.
There is an opinion that in the near future Russia will also join the group of developed countries. But for this it needs to go a long way of transforming its economy into a market one, to increase its GDP at least to the pre-reform level.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In this group of countries, the "seven" with the largest volume of GDP are distinguished (USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain, Canada). More than 44% of world GDP falls on these countries, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the most powerful are the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Developed countries are those countries that hold leading positions in the world in terms of economy, living standards and scientific and technological progress. They are often also called "industrial". At the moment, the population of these countries is 15 percent of the world's population. The most developed countries in the world are listed below.
The United States of America is one of the largest and most influential powers in the world in terms of economy, politics and population. In terms of area, this state is in fourth place. The country shares borders with three states: Canada from the north, Mexico from the south and has a small border with the Russian Federation at sea near Alaska. The country has four time zones and a great variety of landscapes - from hot tropics to arctic cold and from plains and canyons to mountain ranges and lakes.
More than 300 million people live in the United States, and most of them originate from immigrants from all over the world. This became possible thanks to the Great Colonization, which took place from the 16th century after the great geographical discoveries of Columbus and Vespucci. Thus, there is a huge variety of races, nationalities, languages and religions. Although the official language is English, and the predominant religion is Catholicism.
48 of its 50 states are located on the North American continent, excluding Hawaii and Alaska
Japan is an economically developed country located on four large islands. The banking system, retail trade, communications, cargo transportation are perfectly organized here - in short, everything that makes the country successful. The Japanese are very technologically savvy and are the inventors of many inventions, especially when it comes to electronics. This is organized through close interaction between the authorities and enterprises. The country has a low level of taxes and everything has been done for the comfortable existence of individual entrepreneurship.
In Japan, there is an extremely free attitude towards religion. The original faith on the territory of this country is Shinto, and now Buddhism and many other world religions are also widespread. But not everyone adheres to any one confession. Often, a Japanese person can drop in to pray at the first temple that comes across, be it Buddhist or Shinto. This is due to the fact that the root faith - Shintoism - is the worship of the forces of nature, and not some particular deity.
Government emphasizes science technology and work ethic
The history of Germany is very rich, the country has experienced many victories and defeats, falls and ups. At the moment, the state is included in the list of the most developed countries in the world and is an example to follow in terms of the political structure, so very few people consider it through the prism of the terrible events of World War II.
Despite the almost complete destruction of infrastructure after the wars, the Germans were able to restore everything with their hard work, and now Germany is one of the "elephants" of the economy on which the whole world rests.
The main strength of the country lies in the automotive industry, as well as in the large amount of mineral resources in its territory.
This island nation has one of the richest and most amazing histories, dating back to the Celtic tribes. For several centuries, the British Empire exerted a powerful influence on the world order. And, although now the size of the country has again reduced to one island, its power has not diminished. English is international and is considered the official language in many other countries. The fact is that the state maintains and maintains close ties with all of its former colonies.
Two-thirds of the country's economy is provided by the service sector, slightly less - by industry (mainly mechanical engineering, electrical equipment and electronics). The city of Birmingham was one of the first centers of the automotive industry. The tourism and agricultural industries are also well developed.
In terms of agricultural production, the country ranks sixth in the European Union.
France is a transcontinental world power with a rich history that has left its mark in the form of traditions, attractions and even national cuisine. In addition, the chemical and cosmetic industries, as well as the food industry, are very well developed here, for example, these are world-famous French wines and cheeses.
According to statistical studies, France is one of the least religious countries in the world. Almost a third of people are atheists, another third simply do not identify themselves with any confession, and only the remaining third consider themselves to be a religion. And there is no official statistics on the ethnic composition in the country, just as there is no concept of "nationalities" or "national minorities" in general.
France is strong in space and nuclear technology
This Mediterranean state is part of the European Union, like most other developed countries. It has a powerful state budget, which is the seventh largest in the world.
The northern part of Italy is mainly engaged in industry, the southern part is agriculture, especially crop production (corn, sugar beets, olives, grapes, citrus fruits, etc.). Mechanical engineering and metallurgy prevail in industry. The most favorable economic situation is in Northern Italy, which is associated with a very high population density in those parts.
Another actively developing aspect of Italy is civil airlines.
This East Asian state is technologically advanced. Particular attention is paid to information security, astronautics, and robotics. In this regard, the country has one of the most advanced education systems. All educational institutions have high-speed Internet access and free digital textbooks. Korea's economy is based largely on shipbuilding (their products account for 45 percent of the world market). The auto industry is also in great demand.
The country has a rich culture. Cinematography is actively developing here. The esports direction is also popular, in particular in the Starcraft discipline.
Korean martial arts and cuisine are widely known throughout the world.
Canada
The second largest state in the world goes back to the French colony, which in the 16th century was located on the site of the present city of Quebec.
At the moment, it is a developed country with a diverse ethnic composition (statistics say that more than 40 ethnic groups live here, most of which are Christians).
Canada is a multicultural country. This means that in any locality you can find elements of completely different cultures, from Indian to Celtic. There are also many different national neighborhoods. Canada's economy is based on services and agriculture.
This European country has access to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and has a varied relief, especially mountainous. The territory of the state is extremely rich in minerals, mainly metal ores. Accordingly, the mining industry is well developed. As for the heavy industry, the shipbuilding and the automotive industry (the Seat brand) should be noted. The tourism sector is also at a high level. In 2016, 75 million people visited the country.
The main industry of tourism is beach holidays due to the mild warm climate and beautiful seascapes.
Netherlands
This state is part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and is ruled by the monarch. The benefits of the Dutch economy include a skilled and multilingual workforce, excellent infrastructure, management equality and high wages. The most developed production areas are mechanical engineering, petrochemistry, textiles, beer and clothing. A lot goes to imports: cars, oil and oil products, food, equipment.
This is the only state that occupies an entire continent. It is rich in mineral resources and iron ore, and also has a rich nature, which due to its isolation has become truly unique. Many species of animals and plants are found only here and nowhere else. The main economic industry in Australia is agriculture, in particular cattle breeding. Wool production takes up a significant part.
Australian wool goes all over the world
Belgium
This country is one of the largest producers of metal products and clothing. Also, one cannot fail to mention Antwerp - the world famous diamond trading center. Chemical production is also well developed. Belgium has a convenient location with access to the sea and rivers, so water transport is actively used. In addition, US multinationals value Belgium. Among other things, the country throughout its history was famous for scientific and technological achievements, some Belgians received the Nobel Prizes in physics and chemistry.
Sweden
The Kingdom of Sweden is one of the richest countries in Europe. There are more than fifty global concerns here that distribute their products all over the world. For example, Oriflame, Volvo, Ericsson, TetraPak. The state is the world leader in the production of bearings. Other economic advantages that make the country a developed country include a very high level of innovation, excellent employee education, and excellent infrastructure.
The Greek economy was formerly one of the strongest in the world, but has been going through tough times in the past few years. The main source of foreign exchange earnings is the tourism sector in conjunction with the service sector. A significant part of the population is also employed there - at least 900 thousand people.
According to statistical surveys in some countries of the world, Greece was named the most attractive tourist destination
Highly developed countries differ from developing countries primarily in terms of macroeconomics. Leadership gives them a higher GDP indicator, the availability of capital for investment, an open market that is in demand by consumers. Developing countries need to overcome many economic and political nuances in order to achieve higher status.
