Indicators of the level of economic development of the country:
1. GDP/GNP per capita.
This is the leading indicator in the analysis of the level of economic development. It is the basis of international classifications that divide countries into developed and developing countries. In some developing countries (for example, in Saudi Arabia) per capita GDP is at a high level, corresponding to developed industrial countries, however, according to the totality of other indicators (sectoral structure of the economy, production of basic products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.
2. Industry structure national economy.
Its analysis is carried out on the basis of GDP calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between the large national economic sectors of material and non-material production is taken into account. V developed countries The service sector dominates, accounting for more than 60% of GDP. In developing countries, the largest share is occupied by agriculture and the mining industry. In transition economies, the share of the service sector is growing and the share of industry and agriculture is declining.
The study of the structure of individual industries is also important. Thus, a sectoral analysis of the manufacturing industry shows what proportion it is occupied by mechanical engineering and chemistry, i.e. industries providing scientific and technological progress. The diversification of leading industries is great. For example, the number of machine-building industries and industries in the industrialized countries of the world reaches 150-200 or more, and only 10-15 in countries with a relatively low level of economic development.
3. Production of main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries).
The indicators of production of some basic types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy, are considered; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of meeting the needs of the country in these basic types of products.
Electricity production per capita.
Steel smelting and production of rolled products, machine tools, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.
Production in the country per capita of the main types of food products: grain, milk, meat, sugar, potatoes, etc.
Production per capita of non-food products: fabrics, clothing, footwear, knitwear, etc.
4. The level and quality of life of the population.
The standard of living of the population of the country is largely characterized by the following indicators:
Structure of GDP by use.
Particularly important is the analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending). A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country.
State labor resources: average life expectancy, level of education of the population, per capita consumption of basic foodstuffs, skill level of labor resources, the share of expenditures on education in GDP, etc.
Consumption of basic foodstuffs per capita is also one of the most important indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population.
Development of the service sector: population per 1 doctor; population per 1 hospital bed; provision of the population with housing, household appliances, etc.
Combined indexes.
Combined indices make it possible to present the level of quality of life as a general indicator. For the purposes of international comparisons, the so-called Human Development Index (HDI) is used, or in short - the index human development(HDI) Human Development Index contains four issues and is measured by three indicators.
A diverse combination of production factors and development conditions in different countries does not allow assessing the level of economic development from any one point of view. To do this, use a number of key indicators.
Indicators of the level of economic development of the country:
1. GDP/GNP per capita.
This is the leading indicator in the analysis of the level of economic development. It is the basis of international classifications that divide countries into developed and developing countries. In some developing countries (for example, in Saudi Arabia), the GDP per capita indicator is at a high level, corresponding to developed industrial countries, however, according to the totality of other indicators (sectoral structure of the economy, production of basic types of products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.
In the group of developed countries, this figure averages $25,000, for developing countries and countries with economies in transition it was $1,250 (including Russia - $4,000).
2. Sectoral structure of the national economy.
Its analysis is carried out on the basis of GDP calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between the large national economic sectors of material and non-material production is taken into account. In developed countries, the service sector dominates, accounting for more than 60% of GDP. In developing countries, the largest share is occupied by agriculture and the mining industry. In transition economies, the share of the service sector is growing and the share of industry and agriculture is declining.
The study of the structure of individual industries is also important. Thus, a sectoral analysis of the manufacturing industry shows what proportion it is occupied by mechanical engineering and chemistry, i.e. industries providing scientific and technological progress. The diversification of leading industries is great. For example, the number of machine-building industries and industries in the industrialized countries of the world reaches 150-200 or more, and only 10-15 in countries with a relatively low level of economic development.
3. Production of main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries).
The indicators of production of some basic types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy, are considered; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of meeting the needs of the country in these basic types of products.
Electricity production per capita.
The electric power industry underlies the development of all types of industries, and, therefore, this indicator hides the possibilities of technical progress, the achieved level of production, the quality of goods, the level of services, etc. The ratio of this indicator between developed countries and least developed countries is currently 500:1, and sometimes more.
Steel smelting and production of rolled products, machine tools, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.
Steel production in Russia is 408 kg per capita (in the USA - 366 kg; in Japan - 839 kg; in Germany - 566 kg; in Poland - 272 kg), the production of chemical fibers - 1.1 kg (in the USA - 17, 1 kg; in Japan - 14.3 kg; in Germany - 13 kg; Poland - 2.5 kg), the production of cars per 1000 people is 7.1 units. (in the USA - 20.7 pieces; in Japan - 65.9 pieces; in Germany - 66.7 pieces; in Poland - 13.8 pieces). In terms of steel and iron smelting, Russia ranks 4th in the world, in the production of cars - 11th, paper and cardboard - 14th.
Production in the country per capita of the main types of food products: grain, milk, meat, sugar, potatoes, etc.
Comparison of this indicator, for example, with the rational norms for the consumption of these food products, developed by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO or national institutions, makes it possible to judge the degree of satisfaction of the population's needs for food of their own production, the quality of the diet, etc.
Grain production per capita in Russia is 590 kg (in the USA - 1254 kg; in Japan - 102 kg; in Germany - 559 kg; Poland - 586 kg), potatoes - 242 kg (in the USA - 163 kg; in Japan - 23 kg; in Germany - 161 kg; Poland - 627 kg), meat - 31 kg (in the USA - 113 kg; in Japan - 24 kg; in Germany - 74 kg; Poland - 77 kg). In terms of grain production, Russia ranks 5th in the world, meat - 8, potatoes - 2.
Production per capita of non-food products: fabrics, clothing, footwear, knitwear, etc.
The production of shoes per capita in our country is 0.3 pairs (in the USA - 0.4 pairs; in Japan - 0.3 pairs; in Germany - 0.4 pairs; in Poland - 1.3 pairs), production of woolen fabrics - 0.4 m 2, cotton - 14.5 m 2 (in the USA - 0.2 and 13.5 m 2; in Japan - 1.6 and 6.1 m 2; in Germany - 1.0 and 5, 8 m 2; in Poland - 0.8 and 5.1 m 2).
Production in the country per 1000 people or per average family of a number of durable goods: (refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, cars, video equipment, personal computers, etc.).
Russia is significantly inferior in these indicators to developed countries. For example, in terms of the number of televisions per 100 households (1.7 times behind the United States, and 1.2 times behind Germany). In Russia, there are 126 TV sets per 100 families (in the USA - 240, Japan - 222, Germany - 140, Poland - 133), 113 refrigerators (in the USA - 124, Japan - 127, Germany - 130, Poland - 124), 27 cars cars (in the USA - 85, Japan - 130, Germany - 97, Poland - 33).
4. The level and quality of life of the population.
The standard of living of the population of the country is largely characterized by the following indicators:
Structure of GDP by use.
Particularly important is the analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending). A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country. An estimated 60% of Russians spend more than 50% of their income on food. For comparison, the population of Japan spends an average of 15.5% on food, Germany - 12.4%, Sweden - 11.8%, USA - 8.7%.
The state of the labor force: average life expectancy, the level of education of the population, per capita consumption of basic food products, the level of qualification of the labor force, the share of expenditures on education in GDP, etc.
The life expectancy of Russians reached its lowest value in 1994 - 64 years, in 1997 it increased to 66.9 years, in 2001 it decreased to 65 years. In third world countries this indicator is 62 years, in developed countries it is 75 years. The life expectancy of men in Russia is 12 years lower than the life expectancy of women. According to the UN, there is no such big difference in any of the developed countries (in Japan it is 6 years, in the USA and Spain - 7, in Great Britain, Sweden, Greece - only 5 years).
The adult literacy rate in Russia is 99.6% and is the highest in the world; 95% of the population has a secondary education. For comparison: this figure in Germany - the country with the highest level of education in the EU - 78%, in the UK - 76%, in Spain - 30%, in Portugal - less than 20%. The general indicator of the level of culture in the world community is considered to be the average number of years of education of the population. In North America and Western Europe, this figure exceeds 11-12 years, i.e. about 1/3 higher than in Russia.
Consumption of basic foodstuffs per capita is also one of the most important indicators characterizing the standard of living of the population. For example, the consumption of meat and meat products in Russia is 43 kg per year per capita (USA - 120 kg, Japan - 44 kg, Germany - 88 kg, Poland - 61 kg); fish and fish products - 11 kg (USA - 11 kg, Japan - 58 kg, Germany - 14 kg, Poland - 10 kg); fruits and berries - 37 kg (USA - 106 kg, Japan - 60 kg, Germany - 79 kg, Poland - 119 kg); potatoes - 122 kg (USA - 59 kg, Japan - 102 kg, Germany - 73 kg, Poland - 132 kg).
Development of the service sector: population per 1 doctor; population per 1 hospital bed; provision of the population with housing, household appliances, etc.
In Russia, there are 212 people per doctor. (in the USA - 382 people, Japan - 530 people, Germany - 286 people, Poland - 442 people); for 1 hospital bed - 87 people. (in the USA - 278 people, Japan - 68 people, Germany - 120 people, Poland - 195 people).
Combined indexes.
Combined indices make it possible to present the level of quality of life as a general indicator. For the purposes of international comparisons, the so-called Human Development Index (HDI), or the Human Development Index (HDI) for short, is used. The human development index contains four problems and is measured by three indicators.
Among the main indicators that determine the human development index, life expectancy, the level of education, and the real gross national product per capita are singled out. The index value ranges from 0 to 1. Countries with an HDI below 0.5 are considered to have a low level of human development, if the indicator ranges between 0.5 and 0.8 - average level, if exceeds 0.8 - high level.
The Human Development Report published by UNDP in 2002 provides human development indices in 173 countries of the world, calculated for 2000. Norway occupies the leading position (HDI is 0.942), the second place in the ranking belongs to Sweden (0.941), the third to Canada (0.940); in sixth place is the United States (0.939). Sierra Lyon has the lowest HDI (0.275). Russia, according to UNDP data, was in 2000 in the group of countries with an average HDI and ranked 60th in the list (0.781). According to this indicator, our country is ahead of Panama (0.787), Belarus (0.788), Mexico (0.796), Uruguay (0.831)
5. Indicators of economic efficiency.
This group of indicators to the greatest extent characterizes the level of economic development, as it shows - directly or indirectly - the quality, condition and level of use of the country's capital, labor resources.
The main indicators of economic efficiency are:
Labor productivity (in general, for industry and agriculture, for individual sectors and types of production).
Labor productivity shows the output (GDP) of one worker and is calculated as the ratio of the total product (GDP) and the number of employees. The hourly labor productivity in Russia is 4 times lower than in Italy, 3.8 times in France, 3.6 times in the USA, 2.8 times in Japan and Germany.
The capital intensity of a unit of GDP or a particular type of product.
Capital intensity shows how much capital resources are spent on 1 den. units final product and is calculated as the ratio of the amount of capital expended to the total product (GDP).
Return on assets of a unit of fixed assets.
Return on assets shows how many rubles of production received from 1 den. units fixed assets and is calculated as the ratio of the value of goods produced per year (GDP) to the value of fixed production assets.
Material consumption per unit of GDP or specific types of products.
Material consumption shows how much raw materials and materials are spent on 1 den. units final product and is calculated as the ratio of the cost of raw materials and materials to the total product (GDP).
It should be emphasized that the level of economic development of the country is a historical concept. Each stage of development of the national economy and the entire world community as a whole introduces certain changes in the composition of its main indicators. Despite all attempts to formulate an aggregate indicator of the effectiveness of the functioning of the national economy, which would also reflect the level of economic development of the country, such an indicator has not been created due to the numerous difficulties in bringing together cost and natural values, the costs of skilled and unskilled labor, etc.
To analyze the economic situation in the world, a number of indicators characterizing the dynamics and state of the world economy are used. The main one - the gross world product - expresses the total volume of final goods and services produced on the territory of all countries of the world, regardless of the nationality of the enterprises operating there in a certain period of time. Accounting for final products provides for the exclusion of repeated counting of raw materials, semi-finished products, other materials, fuel, electricity and services used in the process of its production.
The GMP indicator expresses the overall activity in the world and individual countries. On the other hand, its constituent parts cover the main areas, industries and factors of economic development. So, consideration of the main constituent parts The use of GMP gives an idea of the main sectors of demand, and the analysis of GMP by production shows changes both in the structure of the entire economy and in the main industries. GMP makes it possible to determine the place of the country and regions in world production, social labor productivity in different periods time. But it cannot be used as an indicator of the potential of certain types of production, the level of technology or the well-being of the population.
In each individual country, the gross domestic product (GDP) is calculated. It is calculated on the basis of the system of national accounts, which is built on the concept of the productive nature of all activities. It is a set of internationally recognized rules for accounting for economic activity and reflects the main macro economic ties internal and external sectors of national economies.
The SNS is constantly being improved. In 1993, the UN approved a new standard SNA (the previous one was adopted in 1968). The SNA has been introduced into Ukrainian practice since 1988 (even under the USSR), which required a huge amount of work to recalculate the main macroeconomic indicators of the country's development and significantly changed the picture of the structure of the national economy, the dynamics and pace of its development.
The central indicator of the SNA is GDP, the second most important indicator is the gross national product (GNP). They reflect the results of activities in two areas National economy: material production and services, are defined as the value of the total volume of final production of goods and services in the economy for 1 year (quarter, month). Calculated in current or constant prices.
The main difference is that GDP is calculated according to the so-called. territorial basis, GNP - on a national basis.
GDP is the total value of products of the sphere of material production and services, regardless of the nationality of enterprises located in the territory of a given country.
GNP is the total value of the entire volume of products and services in the national economy, regardless of the location of the national enterprises of this country.
GNP = GDP + net factor income
Net factor income is the difference between income from the use of factors of production located abroad that are owned by residents and payments to non-residents for the use of factors of production owned by them in a given country, i.e. the difference between the income and income of residents abroad and non-residents in the country. Typically, for developed countries, this difference is small and amounts to about 1% of GDP.
The calculation of GDP / GNP is carried out according to three principles: production, use and income.
GDP by production (by industry) is the sum of value added across all sectors of the national economy. Allows you to identify the ratio and role of individual industries in the creation of GDP. The dynamics over a number of years makes it possible to identify changes in its structure, the dynamics of development of individual sectors of the national economy and the nature economic policy in the country. Value added or nominally net output of individual industries is the difference between the value of gross output and the sum of current production costs, i.e. the value added in the production process at one stage or another. It consists of the depreciation of fixed assets transferred to the product, wages, profits, taxes. The latter are taken into account when calculating at current prices.
GDP by use (by expenditure) is the sum of all expenditures on the purchase of the total amount of goods produced in this year products. Includes the following articles:
final consumer spending (primary necessities, consumer durables…);
final expenses of state bodies. management (government spending on the purchase of enterprise products and the purchase of resources for the needs of the state, i.e. the amount of government spending on the payment of wages to civil servants and on the purchase of goods and services);
gross capital investments, gross savings and changes in inventories;
balance of exports and imports (difference), i.e. part of GDP is exported and part is spent on imports of goods and services.
GDP by income is the sum of income received in the country from the production of products of a given year (the sum of income from economic resources used in the process of producing a social product over a certain period of time). Includes the following articles:
wages of employees;
profit of firms and corporations;
income of unincorporated enterprises that are individually owned and income of freelancers;
rent payments (income from property - land, real estate ...);
interest on loan capital (payments for capital used in the production of GDP);
depreciation deductions - deductions for the creation of a monetary fund that compensates for the depreciation of fixed assets involved in the creation of GDP;
indirect taxes - VAT, excises, customs duties…, i.e. unearned income that the state receives by increasing the prices for its content.
Government subsidies are deducted from GDP.
GDP/GNP calculated by income and expenditure should be equal.
The main requirement in calculating GDP/GNP is to avoid double counting, i.e. so that only final products are taken into account.
End products are goods and services that are purchased by consumers for final use. Intermediate products are goods and services that are further processed or resold several times before reaching the consumer.
Therefore, to avoid double counting, GDP/GNP should act as the value of final goods and services and include only the value added at each stage of processing.
Value added (VA) is the value created in the production process at a given enterprise and covers the real contribution of the enterprise to the creation of the value of a particular product, i.e. wages, profits and depreciation of a particular enterprise.
DS \u003d runway - TMI + AO,
where - WFP - gross product of the enterprise (market price of output);
TMI - current material costs;
AO - deductions for depreciation.
In the SNA, value added includes: depreciation, wages, corporate and unincorporated profits, rents received by them, interest on loan capital, and indirect taxes on business.
GDP overstates output by the cost per annum depreciation charges and the amount of indirect taxes, therefore, cannot reflect that production has actually added to the welfare of society. For this, there are indicators - net national product (NNP) and national income (NI).
NNP measures the total annual output of goods and services that a country has produced and consumed in all sectors of its national economy.
NNP = GDP - JSC
National income is the value newly created during the year, which characterizes what added the production of this year to the welfare of society.
ND = NNP - the amount of indirect taxes + subsidies,
ND = GDP - AO - the amount of indirect taxes + subsidies.
The amount of taxes is significant. They are included in the market prices of goods and services and are paid by the final consumers. Subsidies have the opposite effect on prices: they lower them by their own amount. Indicator national income roughly corresponds to the concept of produced national income. It should be noted that for any national economy, the incomes at its disposal are important. The amount of income at the disposal of a given country is calculated as the difference between the net domestic product and the balance of income of enterprises and citizens of this country abroad and the income of foreigners in this country. This figure roughly corresponds to the concept of used national income.
Gross national disposable income (GNI) is the GNP used for savings and consumption, including net transfers from abroad.
Net transfers are the difference between transfers of migrant workers who are considered residents to and from a given country.
In quantitative terms, the difference between GDP and produced national income is quite large and amounts to approximately 8-11%, equal to the amount of depreciation. In different countries, this difference may fluctuate, since the amount of depreciation depends on the national mass of fixed assets. The share of depreciation increases slightly during periods of recession and decreases during periods of recovery. The dynamics of the produced national income in the long term almost completely corresponds to the dynamics of GDP, therefore, the analysis mainly uses GDP and GMP indicators.
GDP and other indicators included in the system of national accounts and calculated by different methods are linked to each other, so their values are identical. At the same time, it should be noted that national indicators are often revised within 10-30%.
Calculation of GDP and GMP
At the national levels, the volume of GDP is measured in current and constant prices of any given year. The difference between these measurements can be quite significant. Quantitative GDP, or GDP at current prices, is growing faster than real GDP, or GDP at constant prices. The difference in growth rates is due to price changes. When calculating at constant prices, there is an elimination (elimination) of value fluctuations. Real GDP growth is widely regarded as an indicator of economic development. High rates are often considered a sign of the strength of the economy.
GMP is calculated in a single currency - US dollars at current and constant rates, although these indicators cannot claim to be an accurate quantitative measurement in individual countries and regions. Numerous studies show that exchange rates are approaching the actual ratio of national prices for goods and services entering the channels international trade. But even if foreign exchange rate directly determined by the market, it only reflects the prices of internationally traded goods and services, since it is itself often determined by other types of international transactions, such as foreign investment and loans, transfers of income and funds, other factors that can also cause short-term fluctuations in exchange rates, even when there is no real change in the economic environment. Significant short-term deviations in exchange rates from average and long-term ones, large fluctuations in the relative costs of goods and services reduce the usefulness of calculations in the single currency of world production, determining its level and distributing GMP across countries and regions. Changes in exchange rates lead to corresponding variations in the distribution and volume of GMP.
Comparison of gross product across countries based on a common currency, such as US dollars, may underestimate in dollar terms the volume of goods and services produced in countries with a low level of development due to the large scale of their non-commodity sector (barter transactions, household production, production of livelihoods, the informal sector, which are usually left out and can all account for up to 40% of GDP in less developed countries). Since the degree of underestimation is not determined systematically, comparisons of GDP and GMP may not be comparable.
Research conducted by the UN Project on International Comparisons shows that in less developed countries, using current exchange rates can underestimate GDP by up to three times or more. This is due to the underestimation of the share of developing countries in world production. Accordingly, when using current exchange rates, the calculation of the GMP growth rate is affected, since developing countries included in it with lower specific gravity.
One of the alternative options for calculating the GMP is based on the use of coefficients for comparing the purchasing power of currencies, determined by the ratio of the prices of a set (basket) of identical goods in each country. The average ratios applied to each country's GDP are defined as the weighted average prices of the respective individual bundles of goods and services, using the weights of all these goods and services in GDP by expenditure. This approach provides an estimate of the GMP in "international dollars" rather than in ordinary dollars at the exchange rate.
The volumes of GDP calculated on the basis of these methods differ significantly from each other. The calculation based on purchasing power parity leads to underestimation of the leading industrialized countries by 20-40%. Purchasing power parity estimates significantly change the positions of the main subsystems in the world economy. The industrialized countries of the West account for 55% of the GMP (at current exchange rates - almost 75%), while the contribution of developing countries rises to 43% (at current exchange rates over 19%). According to this method of calculation, the assessment of the economic indicators of individual countries changes significantly. The United States remains in first place - 21% of the GMP (25.3% at the current exchange rate), China - 12% (4.4%), Japan - 8.4% (15.7%), Germany - 5.0% (5.6%), India - 4.1% (1.5%). They are followed by France, Italy, Britain, Canada, Brazil.
The use of different methods of calculation leads to noticeable differences in the rates of VMP. This is because Asian developing countries, which account for most of the GDP of developing countries, have higher growth rates than the rest of the world, and their share should be higher when calculated on the basis of purchasing power parity than when calculated on the basis of current rates. . The main reason for this is that there is a tendency for the prices of goods and services to be undervalued in less developed countries due to lower wages in them. Therefore, when there is a revaluation of these goods and services in general prices, their value increases, especially in small countries, by 9-13%.
Differences in GMP estimates show that there is no single indicator that could take into account different kinds economic activity in different countries is identical. The suitability of each scoring method depends on the purpose of the analysis. The use of current exchange rates in estimating the GMP provides useful data in determining international flows of goods and services, the movement of capital between countries, levels of external debt, and payments that are often made based on current exchange rates.
Conclusion: in UN statistics, when calculating GDP and GMP, exchange rates are used, cleared of price fluctuations. This method allows you to obtain indicators without taking into account relative fluctuations in exchange rates and prices and more accurately assess the contribution of each country to the world product in comparison with the use of the current exchange rate. The method of calculating GDP based on the purchasing power of currencies is used by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization economic cooperation and Development (OECD).
E economic indicator- shows, characterizes the state of the economy, its objects, processes occurring in it in the past, present and future. Economic indicators represent one of the most common and effective tools for describing the economy used in economics and in the management of economic processes.
In its most general form, an economic indicator includes a name, a numerical value, and a unit of measure.
The composition and structure of economic indicators are one of the most important objects of study economics and at the same time its content element.
System of economic indicators- a set of interrelated, systematized indicators that characterize the economy as a whole, its industry, region, sphere of economic activity, a group of homogeneous economic processes.
EP grouping
The structure of economic indicators is highly branched, the indicators are divided into groups according to a number of characteristics.
In accordance with the division of economic science into macroeconomics and microeconomics, it is customary to single out generalized macroeconomic indicators, characterizing the economy as a whole and its large parts, spheres, and microeconomic indicators, related mainly to the economy of companies, corporations, enterprises, firms.
In the structure of economic indicators, there are absolute, also called quantitative, voluminous, and relative, also called quality. Absolute, volumetric indicators (in economics, in contrast to physics voluminous name any indicators characterizing the quantity of goods, products, money) expressed in natural or monetary units, such as pieces, weight, length, volume, rubles, dollars. Relative indicators represent the ratio of two indicators of the same or different dimensions. In the first case, these are dimensionless indicators characterizing usually rate of change economic magnitude or ratio, proportions of homogeneous economic values obtained as a result of their comparison, measured in share terms or as a percentage. In the second case, these are dimensional indicators that characterize the rate of change of a value over time, the efficiency of resource use, the sensitivity of a value in relation to the factor that caused its change. For example, the efficiency index of an automobile engine can be measured by the mass of gasoline consumed per one kilometer of travel, and the return on investment index can be measured by the amount of output per one ruble of capital investment.
In the aggregate of relative economic indicators that characterize the dynamics of economic processes, changes in volume indicators, there are indicators of growth (growth rate) and growth (incremental).
Growth rates(growth rates) represent the ratio of the amount of economic product produced or consumed in a given period to the amount produced or consumed in previous period. Most often, an annual, quarterly, monthly period or simply fixed end and start dates are considered. If during the studied period of time the volume of the product has not changed, then the growth rate (growth rate) is equal to one or 100%; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate exceeds 100%, and if it has decreased, then it is below 100%.
Growth indicators characterize the change in the state of the economy, and therefore it is legitimate to call them also indicators of the state or change in the economy. Often used in statistics, a group of such relative indicators form index indicators or simply indexes. The index represents the ratio of the indicator at a given moment of interest to us to its basic value, fixed at the corresponding time taken as the basis. Indices characterize the relative value of the indicator in comparison with the starting, basic one and thus show how the value of the indicator has changed over a certain period of time (from the basic to the current one). Indices of prices, incomes, living standards are widespread.
growth rates, or growth rates, represent the ratio of the increment (increase or decrease) in the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in a given period to the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in the previous, base period. If during the studied period of time, say, over the last year, the volume of production has not changed, then the growth rate for this year is zero; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate is positive; if it has decreased, then the growth rate is negative. Incremental indicators, by analogy with growth indicators, are measured in shares or in percentage terms. Based on physical analogies, growth rates can be called indicators of "economic acceleration".
Economic indicators are divided into a number of groups depending on how they are defined how their numerical values are found and for what purposes, for what tasks indicators are used.
Values calculated, calculated and analytical indicators are established through calculations based on mathematical dependencies, economic and mathematical models using certain methods. Calculation and analytical indicators are widely used as initial in determining forecast and planned indicators, as well as indicators of socio-economic programs.
The values of reporting, reporting and statistical, statistical indicators are set on the basis of financial statements enterprises, organizations, collection and processing of statistical information, sample surveys, observations.
Regulatory it is customary to call indicators that are usually established by management bodies or established in business practice and expressing resource spending rates(raw materials, energy, materials, labor, money) for the production of a unit of output, the performance of work, consumption (consumption rates). Indicators in the form of norms and standards (universal norms) also reflect accepted, given ratios, proportions, such as, for example, the rate of accumulation, savings, profit, wages, taxation.
In economics, they also find application scientific and technical indicators, characterizing the achievements of science, engineering, technology.
Depending on the areas, sectors of the economy, the type of economic processes characterized by certain economic indicators, it is customary to distinguish such groups, types as indicators of needs, resource provision, production, distribution, exchange, consumption, costs, efficiency, reserves, sustainability, reliability , risk, prices, demand, supply, income, expenses, standard of living, and many others;
From single, individual, homogeneous indicators related to primary cells, links, the smallest elements of the economy, are formed group, summary, aggregated indicators characterizing economic objects and processes on a larger scale, covering the whole region (regional indicators), industry (industry indicators), the economy of the country as a whole (national economic, general economic indicators), world economy(global indicators).
Along with summary, generalized indicators and even as them, the economy widely uses medium indicators in the form of an average value of an extensive set of quantities. It is important to know that the average economic indicator is not necessarily the arithmetic mean of a group of homogeneous indicators, as people who are unfamiliar with economics, as well as with economic and mathematical statistics, sometimes believe. are considered more representative weighted average indicators. If, for example, "n" people receive annual income A, "m" people - income B and "p" people - income C, then average income D is not calculated as 1/3 (A + B + C), but by the formula:
D = (nA + mB + pC) / (n + m + p)
which gives much more representative results.
The composition of economic indicators is constantly supplemented and updated, and methods for their determination are also being improved. The most widely used economic indicators are in analysis, forecasting, planning, and management. economic management success, economic objects and processes essentially depends on the range of indicators used, the degree of completeness with which they characterize the managed objects and processes, on how accurately and correctly these indicators are defined and worked out by economic science.
The system of formation of economic indicators as a basis for analysis
Similar indicators can be calculated by .
Return of labor costs= Volume of production / Cost of living labor
Labor intensity= Cost of living labor / Volume of production
There is, in addition, a number of indicators expressing . The most important of these indicators is average annual output products per worker.
In the process of economic analysis, indicators are also used that express movement, presence and condition of individual species production resources . There are indicators that efficiency of investments made, mainly capital investment. The main of these indicators are payback period of capital investments, as well as profit per one ruble of capital investments.
What is the degree of progressive this enterprise? The following indicators answer this question: level of mechanization expressing the share of mechanized production processes in the total volume of the latter; level of automation characterizing the share of automated production processes in their total volume.
Finally, there are generalizing economic indicators that characterize the given enterprise itself. First, let's name the cost of the organization, otherwise - the cost of the property complex of the organization. Another indicator can be market value enterprise, which represents the value of the shares of this enterprise, corresponding to market conditions.
A comprehensive assessment of the enterprise's activities is reflected in the construction of the so-called multiplier. It is an integral, complex indicator, which is based on private indicators that reflect the activities of the enterprise. Distinguish two types of multipliers: standard and subjective. The former can be used in evaluating the activities of any organization, and the latter - only one specific organization. An example of a standard multiplier is the assessment of the probability of bankruptcy of an organization based on the Altman method. This method is based on determining the sum of five financial ratios. Each of them has a certain weight. The economic literature describes in detail the essence of this method and how it is applied.
Subjective multipliers make it possible to study those indicators that are not covered by standard multipliers.
The system of formation of economic indicators considered in this article thus serves as the basis for carrying out.
The nature and dynamics of the country's economic development are the subject of close attention of economists and politicians. From what processes and structural changes take place in the national economy, much depends on the life of the country and its prospects.
— a multifaceted process covering all spheres of economic activity. Indicators of the dynamics of economic development are numerous, the main one being GDP/ND per capita.
Due to the difficulties in measuring the process of economic development, it is most often analyzed, i.e. change in the volume of goods and services produced in the country, although this is only one of the criteria for economic development.
Economic development and its level
Essence of economic development
Economic development of society is a multifaceted process, covering economic growth, structural changes in the economy, increasing the level and.
This process does not always follow an ascending line, it includes periods of growth and decline.
So. in Russia in the 90s. the transformation was accompanied by a sharp decline in production, degradation of the economic structure, and the level and quality of life decreased among the majority of the population.
distinguished developed countries(USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden, France, Australia, etc.); developing(Brazil, India, etc.); least developed(mainly the states of Tropical Africa). According to some indicators, Russia can be classified as a developed state, and according to others, as a developing state.
Indicators of the level of economic development
The variety of historical and geographical conditions, the combination of material and financial resources that different countries have at their disposal do not allow us to assess the level of their economic development with any one indicator. To do this, there is a whole system of indicators, among which the following stand out primarily:
- GDP/ND per capita;
- structure of the economy;
GDP/NI per capita is a leading indicator of the level of economic development. In 2002, Luxembourg's NI per capita at purchasing power parity was $51,060, more than 100 times the NI per capita in Luxembourg itself. poor country- Sierra Leone (490) and even higher than in the US (35,060), although the economic potentials of the US and Luxembourg are incomparable. In Russia, the NI per capita in the same year amounted to $7,820. This is the level of an upper-tier developing country (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina) rather than a developed one.
In some developing countries (for example, in Kuwait), the GDP / ND per capita is quite high, but the sectoral structure of the economy does not meet modern requirements. Developed countries are characterized by a low share of agriculture and other sectors of the primary sector, a high share of the secondary sector (primarily due to the manufacturing industry, especially engineering; the predominant share of the tertiary sector, primarily due to education, health, science and culture, housing and commercial sector ). The sectoral structure of the Russian economy is more characteristic of a developed than a developing country.
Indicators of the level and quality of life are numerous. This is primarily life expectancy, the incidence of various diseases, the level medical care, the state of affairs with personal security, education, social security, the state of the natural environment. Equally important are indicators of the purchasing power of the population, working conditions, employment and unemployment. An attempt to summarize some of the most important of these indicators is the human development index, which includes indices (indicators) of life expectancy, education coverage, standard of living (GDP per capita at purchasing power parity). In 2001, the index in Russia was 0.779, which was slightly above the world average and still lower than in 1985 (0.811), although higher than in 1995 (0.776). In developed countries, it approaches 1, while in the least developed it was below 0.6, dropping even to 0.275 (Sierra Leone).
The level of economic development of the country, which determines the degree of its participation in the world economy
The variety of combinations of indicators of economic development of various countries makes it possible to assess the level of economic development of a particular state not from any one point of view, but comprehensively. For this, several main indicators and criteria are used, in particular:
- absolute and relative ();
- and per capita income;
- sectoral structure of exports and imports of the country;
- level and quality of life of the population.
It should be emphasized that the level of a country's economic development and its participation in the world economy is a historical concept. Each stage of development of the national economy and the entire world economy as a whole introduces certain adjustments to the composition of the main indicators.
For a long time in Russian literature, the division of the world into two opposite socio-economic systems (previously even into two camps) was practiced - the world capitalist economic system and the world socialist economic system. Accordingly, within the framework of the international division of labor, the international socialist division of labor and the international capitalist division of labor were considered, and within the framework of the world market, the world capitalist market and the world socialist market (with the understanding, however, that there is both a single world economy and a world division of labor) . At the same time, all countries of the world were divided into three groups: developed capitalist, developing and socialist states. Such a grouping had a pronounced ideological coloring, stemmed from the bloc policy of confrontation and a bipolar vision of the world, although it had a certain objective basis. With the collapse of the socialist system and the USSR as a single state, the approach used in the United Nations has become more objective.
Within the framework of the UN, which united the entire world community, a grouping of countries was adopted without the use of ideological terms:
- with a market economy;
- and territories;
- countries with centrally planned economies.
At the turn of the 90s, when fundamental socio-economic and political transformations began in most socialist countries, two groups were distinguished in UN publications instead of a group of countries with a centrally planned economy: the countries of Eastern Europe (including the USSR), which were called countries in transition economy, and the socialist countries of Asia (China, Vietnam, North Korea, Mongolia). Yugoslavia, Cuba and Laos are classified by UN statistics as developing countries.
There are several approaches to determining the place of a country in the world economy. The simplest of them is the division of the world economy into groups of countries according to per capita income.
This approach is used by the UN, the IMF, the IBRD (the absolute indicators of per capita income by country are calculated annually). For example, IBRD distinguishes three groups of countries according to the level of per capita income. In 2005, the following thresholds for annual per capita income were determined: low income - no more than $755, below average - from $756 to $2995, above average - from $9265.
In a different approach, the country's role in the world reproduction process is determined.
The world but its socio-economic nature is extremely heterogeneous. In the 90s of the last century, three groups of countries could be distinguished: industrialized countries with a market economy, forming, as it were, the framework of the world economy; developing countries (or third world countries); countries with economies in transition, represented mainly by the states of Eastern Europe, as well as Russia, which are on the path of developing new forms of management.
Developed countries with a market economy constitute the core, the core of the world economy, decisively determine the course of processes in the world market, in the international division of labor, in international monetary and credit relations, in scientific and technological progress. UN statistics include almost all countries in this group. Western Europe(except Malta), USA and Canada, Japan, Israel, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. With all the differences, these states are of the same type in their economic structure, have a high level of economic and social development.
Developing states and territories with market economies are the largest, most diverse and complex group in the modern world economy. UN statistics include most of the countries of Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin America, Malta and the former Yugoslavia.
But it would be a mistake to draw too sharp a line between these groups. For example, already today a whole group of developing countries in Southeast Asia, in particular South Korea, Hong Kong (since 1997 - the province of China, Hong Kong) and Taiwan, as well as Brazil, Argentina, according to a number of economic indicators, can be logically classified as industrialized countries. peace. However, in terms of other important indicators (the depth of social contrasts, uneven regional development, etc.), they traditionally still belong to the group of developing countries.
At the same time, some of the undoubtedly developed states seem to be lagging behind in qualitative transformations of their national productive forces, which hinders the growth of social labor productivity. Thus, in the countries of Eastern Europe and Russia, it is only about 50% of the level of Western European countries.
Industrialized countries with market economies
This group consists of 25 states with a population of 1.2 billion people (23% of the total world population). They concentrate about 70% world GDP, give 70-75% of world industrial production. Gross domestic product per capita in these countries ranges from 10 to 25 thousand dollars. They account for about 70% of the world foreign trade turnover.
Industrialized countries are the main producers of industrial and agricultural products, despite the emerging trend towards a slight decrease in their share in world production.
Developed countries are characterized by two main features - a relatively even distribution of income and a relatively even economic development of the territory. They are characterized by a socially oriented economy, in particular, support for low-income segments of the population (pensioners, students, the disabled, etc.). Large investments in science (2-3% of GNP) and the introduction of these achievements into production determine the high intellectual level of labor. The humanization of the economy of developed countries means a high percentage of spending on medicine, education, and culture. Significant security costs environment(3-4% of GNP), which confirms the high level of ecologization of the economy.
In industrialized countries, the role of the “lower floors” of the industry (traditionally extractive industries) is falling and at the same time increasing production in the “upper floors” due to the development of industries high technology. The transfer of "low-skilled" industries to developing countries and retaining only the upper part of the industrial complex is nothing more than a kind of competitive struggle against countries with low wages, with the import of cheap products from the countries of the "new industrialization". Developed states are exporters not only of industrial products, but also of capital.
According to their role in world politics and economics, these countries can be conditionally divided into three groups.
The first is formed by the seven main countries: the USA, Japan, Germany, France. UK, Italy and Canada. Their leadership is determined not only by the size of the territory and population, but also important role in world politics and economics, a high level of labor productivity, undeniable successes in the development of science and technology. Some of these countries were the mother countries of large colonial empires and derived considerable profits from them. Of course, Russia can also be included among these countries and we can already talk about the G8.
The second group (14 countries) is formed by small European states characterized by a high level of socio-economic development (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, etc.). They often act as a link in economic and political relations between the countries of the first group. Individual countries of the group under consideration occupy very prominent positions in world trade and politics.
The third group includes countries of "resettlement capitalism" (Australia, South Africa, Israel).
Developing countries
Most countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are developing countries, or third world countries. They represent a special group of states distinguished by their unique historical development, socio-economic and political specifics.
Speaking about their similarities, it is necessary to note the colonial past and the multistructural economy associated with it, the rapid growth of the population, its poverty, and illiteracy. They are characterized by the agrarian-mineral-raw material specialization of the economy and, accordingly, the weak development of the manufacturing industry, the narrowness domestic market, a subordinate place in the system of the world economy. However, these countries have their own characteristics.
In typology, it is important to take into account the level of development and the structure of the productive forces of the state and those features of socio-economic reality that most accurately reflect both the current situation and the country's immediate prospects. Using these criteria, five groups of developing countries can be distinguished.
The first group should include the most developed countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Uruguay, etc.), as well as some of the "new industrial countries" of Asia (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong).
The second group consists of oil-exporting countries with unique resources, figuratively speaking, "filling their pockets" with petrodollars (Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, etc.). Their characteristics: high per capita income, solid natural resource development potential, an important role in the market of energy raw materials and financial resources, favorable economic and geographical position. The ratio between oil revenues and population creates specific conditions for the accumulation of gigantic wealth. Thus, oil revenues in Kuwait account for 95% of the budget revenues, and in Saudi Arabia - 80%. For every Kuwaiti citizen in 2005, there were 7,000 petrodollars. For comparison: in the US, each citizen has an average of 90 petrodollars, and in Russia - 11.3.
The third group, the most numerous, includes countries with an average level of general economic development for the liberated countries and an average GDP per capita (about $1,000). This includes Colombia, Guatemala, Paraguay, Tunisia and others.
In the fourth group, India, Pakistan and Indonesia should be singled out - countries with vast territories and populations, natural resource potential and economic development opportunities. These states occupied a prominent place in the system of international economic relations and caused a powerful influx of external resources in the form of investments of foreign capital. But the low levels of production and consumption per capita (GDP per capita is about $300-500) noticeably hamper their socioeconomic development.
The last, fifth group includes the least developed countries of the world (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Somalia, Chad, etc.). Some of them have no access to the sea, while others have little connection with the outside world. This group of countries is extremely low income per capita (for example, in Ethiopia - $ 120), pre-industrial forms of labor predominate everywhere, and agriculture occupies a dominant position in the economy. It is these countries that form the basis of the list of the least developed countries approved by the UN.
Countries with economies in transition
Since the early 1990s, the countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR have been included in this group. They have significant economic potential and over the past 10-15 years have been busy with the transition (transformation) from authoritarian political regimes to pluralism, multi-party system and democracy, from a centrally controlled economy to a market economy.
Much in common can be traced in the paths of historical and socio-economic development of these countries, especially in the second half of the 20th century. After the end of World War II, they all embarked on the path of socialist transformation. In most of them, industrialization and cooperative agriculture were carried out. Their share in world industrial production in the early 1990s exceeded 10%. However, administrative-command methods of managing the economy, the slow introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress into production, and huge military spending led to a slowdown in economic growth and productivity growth.
The result of this was the lag behind the West in technological progress, the non-competitiveness of most finished products on the world market, the fall in the standard of living of the population, and inflation. It became obvious that such a non-market model of organizing the economic and social structure, which does not take into account the national characteristics of the development of the countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR, turned out to be ineffective and unacceptable for them.
Change of political and state leadership in Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania in 1989-1990. and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 led to a radical turn in the political, economic and social development these countries.
The group of countries with economies in transition consists of 27 states and produces about 23% of world GDP. All these countries are developing along the path of catch-up development and, with varying degrees of success, are making or completing the transition to market economy. Some of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) have practically reached the level of developed countries with a market economy, joined the European Union, introduced the single European currency euro. Other CEE countries, such as Bulgaria and Romania, although they have joined the EU, are still far from the developed industrial countries in terms of their economic performance. The former republics of Yugoslavia are in various stages of transition due to the prevailing military events and civil unrest over the past 15 years.
In the CIS republics, the transition is also carried out at different speeds. Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan lag behind the most. And Kazakhstan and Ukraine, on the contrary, are gradually implementing economic reforms. At the same time, it is impossible not to take revenge on the decisive role of political influences on the course of economic reforms in the post-Soviet countries. The wave of so-called color revolutions that took place in Ukraine, Georgia, and Kyrgyzstan in connection with the struggle of national elites for power sharply worsened the economic situation of these countries, slowed down the course of economic reforms, despite the active assistance of Western stakeholders.
Thus, in countries with economies in transition, systemic reforms are being carried out, the components of which are: liberalization of economic life (reducing the role of the state in the economy); institutional transformation (emergence and development of private property, institutions of private property, institutions of competition); structural transformation (the transfer of financial and other resources to those industries that, in the conditions of competition in the domestic and foreign markets, bring the greatest profit); reforming legislation and the social sphere.
Reforms began in the 1990s and led to financial crises and economic downturns in most transition economies. In most CIS countries, the volume of GDP over the course of 10 years (from 1990 to 1999) decreased by about 40%. The largest decline - up to 60% - was observed in countries with interregional conflicts and civil unrest: Moldova, Tajikistan, Armenia. In the CEE countries, the decline in the economy lasted no more than two to four years, the GDP shrank by about 15-20%.
Since the beginning of the XXI century. in almost all countries with economies in transition, economic growth rates have increased markedly and amounted to 6-8% per year, which exceeds the GDP growth in developed industrial countries. During the transformation of the socio-economic system, the CIS countries laid the foundation for a market economy of a new political system. However, significant differences remain in economic situation individual countries. The economies of these countries have become much more open, the share of foreign trade in the GDP of these countries, foreign investments in their territories increased, however, with a general increase in the volume of foreign economic relations, the volume of mutual trade between the CIS countries decreased.
At the end of the first decade of the XXI century. we can state the actual completion of the transition of the post-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe, with the exception of Belarus and Turkmenistan, from a one-party system and a planned economy to a multi-party democracy and a market economy. So the paradigm transition period practically implemented.
However, the processes of globalization of world economic relations, which received an impetus for their development at the end of the 20th century, significantly changed the approach to determining the place of the national economy in the world economy. Not socialist or capitalist countries, not developed industrial or developing countries, but the center and periphery of the world economy - this is the question in early XXI v.
Russia's place in the world economy and international economic relations
The Russian economy is an integral part of the world economy, and its foreign economic relations constitute a link in international economic relations.
The peculiarity of Russia's participation in the world economy is that until 1992 all economic development was carried out within the framework of a single centrally planned economy of the Soviet Union, a single national economic complex with a high degree of integration and unified management.
The economy of the USSR for a long time developed in isolation from the world economy, on the principles of autarky; external economic relations, especially in the 30-50s, were minimal and did not correspond to a significant economic potential country. Since the 1960s, the USSR's participation in the world economy has been expanding - initially mainly within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and on the basis of ties with a number of developing states, and then with the developed states of Western Europe and Japan.
Until the mid-1980s, the inclusion of the USSR in world economic relations was built largely on an ideological basis, on the basis of the confrontation between two socio-economic systems and the military confrontation between two superpowers (the USSR and the USA) and two military blocs (the Warsaw Pact and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO).
The isolation of the USSR economy from the world economy had a number of negative consequences. The main one is technical and technological backwardness. The scientific and technological revolution, which led to a radical restructuring of the economies of developed countries and the world economy as a whole in the 70-80s, as if bypassed the economy of the USSR (with the exception of some branches of the military-industrial complex) and its CMEA partners. Meanwhile, the extensive factors and advantages of central planning, which have played a positive role in certain stages economic development were exhausted, the crisis was growing, economic growth slowed down or even stopped.
One of the goals of perestroika, announced in the mid-1980s, was to include the USSR in the system of world economic relations, which was supposed to help accelerate economic development and overcome technical and technological backwardness.
Since 1992, Russia (Russian Federation) has been an independent subject of the world economy and international economic relations. The world community has recognized Russian Federation successor and successor of the collapsed USSR. She took the place of the USSR in international organizations, including the UN and the Security Council, recognized all international treaties and agreements signed by the USSR, and assumed the rights and obligations established by them. Russia has inherited the status of a great power, including from a military point of view, including the possession of nuclear weapons.
Russia's participation in international economic organizations, since it joined the leading international financial organizations - the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and a number of others. Relations between Russia and integration interstate associations have been established, including European Union, it has become a full member of the G8, the process for joining the World Trade Organization is being completed.
At the same time, according to the most important economic indicators, Russia's place in the world economy is much lower than its potential provides.
