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Features of modern migration processes:
Unprecedented scale of labor migration. Of particular note is the increase in intracontinental migration.
Industrialized countries continue to be the world's main centers of attraction for labor. They account for 54 million immigrants - almost half of all the world's inhabitants living outside their countries of origin. The leaders in the process of attracting foreign labor are the USA, Canada, Australia.
A circle of states “specializing” in the export of their labor resources has formed: Morocco, Portugal, Pakistan, Turkey, Poland, Spain, many of the countries with economies in transition.
Among migrant workers, young people (up to 35 years old) predominate, predominantly of blue-collar occupations.
Labor migration is facilitated by modern production technologies, which are based on the international division of labor and the active participation of TNCs in it.
The level of illegal immigration is still high in all the world's centers of attraction for the labor force. There are about 4 million permanently staying in the United States, and about 3 million illegal migrants in Western Europe. In 200, the number of border guards in the United States increased to 10 thousand people (almost three times more than in the early 90s) in order to strengthen border control on the border with Mexico, from where the overwhelming majority of illegal migrants enter ..
"Brain drain" in modern conditions is complemented by their diversification not only to the principle "to capital", but also "simultaneously with capital and after it"
Increasing seasonality of migration flows (agriculture, forestry).
Metropolitan countries (in the past) are guided by the import of labor from their colonies (England - India).
Traditional countries of migration: USA, Canada, Australia, South Africa - by the twentieth century. only Europeans went there, now - their insignificant part, and mainly - from Asia, Latin America.
Increasingly active state intervention in migration processes.
In general, we can talk about the intensification of migration processes in all their manifestations.
- A science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, explores the patterns of processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population, is called:
but) global studies d) political science
b) sociology e) demography +
in) world economy e) economical geography
2. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:but) an increase in the number of births
b) reduction in mortality among the population
in) depopulation +
d) decrease in life expectancy +
e) increase in life expectancy,
These phenomena cover:E) Central European regions of Russia +
F) Ural +
H) Siberia +
AND) Far East +
Pass more intensively in:TO) Russians +
L) Ukrainians
M) immigrants
H) Chuvash
ABOUT) representatives of national minorities
3. According to the calculations of the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation and the Center for Economic Conjuncture under the Government of the Russian Federation, the most probable option for forecasting the demographic situation in Russia for the period up to 2005 is:
but) increase in the country's population
b) stabilization of population growth
in) population decline +
4. In industrialized countries, trends are manifested:but) acceleration of the growth rate of the population of megalopolises
b) population growth in megacities
in) population decline in megacities +
d) migration of population from big cities +
e) slowdown in the growth rate of the population of megacities +
e)"Overflow" of the rural population into the cities
5. The share of part-time workers in the total number of workers in the PRS:but) shrinks in) stabilized
b) growing +
6. The main feature of external migration of the population:but) change of residence
b) change of job
in) movement of migrants across state borders +
e) change of citizenship
Tasks:Describe the main directions of demographic policy in groups of countries with different levels of economic development.
What are the main features of labor demand in industrialized countries?
What are the characteristics of the use of labor in developing countries?
How do host countries benefit from international migration?
Lomakin V.K. World economy. - Textbook. Moscow: UNITI, 2000, 727 p., Ch. 12.
International economic relations / Edited by V.E. Rybalkin, M., 1998, ch. 9.
The world labor market: a new reality. - M.: Nauka, 1994.
MEO / Ed. B.P. Suprunovich. M., 1995, ch. 9.
Nukhovich E.S., Smitienko B.M., Eskindarov M.A. World economy at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries M., 1995, ch. 2.
Fundamentals of Foreign Economic Relations / Ed. I.P. Faminsky. M .: International relations, 1994, ch. 5.
P.V. Sergeev World Economy / Study Guide: Moscow: Jurisprudence, 1999, p. 105 - 113.
Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On the procedure for leaving the Russian Federation and entering the Russian Federation" dated August 15, 1996 - Rossiyskaya Gazeta, August 16, 1996.
Additional literature:
Bulletin of foreign commercial information. - 2000. - No. 73-74; 86
International trade. - 1995. - No. 1.
World economy and international relations. - 1995. - No. 1.
World economy and international relations. - 1996. - No. 3.
World economy and international relations. - 2000. - No. 2. - P. 70.
World economy and international relations. 1999. - No. 3. - P. 52; No. 8. - P. 20; No. 10. - P. 66, 74; No. 11. - P. 19
Problems of theory and practice of management. - 2000. - No. 2. - P. 67.
Historical preconditions for the emergence of international finance capital.
Features of international monopolies of the first, second and third generations (colonial raw materials, integration, global).
Modern multinational corporations. Types of TNCs. Forms of development of the world market by transnational corporations.
Scientific and technological revolution and international corporations. General agreements and strategic alliances between leading international finance capital groups.
Financial and industrial groups and the prospects for transnational activities of Russian capital.
Lecture material.
Transnational corporations (TNCs), according to UN experts, are the "engines of the world economy." This is how one of the UN reports on broadcast corporations was named. Today, there are about 65 thousand TNCs in the world, and the number of their foreign branches exceeds 500 thousand. Transnational capital controls up to 1/2 of world industrial production, 65% of foreign trade, 4/5 of patents and licenses for finished equipment, technologies and Know-how.
The core of this system is made up of about 500 TNCs with enormous economic power. The aggregate foreign exchange reserves of TNCs are several times larger than the reserves of all national banks. TNCs are large bureaucratic corporations that overcome risk within the corporate structure, control huge cash flows, act as government contractors, attract world-class technology, and also possess a wealth of classified information.
All these facts make one think about the role and place of transnational corporations in the modern world. Having crossed national borders, transnational capital created a new system of international relations, in which supranational entities, primarily TNCs themselves, began to play a significant, if not decisive role.
The UN, which traditionally studies the activities of international corporations, for a long time referred to them as such firms that had an annual turnover exceeding $ 100 million and branches in at least 6 countries. In recent years, some clarification has been made: the international status of a company is now evidenced by such an indicator as the value of the percentage of its sales realized outside the country of residence. According to this indicator, one of the world leaders is the Swiss company Nestlé (98%).
An international corporation, according to the UN methodology, can also be recognized by the structure of its assets. The largest foreign assets among transnational corporations (except for the financial sector) - transnational banks (TNB) - are owned by the Anglo-Dutch concern Royal Dutch Shell, then 4 firms from the USA: Ford, General Motors, Exxon and "IBM".
One of the criteria for classifying a company as a transnational is the composition of its senior management, which, as a rule, should be formed from residents of different states in order to exclude a one-sided orientation of the company's activities to the interests of any one country. However, practice shows that most often the senior management personnel of the parent company is formed from representatives of the country of its location, and the top management of subsidiaries, using local personnel in ordinary positions, also consists of them.
Considering that the formulation of the concept of "transnational corporation" affects the interests of many states, the compromise version of the definition of this concept in the UN Commission on Transnational Corporations states that TNC is a company:
including units in two or more countries, regardless of the legal form and field of activity;
operating within the framework of a decision-making system that allows for consistent policy and overall strategy through one or more governing centers;
in which individual units are linked through property or in some other way so that one or more of them can have a significant impact on the activities of others and, in particular, share knowledge, resources and responsibilities with others.
In Western economic literature, you can find many definitions of international monopolies: multinational corporations, international corporations, multinational companies, global companies, etc. Thus, the famous American marketer F. Kotler identifies these four types of international companies by organizational principles (Figure 4).
Global company
Transnational company
Multinational International
company company
Russian economists, as a rule, offer the following definition:
Transnational corporations Are national monopolies with foreign assets. Their production and trade and marketing activities go beyond the boundaries of one state.
A corporation in the United States is called a joint stock company, and since most modern transnational corporations arose as a result of the international expansion of American companies, this term entered their definition.
The legal regime of transnational corporations presupposes business activity carried out in various countries through the formation of branches and subsidiaries in them. These companies have relatively independent services for the production and sale of finished products, research and development, consumer services, etc.
In general, they constitute a single large production and sales complex with the right of ownership over the share capital of only representatives of the founder country. At the same time, branches and subsidiaries can be mixed enterprises with predominantly national participation.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are actually international corporations that unite national companies of a number of states on a production, scientific and technical basis. An example of such a company is usually given by the Anglo-Dutch concern Royal Dutch Shell, which has existed since 1907. The current capital of this company is divided in a ratio of 60:40. An example of a multinational corporation is the Swiss-Swedish company ABB (Asea Brown Bovery), which is well known in Europe and specializes in mechanical engineering and electronic engineering. ABB has several joint ventures in the CIS countries. Among the leading multinational corporations in Europe is the Anglo-Dutch chemical and technological concern Unilever.
From the point of view of international law, distinctive features multinational corporations are: 1) the presence of multinational share capital; 2) the existence of a multinational leadership center; 3) staffing the administration of foreign branches with personnel who know local conditions. The latter, by the way, are also characteristic of many transnational corporations. In general, the boundaries between these two groups of international companies are very fluid, and one firm may move to another.
To transnational and multinational corporations should be added and global corporations (GC), spun out from the environment of international companies. They emerged in the 1980s and continue to gain momentum. Global corporations are characterized by a geocentric approach to the relationship between the parent company and its subsidiaries. These TNCs are like a decentralized federation of regional branches. The parent company sees itself not as the center of TNK, but only as one of its parts.
Global corporations represent the full power of today's global financial capital. The chemical, electrical, electronic, oil, automotive, information, banking and some other industries are gravitating towards globalization to the greatest extent. In general, the boundaries between these groups of international companies are very fluid, so a transition from one form to another is possible.
The development of TNCs has a direct impact on the growth of the world economy. There are several main areas of influence of TNCs on the world economy:
TNCs largely determine the dynamics and structure, the level of competitiveness in the world market for goods and services.
TNCs control the international movement of capital and foreign direct investment. They are the main investors in developing countries and actively influence the level of their economic development, while at the same time having vast spheres of influence in developed countries. This allows us to say that modern TNCs are able to influence the level of economic development of entire regions.
TNCs play a huge role in the transfer of technology and knowledge, concentrating R&D in their research centers. Thanks to the production and financial capabilities of TNCs, they concentrate in their hands the most knowledge-intensive industries. TNCs develop the latest types of products with the most demanded consumer properties, thereby contributing to the process of technological development of production.
TNCs are a stimulator of international labor migration. They contribute to the dissemination of professional knowledge, the process of exchange of experience between employees from different countries. This creates an international labor market, which is characterized by the processes of convergence of professional training of personnel from different countries.
At the same time, the role of TNCs cannot be assessed unambiguously positively. Their interests often conflict with national states, small and medium-sized businesses.
What are the reasons for the emergence of multinational companies?
The most common reason for their emergence is the internationalization of production and capital based on the development of productive forces that outgrow national-state borders.
The internationalization of capital production takes on the character of the expansion of economic ties through the creation by the largest companies of their own branches abroad and the transformation of national corporations into transnational ones. The export of capital is becoming the most important factor in the formation and development of international corporations.
Among the specific reasons for the emergence of transnational corporations should be attributed to the desire to obtain super-profits. In turn, tough competition, the need to withstand this struggle also contributed to the concentration of production and capital on an international scale and the emergence of TNCs.
As a product of objective economic processes taking place in the world economy, transnational corporations have a number of specific features. TNCs are active participants in the international division of labor and contribute to its development.
Modern trends in the activities of TNK.
The movement of capital of transnational corporations, as a rule, is independent of the processes taking place in the country where the corporations are based. TNCs establish a system of international production based on the placement of branches, subsidiaries, offices in many countries of the world.
In cases where the interests of transnational capital objectively coincide with the interests of certain national states, it can provide them with significant and even decisive advantages in intercountry economic competition. Developed states actively contribute to the development of their own TNCs, which, in turn, ensure the flow of tax funds from international activities and the spread of their economic and political influence.
In relation to "its" TNCs, the state is pursuing a rather contradictory and ambivalent policy. Since these monopolies are "their own", the state provides them with all kinds of loans, subsidies, subsidies, preferential taxation. However, the growth of the power of international monopolies leads to an increase in capital outflow from the country through direct investment channels, which has an undesirable negative impact on the dynamics of employment and unemployment, labor productivity, the growth rate of industrial production and, consequently, the volume of GNP within the economy of the home country. In addition, large corporations are sometimes able to direct the foreign policy of the home country in their own interests. There are many known cases when the governments of the United States, Great Britain and other home countries found themselves drawn into costly international conflicts in order to protect the interests of their own TNCs.
Multinational corporations are penetrating high-tech, knowledge-intensive industries that require huge investments and highly qualified personnel. At the same time, there is a noticeable tendency towards monopolization of these industries by transnational corporations.
In the 90s, three quarters of industrial products in developed countries were produced by about 2 thousand largest corporations. Several hundred of them produced 50 to 80% of the most important types of products. These multinational corporations bear the main production and innovation burden.
Recently, there has been a growing trend towards the consolidation of TNCs. It is primarily associated with the process of mergers and acquisitions, the volume of which in the late 90s amounted to $ 544 billion. The result of numerous mergers and acquisitions, as well as strategic alliances, is the formation of new TNCs of an oligopolistic type. Currently, in developed countries, only two or three supergiants occupy a dominant position in each industry, competing with each other in the markets of all countries.
Of the 500 most powerful multinationals, 85 control 70% of all overseas investment. These 500 giants sell 80% of all industrial products in electronics and chemistry, 95% of pharmaceuticals, 76% of engineering products.
By the beginning of the 21st century, the dominance of 300-600 transnational corporations had been established in the world economy. At the same time, 300 corporations control 75% of the world's gross product, and significantly diversify their production and services. Thus, the Swedish automobile concern Volvo is already producing not only world-famous cars. This multinational corporation, which has more than 30 large subsidiaries of various profiles in Sweden and several dozen abroad, produces motors for boats, aircraft engines, food products and even Pripps beer. In turn, each of the 500 largest multinational companies in the United States has, on average, enterprises in 11 industries, and the most powerful ones cover 30-50 industries. In the group of 100 leading industrial firms in England, 96 are diversified, in Germany - 78, in France - 84, in Italy - 90. The number and nature of enterprises belonging to transnational corporations is determined mainly by economic feasibility.
In general, TNCs at the beginning of the 21st century are characterized by an increase in investment in the service sector. In particular, more than 5% of direct foreign investments of the largest TNCs in the late 90s were directed to the service sector, including R&D and marketing research.
Innovation and research and development are playing an increasingly important role for modern TNCs. Companies in all industries are forced to increase their R&D costs in order to gain a competitive advantage. It should be noted that modern TNCs prefer to concentrate research work in the parent company, and to locate production in foreign countries. Since more than 85% of the leading TNCs are based in the United States, Japan and the European Union, these countries accumulate practically all major scientific developments. Thus, the economies of these countries are increasingly focused on the production of intellectual products, rather than material ones.
An essential aspect of the activities of modern TNCs is the unprecedented boom in the development of telecommunication technologies. The global information infrastructure also contributes to the development of TNCs in many ways. Using the capabilities of modern telecommunications, TNCs received unlimited opportunities for the exchange of information both between the parent company and foreign branches, and with other TNCs.
Topic 20. Population reproduction and labor market
20.1. Demographic processes. The inconsistency of the problem.
20.2. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labor resources. Employment and its types.
20.3. Socio-economic factors. Reproduction of labor resources.
Demography is the science of population. For the first time this term was used by the French scientist A. Guillard in 1855 in his book "The Element of Population Statistics, or Comparative Demography". Demography is a social science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions, studies the patterns of processes occurring in the structure of distribution, movement and population dynamics. The study of demographic processes in an individual country cannot be considered in isolation from the demographic situation throughout the world, as well as taking into account the historical factor of this process.
Let's trace the population size in historically significant periods for our state:
world population - 275 million people.
of them in Europe - 42 million people.
Kievan Rus - 8 million people.
1200 BC- 348 million people
of them in Europe - 100 million people.
in Asia, Australia and Oceania - 203 million people.
1800 BC- 906 million people
of them in Europe - 187 million people.
1900 g.- 1608 million people
of them in Europe - 401 million people.
in Africa - 120 million people.
in America - 140 million people.
Currently, the world is home to more than 6 billion people, in Africa - 600 million people, and with the dominant role of the traditional economy, the needs of people have already exceeded the permissible load on local biological systems.
The world's population is projected to reach 8 billion by 2025.
Demographic problems in our country began to be studied only in the 60s of the twentieth century, because it was previously believed that, having put an end to unemployment by the beginning of the 30s, having organized a system of personnel training, our country cannot have demographic problems.
Demographic problems in our country were complex and diverse, and in general they could be reduced to two main components:
1) two opposite types of population reproduction;
2) the demographic consequences of the war.
In the former USSR, there were 2 types of population reproduction (H: 1.1) based on low population-controlled fertility, low mortality and high migration intensity. This type of reproduction is typical for Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia, i.e. for about 80% of the population of the former Soviet Union. This type is characterized by a system that does not provide simple reproduction of the population. According to the estimates of demographers, from the initial population of 1000 people. after 30 years 621 people remain, after 98 years - 386 people, after 50 years - 92 people, after 300 years - 8 people, or less than 1% of the initial population.
The type of reproduction based on high fertility, low mortality and low intensity of migration outside their republics gives a high percentage (from 2.5 to 3%) annually and is characteristic of the indigenous rural population of the republics of Central Asia. As a result, there is overpopulation, the absence of stable sources of income for the surplus labor resources, the growth of socio-economic instability and adverse economic consequences. If earlier, before the collapse of the USSR, it was possible to count on the migration of young people from Asia to Russia, now, in the conditions of the formation of the CIS, such an option is practically ruled out.
The demographic consequences of the war are divided into direct and indirect. Direct - more than 20 million people. perished, and indirect - this is the unborn generation as a result of the war, the decline in the "quality" of the population: the level of education, health, etc.
Labor resources of the state represent labor potential, i.e. are an integral characteristic of quantity, quality and a measure of the total ability to work.
The modern labor market includes three main categories of persons:
1) "blue vortonichki" (workers engaged mainly in manual labor);
2) "gray collars" (ordinary workers - auxiliary personnel);
3) "white collars" (knowledge workers: employees, engineers, administrative and managerial personnel, etc.).
The development of scientific and technological progress and the transition to an information society caused a number of qualitative and quantitative shifts in the structure of the labor market:
There is a sharp decline in the proportion of manual workers;
The share of knowledge workers has increased significantly.
A characteristic feature of the qualitative evolution of the modern workforce is the growth of its educational level.
In terms of education and qualifications of the workforce, Russia is in one of the leading places in the world. Thus, at the beginning of 1998, more than 19% of all employed people had a higher education in the country, and about 69% had secondary education (general and special); universities graduated about 46 thousand specialists, and in 1998 there were more than 3 million university students in Russia (207 students per 10 thousand population. The level of education of the labor force in the general population is one of the important comparative competitive advantages.
The accelerating processes of updating scientific and technical knowledge have increased the need for specialists who, based on the achievements of computer science, can creatively use scientific and innovative approaches to improve technologies.
Modern conditions and the development of the information society require from employees perfect knowledge of computer science, possession of computer technology, a high level of oral and written speech is required. Ability to read books and literature reviews, scientific and technical journals, financial reports and legal documents.
The high level of dynamics of innovative processes in the economy has caused the need to create a system of continuous education of personnel at enterprises, organizations, institutions. Regular renewal and replenishment of the professional qualities of employees in universities, faculties and advanced training courses.
Employment is an essential characteristic of a nation's economy and well-being. This indicator is an assessment of the country's well-being, its economic and social stability. Employment is an integral part of socio-economic policy.
The Law "On Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation" defines the socio-economic structure of employment, where its main types are highlighted. These include:
Employees;
Entrepreneurs;
Temporarily absent due to disability, vacation, advanced training, etc.;
Self-supporting work;
Elected, appointed or approved for a paid position;
Serving in the ranks of the Russian army and other armed structures of the state;
Students in educational institutions.
From the variety of types of activity, 3 groups of employed can be distinguished:
1) employed in the economy in a paid activity;
2) employees of the Russian Army;
3) students with a break from work.
Employed in the economy by the nature of their participation in economic processes can be divided into three subgroups:
1) employees;
2) employers;
3) self-employed.
The labor market, built on the laws of supply and demand and functioning according to certain principles and mechanisms, is a market of a special kind and has a number of significant differences from other commodity markets. The functioning of the labor market is significantly influenced by economic factors, which can be considered:
The size of the working-age population, i.e. the number of people who can be involved in the production process;
The age structure of the population, showing what kind of labor resources the country has;
The level of employment and the professional structure of the employed, which determines the efficiency of using labor potential and ways to increase production;
The flow of labor resources from one production area to another and the processes of population migration;
The qualification level of the labor force and the level of production culture as factors that determine the quality of the labor force.
The Russian economy has significant labor resources. The total number in 1997 was 147,137,000, of which 84,337,000 were of working age, i.e. 57.3% of the population. Along with this, in recent years, there has been a number of negative trends associated with the reproduction of the labor force. These include the aging of the population, an increase in the population over the working age, and a decrease in the population below the working age due to a sharp decline in the birth rate. There is a natural decline in the population associated with a decrease in the birth rate and a decrease in average life expectancy, which may be reflected in a decrease in the size of the able-bodied population in 2005-2010.
Improving the efficiency of reproduction of labor resources can be achieved through the use of various market regulation instruments: increasing labor mobility, stimulating the free flow of employees between the spheres of production activity, introducing a differentiated system of social assistance to the unemployed.
1. The world world economy, its essence
The modern world economy (world economy) is a naturally developing and increasingly complex system of interaction between national economies of different countries of the world, which manifests itself in various forms of their international economic relations on the basis of the international division of labor.
The world economy is a complex system that includes many interconnected, dependent and interacting elements. The basis of this system is formed by the international and limited by the framework of individual states, the national production of material and spiritual goods, their distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of these phases of the world reproduction process both on a global scale and within individual states, depending on their place and share, as a whole, affects the functioning of the entire world economic system.
Although the world economic system has long become a reality, there is still no single definition of the concept of "world economy" due to its complexity and diversity.
World economy, or world economy,- this is a set of national economies that are in constant dynamics, in motion, with growing international ties and, accordingly, the most complex mutual influence, obeying the objective laws of a market economy, as a result of which an extremely contradictory, but at the same time more or less integral, world economic system is formed.
The formation of the world economy took place gradually, as the corresponding prerequisites were created. At the final stage of the formation of the world capitalist economy, world market, which became one of the characteristic features of the development of the world economy in the second half of the 19th century, played an important role in the formation and development of the world economy.
The modern world economy is heterogeneous: the states included in it are distinguished by their social structure, political structure, the level of development of productive forces and production relations, as well as the nature, scale and methods of international economic relations.
Leading position in the world economy occupy seven industrialized countries: USA, Japan, Canada, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. They account for more than 80% of industrial production of the group of industrialized countries (IDS) and about 60% of all world industrial production; respectively 70 and 60% of electricity production, more than 60% of exports of goods and about 50% of services.
2. The main stages of the formation and development of the world economy
There are several periods in the development of the modern world economy and the involvement of national economies in it.
First period- 20-30s of the XX century, which were characterized by crisis phenomena in the development of the world economy. When Russia fell out of world economic ties in 1917, the economic blockade carried out by Western countries could not lead to the restoration of world economic ties on the previous basis. The deep socio-economic crisis of the world economy was accompanied by the general instability of economic ties caused by the First World War, the Great Depression in the late 1920s and 1930s in the development of the economies of the leading countries of the world.
Second period development of the world economy - this is the end of the 40s - 80s of the XX century - is characterized by an intensive growth in the export of entrepreneurial capital in the world capitalist economy. During this time, the growth of foreign production had a major impact on the organizational and economic parameters of the world economy. The main force in industrial relations was transnational corporations (TNCs), which formed international production complexes, including the creation of a product, its implementation, settlements, and lending.
Very important economic processes took place in the world economy during this period. Among them, the following should be noted.
The United States, which sharply increased in its economic power during the Second World War, helped in the economic revival of Western Europe. After finishing Marshall Plan (1951) As the colonial empires collapsed, aid programs were reoriented to developing countries in order to preserve them in the system of relations between Western countries. The liquidation of the colonial system in the mid-1960s brought a large group of developing countries to the forefront of international life, which still hold a special place in the world economy.
In the 1950s and 1980s, the levels of development of the United States and other industrialized countries converged. The worldwide economic dominance of the United States began to degenerate into a multipolar system.
The crisis period in the world economy in the 1970s and 1980s was not accompanied by a trend towards economic autarchy, as it was in the 1920s and 1930s. On the contrary, foreign economic relations had a steady trend towards expansion and deepening.
The beginning of a new one third period in the development of the world economy can presumably be considered the last decade of the XX century. The processes of formation and creation of economic and political structures similar to those of Western states are taking place in Eastern European countries. The economic reforms carried out in Russia since the beginning of the 90s are aimed at transferring the country's economy to market conditions of economic management and its deeper integration into the world economy.
3. Subjects of the world economy
Purposeful economic activity in the world economy is carried out by subjects that determine the state and development of factors of production, as well as ways of combining them. The subjects of the world economy are economic units that are capable of organizing production activities on an international scale in terms of their financial and material capabilities and possessing certain international rights and obligations. These major economic entities include national states, TNCs, regional integration economic associations, and international economic organizations.
The main subject world economy is the state.
The role of the state in the economy is manifested primarily in the creation of guaranteed markets for companies inside the country and abroad, its participation in capital accumulation, regulation of internal and external economic relations in the national interests, directly in the production of gross domestic product (GDP).
In modern conditions of globalization of world economic relations, the state influence on other subjects of the world economy and on the system as a whole is commensurate with the economic potential of the state and the role of national economic entities in international markets.
In accordance with the International System of National Accounts (SNA), the subjects of world economic relations are private (natural) persons and organizations (legal entities), carrying out international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of belonging to the national economy, the subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents- these are economic entities permanently located on the territory of a given country, regardless of their national (state) affiliation.
Non-residents- these are economic entities permanently located on the territory of a foreign state, even if they are citizens of a given country, but permanently reside abroad, or branches of economic units of a given country located outside its borders.
In accordance with the SNA, all residents and non-residents, or business entities, qualify as institutional units. These are individuals and legal entities that own the factors of production and have the ability to produce products or sell services, to conclude transactions with others on their own behalf.
The SNA does not distinguish between the subjects of national and international economic activity, since in an open market economy, all legal entities and individuals that actually exist in the economy of any country, at the same time and in the same capacity, have the right to be subjects of the world economy, i.e. enter into legal economic relations with any subjects of other countries or participants in international economic unions.
4. System of national accounts and its indicators
To analyze economic events, complex economic relationships, a system of reliable, complementary indicators is needed. The modern SNA was approved by the UN in 1993, which slightly changed the names of the sectors of the economy, standard accounts and basic macroeconomic indicators.
Most widely in economic analysis, two important indicators are used: gross product and national income. The central indicator of the new SNA is gross domestic product (GDP); its second macroeconomic indicator is gross national product (GNP). Both of them reflect the results of activities in two spheres of the national economy - material production and services; both are defined as the cost of the total volume of final production of goods and services in the economy for one year (quarter, month). These indicators are calculated both in current (effective) prices and in constant (prices of any base year).
The difference between GNP and GDP is as follows.
Gdp calculated on the so-called territorial basis. This is the total cost of products in the sphere of material production and the sphere of services, regardless of the nationality of enterprises located on the territory of a given country.
GNP Is the total value of the total volume of products and services in the national economy, regardless of the location of national enterprises (in their own country or abroad).
Thus, GNP differs from GDP in the amount of the so-called factor income from the use of the resources of a given country abroad (profit transferred to the country from capital invested abroad, property available there, wages of citizens working abroad) minus similar income exported from the country foreigners.
Usually, in order to calculate GNP, the difference between the profit and income received by enterprises and individuals of a given country abroad, on the one hand, and the profit and income received by foreign investors and foreign workers in a given country, on the other hand, is added to the GDP indicator. This difference is small - for the leading Western countries, no more than ± 1% of GDP.
In our country, the transition to new indicators of GDP and GNP is carried out by recalculating the gross social product (GP) and national income (NI), which are, respectively, the sum of gross output and net output of the branches of material production.
5. National income. PPP
National income Is the newly created value in a year, which characterizes what added the production of a given year to the welfare of society. Therefore, when calculating it, unlike GDP, it does not include depreciation, indirect taxes, and government subsidies.
This is the net "earned income" of society, and this determines the importance of ND as a macroeconomic indicator and its widespread use in comparative analysis.
In Russian practice the breakdown into two funds is still applied:
consumption fund - part of the ND, which ensures the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of people and the needs of society as a whole (for education, defense, etc.);
an accumulation fund is a part of the ND that ensures the development of production.
The SNA usually defines the rate of accumulation and the share of consumption, but as a percentage of GDP, and not of NI.
For international comparisons and other purposes, it is more convenient to have an integral indicator of the scale and level of economic development. This role is usually played by a monetary indicator, expressed in dollars - GDP or GNP.
For international comparisons, GDP is converted into one currency, usually US dollars. This raises a number of problems. First, it turns out that the relative performance of a particular country and its place in the world economy strongly depend on the current exchange rate, which can change dramatically.
By the 90s of the XX century. a solution to this problem was found: the concept of purchasing power parity - PPP (from the English. purchasing power party - PPP). Since 1992, in the UN, within the framework of the international comparison program, as well as in the OECD, the EU, the IMF and the IB, calculations based on PPP have been introduced.
PPP - the coefficient of converting national currencies into dollars, but not at the bank rate, but based on the ratio of the purchasing power of the two currencies in the countries where they are issued. For convenience, PPP $ 1 is taken as a unit.
For such calculations, they take a uniform "basket" of goods and services and calculate its cost by country. Here a new problem arises: the inadequacy of the standard basket to the structure of consumer spending, which are fundamentally different in different countries. This means that there is no standard “basket” that is uniform for all countries.
Price differences are not the only source of distortion in comparing GDP; in addition, the shadow economy and labor costs in the household are not taken into account.
6. The main features of integration in the late XIX - early XX century.
The integration of economic life in the world goes in many directions:
but) internationalization of productive forces through the exchange of means of production and technological knowledge, as well as international specialization and cooperation, linking economic units into integral production and consumer systems; through production cooperation, international movement of production resources; through the formation of a global material, information, organizational and economic infrastructure, ensuring the implementation of international exchange;
b) manifestation of internationalization through MRI;
in) an increase in the scale and qualitative change in the nature of traditional international trade materialized goods. The main factor in the impact of international trade on national economies is not so much its outstripping growth, reflecting the process of deepening MRI, as its fundamental qualitative shifts. The very functions of international trade have changed- from short-term transactions "commodity - money" to the means of direct servicing of national production processes, linking them into a single production mechanism that does not know national borders. The emphasis in such service is shifting to the final stages of production (finishing, assembly operations);
d) international movement of financial and production resources, ensuring the intertwining and interdependence of economic activities in different countries. This movement takes place in the form of international credit or foreign investment;
e) an increasingly important area of international cooperation is becoming services sector, which develops faster than the sphere of material production;
f) rapidly growing international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge: no country alone is able to resolve all issues of scientific and technological progress, and even more so to be a leader in all its areas. All this leads to an intensive process of the formation of an international intellectual division of labor. International specialization of scientific and experimental design centers is taking place, the establishment of stable cooperation between them;
g) the scale of international labor migration is increasing, to which Russia and other states formed on the territory of the former USSR are beginning to connect as exporters;
h) simultaneously with the increasing internationalization, the impact of production and consumption on the natural environment is growing need in the international cooperation aimed at solving global problems of our time(environmental protection, exploration of the oceans, outer space, assistance to the starving population of developing countries, etc.). The solution to the increasingly aggravated global problems that put humanity on the brink of survival requires the combined efforts of all countries of the world community.
7. International division of labor
The basis for the unification of national economies into a single world economy is international division of labor(MRI), i.e. specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products, which countries exchange with each other.
MRI is the basis of the world economy, allowing it to progress in its development, to create the prerequisites for a more complete manifestation of general (universal) economic laws.
The essence of MRI manifests itself in the dynamic unity of two production processes - its dismemberment and unification.
A single production process cannot but be divided into relatively independent, isolated from each other phases. At the same time, such a dismemberment is at the same time the unification of isolated industries and territorial production complexes, the establishment of interaction between the countries participating in the MRI system.
The need to increase labor productivity, which determines economic and social progress, is a driving force in deepening the division of labor, including international. MRI is performed in order to increasing production efficiency, serves as a means of rationalizing social productive forces.
The main driver of MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of their social and economic differences, is their the pursuit of economic benefits. In this case, the realization of the effect obtained by the MRI participants occurs as a result of the operation of the law of value, which is manifested in the differences between the national and international value of the goods.
MRI is the "integrator" that formed the world economic system - the world economy from separate elements.
Types of MRI.
1. Territorial: a) interregional - division of labor between regions of the same country; b) international - the division of labor between individual countries.
2. Functional: a) general - the division of labor between large spheres of material and non-material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.); b) private - the division of labor within large spheres by industry and sub-industry (for example, such as heavy and light industry, animal husbandry and crop production, sea, air and land transport, as well as within them: mining industry, metallurgy, mechanical engineering within the framework of heavy industry ; machine tool and transport engineering in the framework of mechanical engineering; automobile, aircraft, shipbuilding in the framework of transport engineering, etc.); c) single - division of labor within the enterprise (in this case, the enterprise is interpreted broadly as a complete cycle of creating the final product).
8. Scientific and technological progress as a determining factor in the development of modern MRI
The scientific and technological revolution (STR) at the present stage is causing profound changes in the structure of productive forces, inter- and intra-sectoral proportions in the national economies of an increasingly growing number of countries and the world economy as a whole.
New technological base, availability of information since the early 80s change the conditions of production and consumption. Individualization of demand, an increase in the saturation of mass needs, a reduction in the timing of meeting demand, a constant threat of overproduction, a number of socio-economic moments - all this is increased the role of consumer demand as an incentive for the qualitative development of production and services, or, in other words, the formation of directions of technical progress, the final efficiency of material and spiritual production.
New technologies bring into play qualitatively new economic ties: they aim at saving resources, individualizing and specializing production and consumption. The cumulative result of new links goes not so much along the chain of costs, but along the axis of the growing effect from their application. The chain reaction here has a consequence saving all kinds of resources. Increasing the role of consumers in the "producer - consumer" system results in the implementation of a complex of organizational and managerial measures at the corporate level of marketing nature (strengthening the link between research and development (R&D) and production activities with sales policy, preliminary identification and assessment of consumer opportunities) , focus on meeting a narrow specific demand).
Application of new technologies affects world economic relations. The nature of the IRM is changing as the newest forms of automation deprive developing countries in an increasing number of economic activities of some of the benefits associated with the presence of a significant cheap labor force, which affects traditional incentives to export capital. They are shifting away from labor savings to savings on costs, associated with lower standards for environmental cleanliness and labor safety, which developing countries go to for the industrialization of national economies. In addition to the export of goods and capital, industrialized countries are increasingly using the export of scientific and technical information and scientific and technical services as a "battering ram" of great disruptive power to establish and expand their positions in the world market.
The modern world is moving to a new, synthesized model of development, which is characterized by: a) a qualitative renewal of the technological base of production, b) widespread introduction of resource and energy saving technologies, c) shifts in the structure, content and nature of production and consumption processes.
9. Strengthening the trend of globalization in the development of the world economy at the beginning of the XXI century.
Globalization as a process is a movement towards superinternationalization, superintegration, which is manifested in all world markets.
The process of globalization has led to a new qualitative state of the world economy, the so-called globalized space. Globalization as a new qualitative state of the world economy is a new stage in the development of human society, at which the features of the integrity of the world economy, the interdependence of all its parts become obvious, noticeable at the level of both phenomena and individual events.
The revolution in finance and technology, as well as the availability of information, have led to a new state of society: neither governments nor national mass media are able to isolate economic agents from the full volume of information about economics, politics, problems and ways of solving them in other countries.
Economically globalization means lowering barriers between national economies (the role of the World Trade Organization - WTO is increasing, numerous agreements on telecommunications and financial services are being developed), over-integration of national economies.
At the beginning of the XXI century. under the influence of the global information system, the boundaries between technologies, industries, and sources of capital are disappearing. Various computer technologies grow together into a single integral information system, dragging along not only the information environment and information technologies, but also the markets for capital, goods and services, and labor. Now it is often difficult to determine the country - the manufacturer of the goods, the country - the source of capital.
Globalization is especially evident on the capital market: thanks to the information and technical power of modern means of communication, huge amounts of financial resources are rapidly moving from one point of the planet to another; the speed and directions of this movement are difficult to predict, they are instantly invested where they perform best.
In 1980, 4.6 million Americans owned shares of various funds, and in 2000 already half of the US population invested their money in the securities markets. At the same time, there was a "narrowing of space"; on the commodity market, this was manifested in a sharp increase in world exports, which in half a century increased from $ 53 billion to $ 7 trillion.
Technological prerequisites for globalization computerization, miniaturization, fiber optics, increased use of satellites, the introduction of the Internet. The number of computers per capita, the number of CDs and digital disks, as well as the number of individuals using e-mail, as well as the number of Internet users, are becoming important indicators of the development of a country.
10. Correlation of globalization and global problems in the world economy
The deepening of the globalization process, unfortunately, not only does not lead to the solution of global problems, but also contributes to the prosperity of a small group of industrialized countries and the degradation and impoverishment of the least developed countries of the world.
None of the global world problems, known since the middle of the 20th century, has yet been fully resolved: the creation of a mechanism for resolving issues of war and peace, disarmament, conversion, overcoming poverty, hunger, and disease. There is no paradigm for human development and survival in the context of global warming, a unified environmental protection program, and a joint search for new sources of energy. Today, more than 80 thousand chemicals are used in everyday production that have a detrimental effect on human health.
Moreover, itself globalization gives rise to new global problems. Direct investments of transnational corporations do not always give an unequivocally positive result, for which they are called "instruments for preserving underdevelopment" that produce products that the country does not need with the help of unnecessary technology. Financial resources attracted through the globalization process “run away” as quickly as they come. In mid-1997, Western capital left Thailand, and in 1998 - South Korea and Indonesia, causing a financial shock in each of these countries.
Even in countries reaping the "sweet fruits" of globalization, there are occasional protests against alien values sold as universal (anti-globalization movement). The sharply increased severity of competition on a global scale leads to growing income inequality and a lack of job security. In industrialized countries, globalization is being rebuffed from both the left and the right of the political spectrum. The left sees the differentiation of consumption: the suffering of the poor and the over-enrichment of dozens of citizens, the right sees the erasure of national borders, the unification of national identity, the loss of jobs, the loss of clearly expressed national sovereignty.
The trade unions of the developed countries are also protesting against globalization. It is known that in the United States a worker earns an average of about $ 19 an hour, and a Mexican worker $ 1.50, which causes a massive outflow of production to Mexico.
Capital that has burst out into the global space finds those areas where wages are minimal, taxes are negligible, and government regulation is almost absent.
11. Ecological crisis as a global problem of humanity
The ecological problem has a long history, but it has become aggravated since the second half of the 19th century as the planet industrialized.
The aggravation of the ecological problem means a transition to a qualitatively new dependence of the population of the world community on the impoverished surrounding nature as a result of the barbaric impact of human activity on it.
The main directions of exacerbation of the environmental crisis:
Increased withdrawal from land use (area) of cultivated land as a result of excessive use of chemical fertilizers, soil salinization, wind and water erosion, etc .;
Chemical impact on agricultural and livestock products, water, human habitat, deforestation, etc .;
The growing volume of emissions of pollutants into the Earth's atmosphere (hundreds of thousands of tons of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, etc.), leading to the gradual destruction of the ozone protective layer around the Earth's atmosphere;
The rapid build-up of waste, the transformation of significant land areas into landfills for various industrial waste. As a result, useful areas of land are reduced and territorial centers with increased danger to human life are expanding;
The growth in the number of nuclear power plants.
The so-called local wars in Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, Afghanistan, Africa, Central America also influenced the acceleration of the ecological crisis. The vast expanses of the jungle, which were untouched for centuries, turned out to be literally scorched.
The links between the environment and the economy can be seen in many phenomena. The recent famine in sub-Saharan Africa is the result of severe environmental and economic degradation rather than drought alone, which undoubtedly was the catalyst for the disaster.
The problem of environmental safety is closely related to the achievement of economic security, the establishment of equal economic relations, excluding the predatory exploitation of natural resources, the export of polluting industries and hazardous waste, - this idea was emphasized at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, held in 1992 American scientist Brown, Director of the Washington Institute for World Observation , stressed in this regard that the extensive destruction of natural support systems and deteriorating environmental conditions pose a threat to national and international security, which now competes with the traditional military threat.
This is where the most developed forms of international cooperation are required on the basis of common criteria and generally recognized universal approaches.
12. International economic aspects of the food problem
Although food consumption in general is increasing in all regions, it is unevenly distributed across continents and across individual states:
1) industrial zones of the world, including Western and Northern Europe, North America, Australia and Japan - regions that are faced not with a shortage of high-quality food, but with its surplus;
2) regions of southern Europe and Central Asia, as well as most of the countries of Latin America, the Maghreb countries and ASEAN, in which food supply is at a level approaching the norm in terms of WHO UN requirements;
3) the countries of Eastern Europe, the CIS and the Baltic countries, as well as India, Egypt, Indonesia, the food supply of which is at the "permissible" level of deviation from the norm according to the UN WHO standards;
4) developing countries, the overwhelming majority of whose population is experiencing all the severities of the food crisis (a vivid example is the countries of the south of the Sahara).
The level of food production in countries of Eastern Europe, CIS and Baltic countries does not correspond to their real capabilities. Russia alone, possessing vast territories for the cultivation of various agricultural crops and animal husbandry, has enormous potential not only to fully provide its population with the necessary food, but also to provide assistance to other countries. However, at present the CIS countries and the Baltic countries are food importers.
Providing food for a rapidly growing population developing countries is one of the most pressing global problems of our time. The solution to the food problem of developing countries is associated with overcoming their economic, scientific and technological backwardness and lies on the path of radical socio-economic transformations, the elimination of backward forms of land tenure and land use, the rise of agriculture based on the introduction of advanced scientific methods of its management.
According to FAO estimates, the total number of people suffering from acute hunger in the early 1990s due to the food crisis in Africa is between 600 million and 700 million. The criterion of hunger in this assessment is its extreme degree, determined by the "critical level" of the body's energy needs, sufficient only for survival. If, on the other hand, a less rigid approach is used to define hunger, the number of hungry people in developing countries will be even greater. Hunger in the liberated countries is a massive and constant phenomenon that accompanies the daily life of broad strata of the population.
Chronic hunger causes irreparable damage to the reproduction of labor resources, shortens life expectancy, and contributes to maintaining a high mortality rate.
13. Global international cooperation and the UN. ECOSOC
United Nations Is the largest, universal and most authoritative international organization at the present time, designed to deal with the main political problems of concern to mankind. The political activity of the UN is inextricably linked with economic and social tasks directly related to world politics.
The preamble of the UN Charter states that its purpose is to promote the economic and social progress of all peoples. In duties UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) includes the organization of research and the preparation of various kinds of reports and recommendations on a wide range of international economic, social, cultural and other "related" issues. The Council prepares draft conventions for submission to the UN General Assembly, can convene international conferences on these issues. As the main coordinating body in this area, ECOSOC coordinates work with other UN organizations, holds consultations, involving for this purpose non-governmental organizations specializing and interested in the problem under consideration.
The main questions of ECOSOC:
The state of the world economic and social situation and the preparation of fundamental reviews and other analytical publications;
The state of international trade;
Environmental protection problems;
Economic, scientific and technical assistance to developing countries;
Various aspects of the food problem;
Problems of socio-economic statistics;
Population problems;
Natural resource problems;
Settlement problems;
Problems of planning and mobilizing financial resources, etc.
In the system of ECOSOC bodies there are five regional economic commissions: Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), Economic Commission for West Africa (EWA).
Environmental meeting held by EEC in 1979, adopted the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (entered into force in 1983) and the Declaration on Low-Waste and Non-Waste Technology and Waste Reuse.
Within the framework of ESCAP the project of trans-Asian railways and highways has been developed and is being implemented.
The document, which defined the economic policy of the continent's states for the 90s, was adopted at the 24th session ECA(1989). It is the Framework for the African Alternative to Structural Adjustment Programs for Economic Recovery and Transformation. The "alternative" is a real basis for halting Africa's slide into the deepening economic crisis.
14. UN organizations
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is designed to regulate world trade relations. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was created and operated outside the UN framework. Therefore, many countries set a task for the UN - to have in its structures an independent and universal body called on behalf of the world community to regulate complex problems of international trade. To this end, in 1964, an autonomous UN body was founded to facilitate international trade, negotiate and develop international treaties and recommendations in this area; it currently includes about 170 states. The main body of UNCTAD is a conference, which is convened in session twice a year. Sessions of UNCTAD committees are convened more often - on commodities, on finished goods and semi-finished products, on shipping, technology transfer, economic cooperation among developing countries, etc.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Within its framework, a Section for Integrated Industrial Projects has been created: development, coordination and control over the implementation of individual large-scale technical projects, development and management of joint programs of technical cooperation with FAO. During the year, UNIDO is working on more than 100 interregional and global projects for Latin America and Asia in all sectors of the economy and training.
Environment program(UNEP): protection of soil and water, flora and fauna, socio-economic aspects of energy, urban planning problems, cooperation in the field of education and exchange of information on environmental protection, practical implementation of the tasks of environmental safety.
The International Labour Organization(ILO): Development of international conventions and recommendations on labor and trade union rights.
Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO): Collect and compile information on nutrition, environmental management, agricultural production, forestry and fisheries. The main field of activity is the agriculture of the world.
purpose European Bank for Reconstruction and Development(EBRD) - to provide financial assistance to the new states of Eurasia and Eastern Europe in carrying out economic reforms, in particular, in financing "privatization programs" and encouraging "private initiative" and "entrepreneurial spirit". The bank actually started functioning only in 1993. In 1994-1997, some technical assistance was provided to a number of countries, but it is clear that the EBRD's capabilities are limited and any significant financial impact on the CIS members, the Baltic countries and Eastern Europe is unrealistic to expect.
15. Natural resources and their role in the world economy
The world economy is based on the use of significant reserves of natural resources. The economic activity of economic agents is unthinkable without soil cover, minerals, fresh water, solar and wind energy, precipitation moisture, biological (flora and fauna) resources.
All elements of nature used in economic activity and being the means of human existence form the natural resource potential of the world economy. All natural resources are subdivided into real ones, i.e. identified by modern survey methods, technically available and economically viable, and potential, i.e. resources, the amount of which is set theoretically and has a forecast character.
Potential resources are resources of the future. Due to their current economic unprofitability, they can be involved in production under conditions of a qualitatively new level of development of scientific and technological progress.
Classification is important according to the principle of exhaustion. From this point of view, all resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible.
The demand for exhaustible resources sharply exceeds their volumes and the rate of their natural replenishment, which leads to the depletion of these resources.
Based on the intensity and rate of natural renewal exhaustible resources are divided into non-renewable (all types of mineral and land resources), renewable (flora and fauna) and relatively renewable (productive arable soils, mature forests).
16. Stocks of mineral raw materials and energy resources in the world (coal, oil)
Despite the significant development of geological exploration (primarily in developed countries), the study of the subsoil is still insufficient. The specific weight of proven reserves for some types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves.
Among the fuel and energy resources, the world's largest reserves coal. Its geological reserves, according to some estimates, reach 9-11 trillion tons (in conventional fuel), and of brown coal and lignite - 2.2 trillion tons. If we compare the figure of world reserves with world coal production - over 4.3 billion tons in 1994 (in terms of conventional fuel - 3.1 billion tons), it turns out that it will be enough for 3000–3700 years with modern production (and for 1000 years with a production level possible in 2020). Explored coal reserves are much less than geological - 1.2 trillion tons.
Of this total, the United States accounts for 430 billion tons, Germany - 100 billion, England - 50 billion, India - 29 billion, Canada - 50 billion, Australia - 90 billion and the CIS - 290 billion tons. The bulk of coal is mined in the CIS, USA, China, Germany, Poland, Slovakia and England.
In the United States, by the mid-90s, about 900 million tons of coal were mined annually. About 1/10 of the coal is exported. The coal industry has excess capacity due to the displacement of coal by other more efficient fuels. Coal production is declining in European countries. In England, mines are closed in connection with the depletion of coal reserves and the rise in the cost of its production, as well as the displacement of coal by oil from the North Sea. Production decreased in France and Russia.
The share of coal in the world consumption of energy resources (in terms of equivalent fuel) at the beginning of the XX century. was 56%, and in 1995 - 27%. In the coming years, the ratio between the types of energy resources consumed in the world will change towards a decrease in the proportion of oil, the sources of which are limited. The share of consumption of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy will grow.
Reliable reserves oil are 127 billion tons of standard fuel and probable - 360 billion tons of standard fuel. In addition, the probable reserves of oil from unconventional sources - oil shale and tar sands - amount to 750 billion tons. Reliable reserves of oil from traditional sources in the world are distributed as follows (in%): in the Near and Middle East (in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq) - 70, in Africa (in Nigeria, Algeria, Libya) - 9–11, in North America - 8–10, in Central and South America - 5, in Western Europe - 5. Currently, slightly less than half traditional oil reserves are located on coastal shelves.
Oil is likely to remain the main fuel and energy resource for a long time to come. It is estimated that in 2020 the share of oil in world energy consumption will be at least 10%. It should be borne in mind that with the existing production technique, on average only 30–35% of the oil in the Earth's interior is extracted to the surface.
17. Stocks of mineral raw materials and energy resources in the world (natural gas, iron ore, etc.)
The world has natural gas(in terms of fuel equivalent) 79 billion tons of proven reserves and 276 billion tons of probable reserves (66 trillion and 230 trillion cubic meters, respectively, in physical terms). The largest proven gas reserves are located in developing countries - Iraq, Saudi Arabia and other countries of the Near and Middle East, as well as in Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Venezuela, Mexico. Among developed countries, the USA, Canada, Australia have significant gas reserves, and in Europe - Great Britain, Norway and Holland (North Sea reserves). In many of these countries, gas reserves have been discovered over the past 15–20 years, and there is reason to believe that further discoveries are possible.
The production of natural gas in the world reaches 1.7 trillion cubic meters per year. This figure will increase and may double by the middle of the 21st century. The share of gas in global energy consumption is estimated to be about 15% by 2020.
Geological potential reserves iron ore estimated in trillions of tons. The resources of known deposits, including those whose use is currently economically unprofitable, reach about 600 billion tons, and the proven and probable reserves - 260 billion tons. The largest deposits of iron ore in the world are in Brazil, Australia, Canada, the USA, South Africa, and among European countries - France, Great Britain, Germany, Sweden and Norway. There are large deposits of iron ore in the CIS and China. The iron content in the known deposits of industrial ores for the most part does not exceed 40%. Poor ores with an iron content of 30–35% and less undergo the beneficiation process at mining and processing plants. Rich ores - with an iron content of more than 45% - are used without beneficiation.
The production of iron ore in the world is about 870 million tons per year. In recent years, its production has decreased significantly and the production of ferrous metallurgy has decreased. Steel production capacity decreased as the demand for it decreased, in particular in the automotive industry. Steel is being replaced by plastics, heavy-duty ceramics, and other materials.
General stocks bauxite(raw materials for aluminum production) amount to 50 billion tons, of which reliable and probable - about 20 billion tons. Bauxite production reaches 80 million tons, mainly in Australia, Guinea, and Jamaica.
General stocks copper ore are determined at 860 million tons, of which reliable and probable - 450 million tons. There are data on 363 million tons of assumed and 290 million tons of theoretically possible resources. The bulk of the total reserves of copper ores are located in the United States, Chile, Zaire, Zambia, as well as in Canada, Panama, and Peru. About 8 million tons of these ores are mined annually.
Limited stocks and other non-ferrous metals- lead, tin, zinc. Total lead reserves are 200 million tons, reliable and probable - 100 million tons. Most of the reserves are located in the USA, Australia, Canada. Lead production is about 2.5 million tons annually. The total reserves of tin are 8.3 million tons, of which reliable and probable are 3.8 million tons (India, then Thailand, Bolivia).
18. Natural resources for agriculture
The natural resources that are increasingly used in the course of the development of society and create the conditions for its existence, first of all, refers to the earth - this is the basis, basis, living space of a person. From this value of the land as a space in which society exists, its active importance in production differs, primarily as the basis of agriculture, as the main means of production of food and raw materials. The land covered with forest - a source of obtaining wood and other raw materials, must also be attributed to the production sphere, since the forest is used and reproduced by society. Finally, the bowels of the earth contain various types of mineral raw materials, are the environment that contains them, fossils also serve as means of production.
Of the total surface area of the Earth of 510 million km 2, land accounts for 149 million km 2. Agricultural land occupies 51 million km 2 and forested areas - 38 million km 2. In the composition of agricultural land, arable land and perennial plantings account for 13.4 million km 2, hayfields and pastures - 37.4 million km 2. Thus, on average, per capita in the world there is 0.3 hectares of arable land - the main source of food and fodder. In recent years, arable land has been declining absolutely, not to mention a relative decline (per capita), due to population growth, especially in developing countries. In individual countries, the area of arable land per capita varies sharply. Thus, in the United States, per capita there is 0.67 hectares of arable land, in the FRG - 0, 12, in the UK - 0, 11, in Japan - 0.03 hectares.
There are reserves in the world for increasing the cultivated areas: several million square kilometers of land that could be used for agricultural needs, but their development requires significant capital investments. Therefore, in order to increase food production, the first step is to improve the use of available agricultural land. Most of the cultivated land is in the Northern Hemisphere. More than half in Europe and Asia and 15% in North America. The bulk of food is also produced in these countries.
More than half of the area is occupied cereals. The production of grain and leguminous crops on the planet in 1994 reached 1,658 million tons, including in China - 403 million, in the USA - 359 million, in India - 227 million, in Russia - 81, 3 million, in France - 57, 1 million, in Brazil - 49, 2 million, in Canada - 49 million, in Argentina - 24, 9 million tons. Over the past 25 years, the production of grain and legumes has doubled.
Urbanization, the development of industry, transport lead to the alienation of agricultural land, their sale for other needs. Alienation of suitable land for cultivation directly reduces the ability to produce food. Significant damage to land resources is caused by the deterioration of their condition, degradation due to erosion, deflation, waste pollution, which is facilitated by imperfect methods of land cultivation, its overload, and depletion.
19. Use of natural resources for agriculture
Agriculture Development in the first place in the world are USA. This is facilitated by favorable natural conditions, vast flat areas, a temperate climate, which changes to subtropical in the south, and sufficient moisture. Agricultural lands occupy over half of the country's territory. Agricultural exports are growing, labor productivity has increased with a decrease in the number of agricultural workers (1.7% of those employed in the national economy, or 3.1 million people). The high level of labor productivity in agriculture is based on its wide mechanization. Farms in recent years have been in a state of aggravating crisis. Dealers of agricultural products get big profits, farmers go bankrupt.
Areas of irrigated land are growing; they collect up to 1/4 of the harvest. All surface water in the western United States is practically distributed; groundwater is mainly used, including from the very vast Ogallala groundwater body.
Wind erosion and deflation negatively affect the soil. When the soil dries up and deep plowing, the fertile layer is blown out.
Significant depletion of land resources occurs in countries of Asia. This is the result of primitive farming in conditions of rapid population growth, cultivation of the same crops, plowing of new unproductive lands, overloading of pastures. In South and Southeast Asia, a slash farming system is used: slash-and-slash, in which the decay products of felled forest are used, and slash-and-burn, based on burning wood and using ash. Such predatory methods of farming accelerate soil degradation, their disposal, lead to land salinization and desertification.
Rapid processes of erosion and deflation, as well as general depletion of arable and rangelands, are occurring in countries Africa, where backward methods of farming are widespread. On pasture lands, the vegetation cover degrades due to overgrazing. Desertification is underway, involving thousands of square kilometers of semi-arid lands in the regions north and south of the Sahara. In the Sahara, the Sahel, on the Kalahari Plain, dust storms occur, and their intensity is so great that sand and dust are sometimes transported across the Atlantic Ocean and reach the West Indies.
In countries Latin America the area of agricultural land is expanding, which is largely due to the reduction of forest areas. The slash-and-burn farming system is widely used, which is why erosion, deflation covers most of the cultivated land in these countries.
IN Australia the development of cattle breeding for several decades has led to the deterioration of pasture lands; periodic droughts also contributed to this; plowing in the "wheat and sheep breeding belt" caused erosion processes. Measures are being taken for land reclamation, backfilling of ravines, plowing across slopes, tinning of eroded lands, and construction of water-retaining shafts.
20. Forest resources. Their importance in the global economy
The forest is of great importance for life on Earth. With the help of light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll of plants, i.e. by photosynthesis, organic substances are formed, necessary and the plants themselves, and all others living organisms. This is one of the main biological processes taking place on Earth. More than 100 billion tons of organic matter is formed on the Earth annually, half of which is accounted for by terrestrial vegetation, mainly forests. The forest covers with its underground and aboveground multi-tiered structures more than other plants, a part of the biosphere, counting per unit of occupied area.
Worldwide, the forested area reaches 36 million km 2, which is 27% of the land area. The bulk of the forested area is within the CIS - 8.1 million km 2, in the USA - 2 million, in Canada - 2.6 million, in Brazil - 3.2 million km 2. Large areas are covered by forest in India, Angola, Colombia, Mexico, Peru.
Forest - source of wood, construction material, raw materials for pulp and paper, woodworking, including furniture, and other industries. The total timber reserves in all forests in the world are 360 billion m 3. The development of logging depends not only on the available timber reserves, but also on the quality of forestry. It is characteristic that in Sweden and Finland, which have a small stock of wood - only 4.1 billion cubic meters of all species and 3.4 billion cubic meters of conifers - the removal of timber is about 100 million dense cubic meters, or almost 1/8 of the total removal. developed capitalist countries.
Taking the annual growth of timber as 1% of its total volume in the forests of the world, i.e. 3, 6 billion m 3, we get that about 80% of the annual forest growth is harvested. But from this ratio it is still impossible to conclude that forests are used rationally. First of all, logging in general is growing rapidly. So, in the mid-50s, they amounted to 1.5 billion cubic meters per year. By 2000, with the same increase, they reached 3.3 billion cubic meters, i.e. almost equal to the annual growth of timber.
Along with wood, a number of other types of forest products: various types of technical raw materials, for example, resin for the production of rosin and turpentine, gutta-percha for the production of rubber, tanning agents, organic dyes and other wood chemistry products. The forest has significant food and feed resources(wild berries and fruits, mushrooms, nuts, honey plants, birch sap). The annual harvest of all types of forest food products is measured in tens of millions of tons, but only a small part of this amount is used.
Are important forest products(fruits, foliage, needles, bark, roots) for the production of medicines. There are widely known very effective medicines obtained from sea buckthorn, lemongrass, ginseng, lily of the valley and many other forest plants, shrubs and trees. It should be noted the role of forests in protecting soil, protecting fresh water sources, performing recreational functions, etc.
21. General concepts of demography
Population information is obtained on the basis of regularly conducted (usually once every 10 or 5 years) general population censuses, and in the intervals between them - by means of calculations based on census data as a basis. In many countries, there have been no censuses for a long time, so the total population is considered to be an approximate estimate.
According to the UN, in 2005 the population of the Earth was 6.5 billion people and will continue to grow and in 2050 will amount to approximately 9.1 billion people.
The labor force and the population movement as a whole deals with demography- a science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, explores the patterns occurring in the structure, dynamics, as well as the distribution and movement of the population. On the basis of this, a population policy is being developed, predictive estimates of changes in the population of a country, a region and the world economy as a whole are made.
In demographic statistics are used odds fertility (the number of births per 1,000 citizens of the country, measured in per thousand), mortality (the number of deaths per 1,000 citizens, in per thousand), marriage rates, vital rates - the difference between fertility and mortality rates.
Odds are most often calculated for calendar year. Coefficient mortality(fertility): the number of deaths (or births) per year is divided by the average population (of the country or other study area) for the same year, after which the quotient of the division is multiplied by 1000.
Average population for a given year: population as of June 30 of the year in question (or calculate the arithmetic average of the population as of January 1 of this and next year). In the same way, and marriage rate: the count may be based on the number of marriages contracted, or the number of newlyweds, which is twice the number of marriages.
As a result of fertility and mortality, there is a process of continuous renewal of the population, which is called "reproduction". To observe the dynamics of the population, its annual growth is determined. Annual growth rate- this is the population growth during the year under consideration (i.e. between two consecutive January 1) as an arithmetic mean:
P = (P r / P m) x 1000,
where P g is the increase during the year; Р m is the average number of the population during the year.
With the exception of periods of war, epidemics and famine, the birth rate slightly exceeded the death rate; annual population growth usually reaches several units per 1000, with the upper limit being 10 per 1000, or 1%. To assess the extent to which a given generation has secured its replacement, it is necessary to trace this generation from the moment of its birth until it gives birth to its descendants. Full generation replacement is observed if 1000 people of a given generation, taken into account from the moment of their birth, gave birth to 1000 newborns (living).
22. Types and characteristics of reproduction in different groups of countries
Analysis of the dynamics of the world's population shows that in most European countries, and also in the countries of North America in the XIX and XX centuries, the mortality rate of the population decreased. In other states of the world, a noticeable decrease in the mortality rate of the population began only after the collapse of the colonial system, i.e. mainly after the Second World War. The prerequisites for the decrease in mortality were: a) a general increase in the standard of living of the population; b) improving health care; c) carrying out preventive measures to prevent diseases, primarily infections.
Thus, one can point to two characteristic types of demographic transition to a new type of reproduction:
1) "Classic", or European, type: the transition from high levels of mortality and fertility to low ones occurs over a long time, and the fertility rate in most cases exceeds the mortality rate by an amount significantly less than 10%, which leads to a slowdown in population growth;
2) "Modern" type: a decrease in the overall mortality rate for a shorter period than in the first case, to a level of about 10%, with a stabilization or increase in a significant birth rate.
This ratio of fertility and mortality rates means rapid population growth: a doubling of its size over a period of about 20 years. Measures to regulate the birth rate in some countries contribute to its decline. Individual countries are characterized by numerous features of these processes, which often complicate the task of their classification.
Generally developing countries can be attributed to the "modern" type of demographic reproduction. A number of developing countries have very low overall mortality rates due to a “young” age structure. At the same time, the level of age and sex mortality is higher than in the economically developed countries of the West.
However, sometimes it appears specific type of reproduction, when the mortality rate begins to exceed the birth rate, and the result is a coefficient of vital movement of the population with a minus sign (i.e., there is a natural decline in the population - depopulation). Trends of this kind are clearly evident in modern Russia.
According to the latest census (2002), the resident population of the Russian Federation was 145.2 million, which is 1.8 million more than the current estimate of the population. As of December 1, 2005, the population was 142.8 million. In 2005, the population decreased by 0.5% (680 thousand people).
23. Urbanization. Urban and rural population
Urbanization- a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process taking place on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In a narrower, demographic and statistical understanding, urbanization is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, and the world.
The development of the urbanization process is closely related to features of the formation of the urban population, inclusion in the urban environment or assignment to urban administrative subordination of suburban areas, transformation of rural settlements into urban. In fact, the growth of the urban population also occurs due to the formation of wide suburban areas and urbanized areas. The living conditions of the population in these areas are increasingly approaching those in big cities.
The outstripping growth of the urban and non-agricultural population in comparison with the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic feature of modern urbanization.
In three parts of the world - Australia and Oceania, North Africa, Europe - urban dwellers prevail; rapidly urbanizing Latin America is catching up with them; at the same time, the population of Afro-Asian countries, due to their large numbers, creates an advantage of the countryside over the city on average throughout the world. The developed countries have the highest percentage of the urban population. In Europe - Great Britain (91%), Sweden (87%), Germany (85%), Denmark (84%), France (78%), Netherlands (76%), Spain (74%), Belgium (72%) ; in North America - USA (77%), Canada (76%); in Asia - Israel (89%), Japan (78%); in Australia and Oceania - Australia (89%), New Zealand (85%); in Africa - South Africa (50%). When the share of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (when approaching 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by concentration of the population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (with a population of over 100 thousand people), the associated new forms of settlement and the spread of the urban way of life that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization.
At the end of the XX century. a qualitatively new phenomenon of urbanization - megacities(cities with a population of over 20 million people) - also originated in developing countries. By the 60s of the XX century. there were only 2 megacities in the world (New York and London), then Mexico City, Tokyo - Yokohama, Big Bombay, Calcutta, Jakarta, Dhaka, Karachi, Madras, Bangkok were added.
In 2000, the urban population was about 48% of the world's population. The most urbanized region is Western Europe; the least urbanized is Africa.
24. Employment. Economically active and passive population
Employment- This is the activity of the able-bodied population to create a social product or national income. Providing an opportunity for everyone who is willing and able to work in social production leads ideally to full employment.
Employment in social production does not exhaust all types of useful employment, such as studying in general and special educational institutions, military service, employment in the household, raising children, caring for the sick and the elderly, etc.
Accounting for all types of economic and socially useful activities is reflected in the concept global employment. Outside it are those who, for subjective or objective reasons, could not find for themselves a useful field of activity that does not contradict the law.
Employment in social production is of decisive importance from the point of view of the development of society itself, i.e. productive employment. The ratio of productive employment with other types of useful employment makes it possible to determine rational employment.
In international statistics, the categories "economically active population" and “Economically inactive population”.
According to the ILO recommendations to economically active the population includes all persons who participate in the production of goods and services, including the production of goods for the market, through barter channels and for personal use: persons of hired labor - workers and employees; independent workers; unpaid family members; seasonal and casual workers; persons temporarily not working for objective reasons (illness, vacation, etc.); students combining study with part-time work; apprentices and persons undergoing vocational training in production and receiving either a scholarship or a salary.
In different countries, the definition of the economically active population differs somewhat, for example, according to the age of entry into active working life (USA - from 15 years old, in Sweden - 16 years old). Differences by category: In the UK, the economically active population does not include part-time students or job seekers. The economically active population for the current period in the countries of the market economy is defined as "work force".
The labor status of the economically active population is quantified by the number of weeks or days worked in a certain period of time (12 months or one calendar year). By the amount of time worked, the economically active population is subdivided into employed, unemployed and part-time workers.
TO economically inactive to the population, international statistics includes everyone who, regardless of age, is not included in the category of the economically active population: full-time students, housewives, old-age and disability pensioners, rentiers, persons receiving material support from public organizations and individuals; employed in unpaid public work, persons providing voluntary, free services, etc.
25. International labor migration
The rapidly occurring internationalization of production and capital is accompanied by the internationalization of the labor market. International migration has become an integral part of the modern system of the world economy.
In countries that actively employ foreign workers, entire sectors of the economy are dependent on labor imports. In France immigrants make up 1/4 of those employed in construction, 1/3 in the automotive industry; in Belgium- half of the miners; in Switzerland- 40% of all construction workers, etc. At the same time, for most developing countries that export labor, abandoning it would mean the loss of an important source of foreign exchange. So, if in Egypt the operation of the Suez Canal at the end of the 80s gave a profit of $ 970 million, and tourism - 600 million, then immigrant remittances - $ 3.1 billion.
The number of foreign workers in Western Europe is 4, 1-6, 5 million, in USA- 5-5.6 million, in Latin America- 3.5-4 million, in countries Middle East and North Africa - 2, 8 million, in West Africa- 1.3 million people.
First Immigration Center formed in Western Europe, where foreign labor began to be used on a permanent basis. The EU has 13 million immigrants and their family members, including about 8 million (or 61%) from non-EU countries. In Germany, foreign labor makes up 8% of the total employed, in France - 7, Switzerland and Luxembourg - up to 30%.
But the special role of foreigners as an additional labor force for the countries of immigration was that young people, as a rule, up to 25 years old, suitable for intensive work and physical exertion, mainly participated in interstate movement.
Until recently, foreign workers were used mainly in those spheres where the share of manual labor is high (construction, service sector), and in those industries where work is too dangerous, dirty, or considered not prestigious for the local population. Here the share of foreigners is very high, sometimes it reaches 70%, which means that such enterprises are already “oriented” towards using the foreign labor force.
Second Immigration Center Traditionally, the United States is the country, whose workforce has historically been formed precisely by immigrants. Now the arriving labor force is constantly about 5%, and in coastal areas and more (counting those who did not have time to assimilate).
Third center- in the region of oil-producing countries of the Middle East. Until recently, it was the third center of immigration: in the UAE the share of the labor force is about 90%, in Qatar - over 80, in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain - almost 40, in Oman - 34%. The main exporter of labor in the region is Egypt (75% of the total number of immigrants).
Fourth center- in Latin America: Argentina and Venezuela accept workers from neighboring countries. The total number of immigrants is 3 million, the vast majority are Hispanics. The most common form is rural seasonal migration. Longer-term migration is typical for workers in industry and services.
26. Scientific and technical potential (STP) in the world economy
Scientific and technical potential of the state (industry, separate industry)- a set of scientific and technical capabilities that characterize the level of development of a given state as a subject of the world economy and depend on the quantity and quality of resources that determine these capabilities, as well as on the availability of a fund of ideas and developments prepared for practical use (introduction into production). In the process of practical assimilation of innovations, the materialization of scientific and technical potential occurs.
Scientific research, especially in the field of natural and technical sciences, is increasingly becoming an integral part of the process of material production, and applied research and experimental design development can practically be considered an integral part of this process.
The science is a complex and very difficult to measure system that embodies the results of intellectual activity of people, an ordered set of their ideas, knowledge and experience. As a result, the study of the results of scientific and technical activities is fraught with a number of difficulties.
The main components of the scientific and technological progress: provision of the country with scientific and technical personnel and material and technical support of research activities. The main "quality" components: organization of a science management system; provision of scientific and technical information; main directions of scientific research.
The development of scientific and technological progress testifies to the onset of a qualitatively new stage in world development, which is manifested in the following: 1) the economy is experiencing continuous innovation process, in the course of which transformations in technological, organizational and social spheres merge together. At the same time, a new model for the development and use of human resources, focused on a highly skilled workforce integrated into the production system; 2) gains priority intangible accumulation, including investment in a person, in comparison with material accumulation; 3) turns into the most important productive force information. Its production, processing, distribution, creation of information infrastructure and information networks are becoming necessary conditions for competitiveness and economic growth; 4) industry-specific range of services, performing important production functions in the modern reproduction process, becomes the main sphere of employment of the population; 5) the mobility of public institutions, professional qualifications and social class structures increases; 6) social control over capital increases, social expenditures of corporations increase, the role of social guidelines in the development of the whole society increases; 7) the spread of powerful information systems enhances the interconnectedness of the states of the world. However, many critical problems facing society (destruction of the natural environment, limited resources, wealth and poverty, terrorism, etc.) also acquire a global character.
27. STP as the basis of economic growth
Analysis of trends in the financial and staffing of scientific activities shows that its scale in developed countries continues to grow. R&D expenditures at the macro level are growing, but the share of R&D expenditures in GNP tends to stabilize at a level below 3% (except for Japan, where this indicator is exceeded).
Increasing the scale of scientific activity is a positive factor in economic growth. American scientist F. Scherer formulated "Natural law of technical progress": R&D costs in each individual country should grow faster than the production of the gross national product at a rate. At the same time, the optimal scale of resource provision for science is 3% of GNP.
Reasons for sustainable long-term growth in the knowledge intensity of the economy: the rise in the cost of research and development in connection with the use of highly skilled labor and sophisticated science-intensive equipment on a growing scale; "maintaining stable funding for scientific divisions of corporations or even increasing it in the years of both normal and unfavorable economic conditions; technological convergence, which requires firms to train experts in broader fields of science and technology, to carry out developments in a wider range of related technologies; life cycles of high-tech goods (frequent change of generations of computers, household appliances); constantly growing demand for high-tech products on the part of healthcare (diagnostics, medicines).
Modern Russia is characterized by a gradual and steady decline in the share of spending on science in GDP, a transition to indicators that are typical, at best, for medium-developed countries. According to Goskomstat, the share of R&D in GDP fell to 1.6% in 2005 (at the level of India, Canada, Brazil).
Process prioritizing involves simultaneously taking into account at least four factors: 1) national ideas (ensuring national security, competitiveness of the economy, development of education, health care); 2) the need to solve the most acute problems of this period, for example, saving energy (70s), environmental protection (80s), fighting AIDS (late 80s - early 90s); 3) the implementation of modern scientific achievements, for example, the results of molecular biology or genetic engineering, and in the more distant future - the phenomenon of superconductivity; 4) the real possibilities of national scientific schools.
Comparison of the list of NTP priorities of different countries, for example, OECD countries, leads, first of all, to the conclusion that most of the positions are significantly similar. Among the recurring positions in the lists of state priorities: technologies for the production of new materials, information technology, communications, biotechnology, health and environmental protection; an important role is assigned to space research.
In the future, common priorities will retain their importance, but they will increasingly fit into the solution of global tasks of preserving man and nature.
28. The concept of the sectoral structure of the economy
Sectoral structure of the economy broadly understood, it is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.
Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if we consider them in a long historical framework, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of "primary industries" (agriculture and mining), then "secondary" (industry and construction), and in the last period - "tertiary industries" ( services sector).
In world practice, the basis for the formation of the structural elements of the economy is the International Standard Industrial Classification of all types of economic activity and the International Standard Classification of Occupations, which are part of the SNA. The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications - by industry and by sector. The grouping by industry provides a characteristic of the sectoral structure of the economy, makes it possible to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, to trace inter-industry relations and proportions. The grouping by sectors of the economy, formed depending on the functions performed by economic units in the economic process, allows you to analyze the processes in the field of distribution and redistribution of income, investment financing. A special place in the system of national accounts is occupied by intersectoral balances, which, depending on the goals of economic analysis, can include from several tens to several thousand industries.
Basic industries for developing intersectoral balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, other sectors (they mainly include the service sector). Each branch of the economy, in turn, is divided into the so-called enlarged industries, branches and types of production. Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous industries that are specialized in the production of certain types of products.
When attributing an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular sector of the economy taken into account the purpose of the product or services, the type of basic raw materials and materials, the nature of the technological process. In a number of cases, difficulties arise when attributing a specific section of the economy to a particular industry. This is due to the fact that as a result of specialization, homogeneous products are often manufactured using various technologies, from various raw materials, etc. In addition, there is penetration process techniques and methods from one industry to another. Products for a wide variety of purposes are produced from the same raw materials.
29. Sectoral structure of modern industry
Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created; its share in the aggregate GDP of developed countries is about 40%.
Modern industry consists from a variety of independent industries, including a large group of related enterprises and production associations located at a considerable territorial distance from each other.
Sectoral structure of industry characterized by the composition of industries, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them. The sectoral structure of industry is determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees and the value of the basic production assets of the industry.
The main one is indicator of the volume of production: allows you to judge the ratio of industries, their interrelationships, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry.
When determining the sectoral structure of industry by employment rate the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and the share of industries with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated.
The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level of industrial development of the country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. The progressiveness of the structure of industry is judged by the composition and specific weight of the industries included in the industry, by how perfect the intra-industry structure of a particular industry is.
Factors determining changes in the sectoral structure of industry: 1) STP and the degree of implementation of its results in production; 2) the level of social division of labor, the development of specialization and cooperation of production; 3) the growth of material needs of the population; 4) socio-historical conditions in which industry is developing; 5) natural resources of the country.
The classification of industries is based on the next principles: economic purpose of manufactured products; the nature of the functioning of products in the production process; the homogeneity of the intended purpose of the manufactured products, the commonality of the processed raw materials, the similarity of the technology used; the nature of the impact on the subject of labor, etc.: 1) IN system of national accounts the classification of industries is used according to one of the following signs: the homogeneity of the intended purpose of the manufactured products (machine-building, fuel, food), the commonality of the raw materials (metalworking and woodworking), the similarity of the applied technology (chemical industry). Most of the industries are covered by the attribute intended purpose their products; 2) by the nature of the impact on the subject of labor: extractive and processing industries.
30. Dynamics of the sectoral structure of modern industry
The current stage of economic development of the leading countries of the world is characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which leads to irreversibility of the transition to new intersectoral and reproductive proportions. This was also influenced by such factors as the raw material and energy crises, which contributed to the rise in the cost of raw materials and energy carriers, and, consequently, equipment and construction. The investment process has become more complicated, in general, production costs have increased significantly. All this not only caused, but also intensified the tendency towards an increase in the cost of the reproduction process itself.
Passing structural adjustment is aimed at increasing the quality parameters of production and manufactured products, strengthening the resource-saving type of reproduction, the intensification of national economic processes, the accelerated development of the latest science-intensive industries. Structural changes are taking place in the sectoral and reproduction sections. Structural transformations began to be carried out at the micro level - the level of subsectors and types of production - mainly due to qualitative changes within the traditional sectors of the economy.
Wherein industry remains the leading branch of material production and above all mechanical engineering, where scientific and technical achievements are accumulated. Therefore, it is in it that the tendency towards a decrease in the proportion of raw materials, energy carriers, living labor is most noticeable; the share of the latest high-tech industries in the structure of industry is rapidly growing.
The share of the mining industry is declining(with an increase in costs for exploration, drilling and production of gas, oil, etc.). At the same time, the latest progressive technological processes are increasingly penetrating it, microprocessors and microcircuits are being introduced, which have a tremendous impact on the structure of production and contribute to the massive release of labor from the production process.
Complex automation of production, development of "unmanned" technology - the leading directions of scientific and technological progress.
In general, in the last decades in industrially developed countries, the general pattern of sectoral shifts consists in a noticeable decrease in the share of raw materials and agriculture, in the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. The most radical changes are taking place at the level of sub-sectors, within which science-intensive industries have the highest dynamics.
31. Fuel and energy complex, development trends
The branches of the fuel and energy complex (FEC) are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its branches are represented, usually the main capital investments within the range of up to 85% are in the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (approximately in equal shares) and up to 15% in the oil refining and coal industry. Investments in the oil industry have a significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.
The cyclical nature of business development in the oil industry due to the fact that decisions to increase investment in the oil industry are made at a time when there is a shortage of oil on the markets, accompanied by an increase in prices and profits. At this time, there is a revival of the investment process in this industry, and an increase in production volumes begins in about 10 years. An excess of oil supply over demand appears on the oil markets, prices begin to decline, which is also accompanied by a decrease in investment until the excess oil disappears. This period also lasts about 10 years. Over the past 100 years, there have been five such cycles, each lasting from 20 to 22 years, and these cycles did not necessarily coincide with the development cycles of the entire economy.
In the period up to 2010, there will be an increase in oil prices, and capital investments will revive.
Investment in development electric power industry less prone to such cyclical changes. Annual investment in this industry will be (with some fluctuations in one direction or another) in the range of $ 100 billion per year.
In the long term until 2015, according to experts' forecasts, the average annual growth rate of electricity generation in the world will be about 2.7%, however, significant differences have emerged both in the rates of development of the electric power industry in industrialized and developing countries, and in the ratio of the use of various types of fuel for power generation.
In the long term, industrialized countries are expected to see very little growth in their own production. primary energy resources (PER). As a result of this, with a steady downward trend in oil production in these countries emerging, the dependence of these countries on the import of PER from third countries will increase.
In the structure of PER consumption for oil, it is obvious that the first place will remain not only until 2015, but also for many years to come beyond this period. However, the share of oil in the total PER consumption will gradually decrease. Consumption of natural gas will grow at a faster pace. By 2015, in the structure of PER consumption, gas will come to the second place, coal to the third. The main share will remain for PER of organic origin (over 92%).
Share electricity from nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and other energy sources in the total PER consumption of industrialized countries by 2015 will increase to 7.4% compared to 6.5% in 1990. At the same time, the growth rate of NPP energy use will be no more than 0.9-1% per year , while from hydroelectric and renewable energy sources will exceed 3% per year.
32. Agro-industrial complex and tendencies of its development
Agro-industrial complex (AIC)- this is a fairly general concept, which means a unified system of agricultural and industrial enterprises and industries that has developed in social production, united by integration (close, long-term) production and commercial ties based on ownership or contractual (contracting) relations and covering the entire agro-industrial chain: production important means of production for agriculture, their transportation, production of initial agricultural products, their storage, transportation, processing and marketing of finished products or products.
The agro-industrial complex is divided into three areas:
1) branches of industry supplying means of production for agriculture and related industries, as well as providing production and technical services to agriculture;
2) agriculture itself;
3) industries engaged in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing, storage, transportation, sale).
A number of industries entirely (or almost entirely) serve the needs of the agro-industrial complex (production of agricultural machinery, fertilizers, equipment for animal husbandry and fodder production, etc.). Other industries are only partially engaged in meeting the needs of the agro-industrial complex. They are included in the functional structure of the agro-industrial complex only to the extent that their products are used for the needs of the agro-industrial complex.
Formation of the agro-industrial complex- a new stage in the development of social production, based on the development of the productive forces of agriculture, the "industrial revolution" in agriculture, which, in this sense, has, as it were, caught up with industry. However, this does not mean that the technical and technological level of millions of peasant farms has reached the level that exists in industry. Unfortunately, in the world, and above all in developing countries, tools and implements are still widespread, which have come in our time from time immemorial and do not correspond to modern industrial productive forces. But mankind has created new material means of production for agriculture, close in their parameters (productivity, energy intensity, economy of living labor, etc.) to the means of production of industry, the technological level of world agriculture approached the technological level of industry. In developed countries, they already prevail in agriculture; in the developing world, they spread in enclaves, islands, covering the agriculture of the most economically and socially developed regions and countries.
33. Features of the development of the agro-industrial complex in various groups of countries
The main direction of international agro-industrial integration in the current environment is solving the biggest global problem of our time- problems of meeting the growing needs of the world's population in food products.
The process of developing agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far into industrialized countries, primarily in the United States.
To an immeasurably lesser extent, this process is observed in developing world, where, along with the general trends and forms of its manifestation, specific features and forms appear associated with a significant lag in the agro-industrial sphere of the liberated countries and their economic dependence on the West.
In most developing countries, TNCs play an important role in this and act as integrators. This is due to many factors, including the fact that, creating their processing enterprises in developing countries, TNCs bring with them the forms and methods of activity that have developed in their home countries.
Agricultural production intensification factor in recent decades, it continued to be decisive in relation to the scale of gross grain production in the group of industrialized countries. Cereals, like agriculture as a whole, have essentially become an integral part of the agro-industrial complex, in which direct agricultural production is closely combined with the processing, storage and final sale of products, as well as with the provision of the farm with the means of production. The intensive path of development of grain production in the world will continue to prevail, since only this path can lead to a softening of the crisis in the supply of food to the constantly growing population of the planet.
In many developing countries, archaic forms of agriculture and land use, the implementation of progressive agrarian reforms is delayed. Crop production in many of them, especially in Africa, remains highly dependent on weather conditions. The development of grain production in a group of developing countries is becoming increasingly dependent on the intensive factor, large capital investments in agriculture, infrastructure, related industries, as well as on large-scale reclamation work.
With a significant increase in gross grain production in general in industrialized countries and developing countries, it continues to deepen disproportion in grain farming: growing and multidirectional gap between production and consumption in each of these groups of countries.
In industrialized countries, there is a concentration of "surplus" of grain, as production exceeded the consumption of grain. In developing countries, on the contrary, due to increasing food needs, the grain deficit increased, per capita production increased insignificantly, and continued to decline in a number of regions.
34. Transport in the world economy. Automobile transport
Transport complex- one of the main branches of material production, carrying out the transportation of passengers and goods. Based on the difference in functions, transport is divided into passenger and freight. It forms the basis of the domestic and international division of labor.
All routes of communication, transport enterprises and vehicles together form world transport system, within which separate modes of transport, countries and regions interact.
Transport systems developed countries account for 78% of the total length of the world transport network, 74% of the world cargo turnover; the density of the transport network is 50–60 km per 100 km 2 of the territory; characterized by a high technical level, close interaction of all types of transport, complex configuration of the transport network, high "mobility" of the population.
Transport systems developing countries account for 22% of the total length of the world transport network, 26% of the world cargo turnover; the density of the transport network is 5–10 km per 100 km 2 of the territory; characterized by a low technical level, the predominance of one or two types (railway, pipeline) transport, the predominance of transport lines connecting the main center (port, capital) with areas of export specialization, low "mobility" of the population.
Most developed are the transport systems of North America and Western Europe. North America ranks first in terms of the total length of roads (30% of all world communications) and the turnover of major modes of transport. Western Europe is leading in terms of network density and traffic frequency, although it is far behind North America in terms of distance. In North America, in Western Europe, the leading role belongs to road, pipeline and air transport.
Types of transport are grouped as follows: land (land and pipeline), water (sea and river) and air.
In terms of the structure of the world cargo and passenger turnover, it is the leader automobile transport, which accounts for 8% of freight turnover and 80% of passenger turnover of the total world volume (railway - 16% of cargo turnover and 11% of passenger turnover, pipeline - 11% of cargo turnover, sea - 62% of cargo turnover and 1% of passenger turnover, river - 3% of cargo turnover and 1% of passenger turnover, for air - less than 1% of cargo turnover and 8% of passenger turnover).
Automobile transport is the most expensive type of transport with great maneuverability, speed and the ability to deliver goods directly to consumers. The total length of highways is 24 million km (70% of the total length of all communication lines). The density of the world's highways is 180 km per 100 km 2 of territory.
The largest length of highways in the USA, India, Japan, China, Russia, France; the densest road network in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain; the highest level of motorization in the United States (600 cars per 1000 inhabitants). It also has the highest freight turnover of road transport.
35. Other modes of transport in the world economy
Railway transport provides transportation of goods and passengers over long distances. The greatest length of railways is in the USA, Canada, Russia, India, China. Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic have the densest railway network. In terms of cargo turnover, the leaders are Russia, the USA, China, Canada, and Poland.
In developed countries, there is a tendency to reduce the railway network, in developing countries - to expand.
Pipeline transport. The USA is the leader in the length of oil and gas pipelines. The longest pipelines are in Russia and Canada. The world's largest trunk pipelines have been laid in Russia (Druzhba, Soyuz, Progress, Shining of the North).
Sea transport- an important part of the world transport system, performing intercontinental transportation. Sea transport provides 98% of foreign trade traffic of Japan and Great Britain, 90% of all foreign trade traffic of the USA and the CIS countries. Sea transport has the lowest cost price.
The following countries are leading in terms of sea tonnage: Liberia, Panama, Japan, Norway, USA, Greece, Cyprus, Russia. The tonnage of the developing countries' naval fleet is growing. This is due to the provision of so-called cheap flags: the use of ships and cheap labor by enterprises in developed countries.
An important link in the transport system are seaports: universal (typical for developed countries) and specialized (typical for developing countries).
River transport the most developed in the USA, China, Russia, Germany, Canada, the Netherlands, France. These countries are leading in terms of river freight turnover.
International river basins play an important role: Danube (uniting 12 countries), Nile, Congo, Niger (9 countries each), Rhine, Amazon, Zambezi (7 countries each).
Many river basins (Volga, Ob, Lena, Yangtze, Yenisei, Amazon, Mississippi, etc.) have a significantly higher carrying capacity than the largest railways.
Air Transport, the youngest and most dynamic, provides transportation of passengers and goods over long distances. The largest passenger turnover is observed in the USA, Russia, Japan, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany.
The largest airports in the world are located in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, London. There are 34 major airports in the world, half of them in the USA, 8 in Europe.
Financing of the transport complex in industrialized countries is traditionally one of the priority functions of the state, since transport, along with energy and communications, is the most important universal basis for the normal operation of production and the social environment in the state.
Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, the role of fixed assets of the transport complex has significantly changed. In this regard, investments are mainly directed to ensure the intensive development of transport.
36. Prospective trends in the development of transport
In the long term, market economies are expected to further development of scientific and technological progress in transport. The structure of the network of communication lines will undergo significant changes.
The length of the inactive and unprofitable railway lines and sections will shrink. At the same time, it is planned to build a number of new, mainly high-speed, lines. Expansion of work on the electrification of railways is expected.
Length automotive paved roads will increase. The main focus will be on improving the existing network.
The number of airports(mainly cargo) and the length of domestic airlines.
In the United States, the length of pipelines, first of all - gas and oil pipelines.
Both in the United States and in Western European countries in the domestic water transport hydraulic engineering works, port reconstruction are coming. The modernization of ports is envisaged in maritime transport.
Substantial changes will occur in the vehicle park. Their number will increase slightly and the share of progressive types of traction will noticeably increase. The share of specialized rolling stock, its carrying capacity and power density will increase.
In the field of interaction of various modes of transport existing means will be improved and new means for uninterrupted door-to-door communications will be created, containerization of not only general cargo, but also a significant part of bulk cargo will be covered, automated information systems of different types of transport will be unified, unified systems of different types of transport will be built, unified stations and transshipment terminals with improved layout, etc.
NTP in transport will allow significantly improve its economic performance, improve the quality of customer service and traffic safety. In transport, it is planned: the widespread use of marketing, the study of demand, the introduction of accounting for needs, the use of modeling, etc. The development of the Raylink computer system (which currently connects railways, customers and banks) or another similar system to the entire network of communications is expected, which will make it possible to include transport in the network of commercial exchanges.
Work will continue to ensure interoperability of information systems in order to interconnect national computer networks.
37. The main types of states in the world economy. Developed countries with market economies. Countries with economies in transition
In international practice, all countries of the world are divided into three main groups: developed countries with market economies, countries with economies in transition and developing countries. This breakdown into groups was chosen for the convenience of analysis in ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council) and is now being revised, especially in light of the recent cardinal geopolitical changes.
Group of developed market economies includes 23 countries. It is further subdivided for analysis purposes into overlapping classification subgroups of the largest industrialized countries, which include the seven countries with the largest gross domestic product (GDP) in the developed market economy (EDM) group. These are Germany, Italy, Canada, Great Britain, USA, France and Japan; European Union - EU (Belgium, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Great Britain, France, Sweden, Finland and Austria); European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Austria, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, Sweden; Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg); North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): USA, Canada, Mexico.
Group of countries with economies in transition subdivided into the countries of Eastern Europe, which include: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, Slovakia and new states that emerged after the collapse of the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, as well as new countries that emerged after the collapse of Yugoslavia.
Practically in all countries of this group, since the beginning of the 90s, economic reforms have been carried out aimed at ensuring sustainable development of the national economy through internal and external macroeconomic stabilization, the creation of competitive market relations and the corresponding price reform, structural restructuring of production and enterprises on the basis of a clear legislative defining property rights - public and private, limiting the domination of monopolies and state interference in the activities of economic entities of a market economy, expanding and deepening international economic integration.
The greatest successes in carrying out economic reforms in this group of countries have been achieved by Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. After three years of a crisis in the economy at the beginning of the reforms (1991-1993), the situation began to stabilize in 1994, and already in 1995-1996. the national income in these countries increased annually by an average of 6%. Since 1995, economic growth has begun in other countries of Eastern Europe - Romania, Bulgaria and Slovakia.
38. Developing countries. Least developed countries
Developing countries usually grouped by region based on their geographic location. For the purposes of the analysis, countries with an active balance of payments and countries - importers of capital are also singled out separately. The latter, in turn, are subdivided into countries - exporters and countries - importers of energy resources. A country is considered an exporter of energy resources if it simultaneously meets the following two criteria:
1) its production of primary energy resources (including coal, lignite, crude oil, natural gas, hydropower and nuclear energy) exceeds its own consumption by at least 20%;
2) the export of energy resources is at least 20% of the total export volume. Among developing countries - importers of energy resources, there are countries with a newly formed surplus of payments, which include four Asian countries that are considered the first generation of successful exporters of finished goods (Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan).
Among developing countries in modern conditions, there is a process of further economic differentiation. Currently, they find themselves at at least three different levels of economic development. The most industrially developed developing countries have formed a group "Newly industrialized countries" (NIS). These include Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Singapore, Taiwan, Turkey.
Intermediate group formed countries that significantly lagged behind the NIS both in total production volumes and in the production of goods and services per capita. This group, in particular the countries of the Middle East, is characterized by a large differentiation of sectoral structures, social strata of the population and their position in society.
To the group Least developed countries include about 50 developing countries. As a rule, they have a narrow, even monocultural structure of the economy, a high degree of dependence on external sources of funding for activities in the socio-economic sphere. The UN uses three criteria for assigning countries to this group: the share of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita does not exceed 350 US dollars; the share of the adult population who can read - no more than 20%; the manufacturing industry in GDP is no more than 10%. This group includes 8 countries in Asia, 28 in Africa, 5 in Latin America and Oceania, etc.
39. Indicators characterizing the economic potential of the country
A varied combination of factors of production and conditions for the development of different countries does not allow assessing the level of economic development from any one point of view. To do this, use a number of key indicators. one. GDP / GNP or ND per capita. 2. The sectoral structure of the national economy. 3. Production of the main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries). 4. The level and quality of life of the population. 5. Indicators of economic efficiency.
It should be emphasized that the level of economic development of a country is a historical concept. Each stage of development of the national economy and the entire world community as a whole introduces certain changes in the composition of its main indicators.
The leading indicators in the analysis of the level of economic development are indicators GDP / GNP per capita. They form the basis of international classifications that subdivide countries into developed and developing countries. For example, developed countries in 2000 included countries with a per capita production of GDP of more than 9 thousand dollars per year (countries with a high level of income).
In some developing countries (in Saudi Arabia), the GDP per capita is at a high level, corresponding to the developed industrial countries, but in terms of the totality of other indicators (the sectoral structure of the economy, production of the main types of products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.
Another indicator is sectoral structure of the economy. Its analysis is carried out on the basis of the GDP indicator calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between large national economic branches of material and non-material production (in terms of the share of manufacturing in the country's economy) is taken into account.
Characterize the level of economic development of the country and production indicators of some main types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of satisfying the country's needs in these basic types of products.
First of all, these indicators include the production of electricity per capita. The electric power industry underlies the development of all types of industries, and therefore, behind this indicator, there are also opportunities for technical progress, and the achieved level of production and quality of goods, and the level of services, etc. The ratio for this indicator is currently between developed countries and least developed countries is 500: 1, and sometimes even more.
The statistics also highlight the production of steel and the production of rolled metal, metal-cutting machines, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.
Close to these are indicators of availability (or production in the country) per 1000 population or per average family of a number of durable goods: refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, cars, video equipment, personal computers, etc.
40. The standard of living of the population
The standard of living of the population of the country is largely characterized by the structure of GDP by use. The analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending) is especially important. A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country.
An analysis of the standard of living of the population is usually accompanied by an analysis of two interrelated indicators: "consumer basket" and "living wage".
The standard of living is also assessed by indicators:
but) state of labor resources(average life expectancy, education level of the population, per capita consumption of basic foodstuffs in calories, in protein content, skill level of labor resources, number of pupils and students per 10 thousand people of the population, share of education expenditures in GDP);
b) development of the service sector(the number of doctors per 10 thousand people of the population, the number of hospital beds per 1 thousand people of the population, the provision of the population with housing, household appliances, etc.).
Economic efficiency indicators characterize the level of economic development, as they show the quality, state and level of use of the country's fixed and working capital, labor resources.
Among them are:
1) labor productivity (in general, in industry and agriculture, in individual industries and types of production);
2) the capital intensity of a unit of GDP or a specific type of product;
3) return on assets of a unit of fixed assets;
4) material consumption per unit of GDP or specific types of products.
An important condition in the analysis of this group of indicators is the need to consider their relationship with each other. Thus, high labor productivity can be achieved at the cost of excessive labor intensification or huge capital expenditures and material resources.
Despite all attempts to formulate an aggregate indicator of the efficiency of the functioning of the national economy, which would reflect the level of economic development of the country, such an indicator has not been created due to the numerous difficulties in bringing together value and physical values, the costs of skilled and unskilled labor, etc. However, there is a general approach and consists in constructing an indicator that makes it possible to correlate the aggregate results of society's labor for the reporting year (GDP / GNP, ND) with the aggregate costs of all factors of production, reduced to the same reporting year.
The higher the level of economic development of the country, the more active and more diverse the forms of its foreign economic relations. Consequently, a country's participation in international economic relations may partly reflect the level of its economic development.
41. International economic integration
International economic integration- This is the process of economic and political unification of countries based on the development of deep stable relationships and division of labor between national economies, the interaction of their reproductive structures at various levels and in various forms. On the microlevel this process goes through the interaction of the capital of individual economic entities (enterprises, firms) of neighboring countries through the formation of a system of economic agreements between them, the creation of branches abroad. On the interstate level integration takes place on the basis of the formation of economic associations of states and the coordination of national policies.
The development of inter-firm ties gives rise to the need for interstate (sometimes supranational) regulation aimed at ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor between countries within a given region, at coordinating and conducting joint economic, scientific and technical, financial and monetary, social, external and defense policy. The result is the creation integral regional economic complexes with a single currency, infrastructure, common economic proportions, financial funds, common supranational or interstate government bodies.
The simplest form of economic integration is Free trading zone, within the framework of which trade restrictions between the participating countries and, above all, customs duties are canceled.
Another form is Customs Union: along with the functioning of the free trade zone, a unified foreign trade tariff and a unified foreign trade policy with respect to third countries are being established.
In both cases, interstate relations relate only to the sphere of exchange, in order to ensure equal opportunities for the participating countries in the development of mutual trade and financial settlements.
A more complex form is Common Market, ensuring its participants, along with free mutual trade and a single external tariff, the freedom of movement of capital and labor, as well as the coordination of economic policy.
But the most difficult form of interstate economic integration is economic (and monetary) union, combining all the above forms with the conduct of a general economic and monetary policy.
Economic integration ensures conditions for the interacting parties: 1) business entities (producers) get wider access to resources: financial, material, labor, to the latest technologies throughout the region, as well as the ability to produce products based on the capacious market of the entire integration group; 2) privileged conditions are created for firms from countries participating in economic integration, they are protected from competition from firms from third countries; 3) integration participants jointly solve the most acute social problems: equalization of conditions for the development of backward regions, mitigation of the situation on the labor market, provision of social guarantees, etc.
42. EU and socio-economic development of countries
Officially, until November 1, 1993, the leading integration grouping of Western European countries was called the European Community (EU). It appeared after the merger in 1967 of the bodies of three previously independent regional organizations: the European Coal and Steel Community - ECSC (1952), the European Economic Community - EEC (1958); European Atomic Energy Community - Euratom (1958).
On February 7, 1992, in the Dutch city of Maastricht, the Maastricht Treaty was signed, which provided for a gradual transition from the already created single market to a full economic and monetary union (EMU), the creation of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the replacement of national banknotes with a single currency, the establishment citizenship of the European Union. FROM November 1, 1993 after the entry into force of the Maastricht agreements, the European group received the official name European Union (EU). Within the EU, a common policy is being implemented in the field of diplomacy, justice, police and defense.
At the end of March 1998, the European Commission announced the final composition of the Economic and Monetary Union - it included 11 EU states (with the exception of Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark and Greece). On January 1, 1999, the management of monetary policy in these countries passed to the European Central Bank (ECB), located in Frankfurt am Main (Germany).
Since January 1, 2002 euro entered circulation and replaced the national currencies.
Currently full members of the EU there are 15 countries: Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, France, Sweden. The EU's strategic plans envisage expanding its membership in the next 10-15 years to 30 countries. These plans are being embodied in the EU's integration activities. Since 1998, the EU Commission (CES) has been negotiating with officially recognized candidates for accession to the EU - these are 8 states belonging to the "first stage candidates" (Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Estonia, Cyprus, Malta, Turkey), and 5 states - “candidates of the second stage” (Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Romania and Bulgaria).
A single legal space has been formed within the EU.
In the field of foreign trade and agricultural policy, trade and civil law (freedom of competition, monopolies and cartels), tax law (convergence of income tax systems; turnover tax and direct contributions to the EU budget), European Union legislation replaces national laws.
Jointly carried out structural policy(sectoral and regional). Supranational regulation applies to the least competitive industries and backward regions.
The greatest successes have been achieved in pursuing a joint agricultural policy. Its financing represents the largest item of expenditure in the budget of the Union. The general agricultural policy is based on subsidizing domestic and export prices. As a result, the EU has become the world's second largest agricultural exporter after the United States.
43. Regional Integration in the North American Region
In January 1989 entered into force American-Canadian Free Trade Agreement. As a result, a free trade zone was created, covering bilateral trade of almost $ 200 billion a year. At the same time, both sides reserved the right to impose their own import restrictions on trade with third countries.
In June 1991, on the initiative of Mexico, negotiations began between this country, the United States and Canada, culminating in the signing of an agreement on the establishment of North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), which entered into force on January 1, 1994. Key elements of the agreement:
Elimination of all customs duties in mutual trade until 2001;
Phased elimination of a significant number of non-tariff barriers to mutual trade in goods and services;
Relaxation of the regime for US-Canadian investment in Mexico;
Liberalization of conditions for the activities of US and Canadian banks in the Mexican market;
Creation of the American-Canadian Arbitration Commission.
Unlike the Western European integration model, NAFTA does not have tools for coordinating economic policy and functioning supranational institutions; significant differences persist in the levels of economic development of states. Unlike the EU, which provides financial assistance from joint budgetary funds to less developed countries and regions, NAFTA does not provide Mexico with such support.
According to experts, participation in NAFTA will allow Mexico to shorten the period of reforming its economy and reaching the level of developed countries from 50 to 10-15 years. Mexico gets the biggest gain from joining NAFTA in the form of a rapid increase in foreign capital inflows, primarily from the United States. In terms of foreign direct investment, which is of paramount importance for the development of production, by the beginning of the XXI century. Mexico ranked first among Latin American countries.
However, the US business community has high hopes for NAFTA, due to the significant expansion of US exports and the associated increase in the number of jobs. The relocation of labor-intensive, material-intensive and environmentally expensive manufacturing from the United States to Mexico can reduce production costs and increase the competitiveness of many American products. In the long term, through participation in NAFTA, American TNCs expect to expand their economic participation in Latin America, and Canada - to expand sales markets, reduce production costs and increase the profitability of new high-tech industries (computers, telecommunications, etc.). In addition, the formation of a liberalized market space on a continental scale stimulates the inflow of direct and portfolio investments to Canada from third countries, mainly from Japan and the EU member states.
44. Integration processes in South-East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region
In the Asia-Pacific region, the most significant integration associations are ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and APEC.
ASEAN was established in 1967 following the signing of the Bangkok Declaration; it includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines (currently, Myanmar, Brunei, Laos and Vietnam are also members of ASEAN). The purpose of this association is to promote the social and economic development of the member countries of the Association, cooperation in industry and agriculture, and research work.
The economic crisis of 1997–1998. left an imprint on the development of the ASEAN member countries. In December 1998, the main ASEAN member countries at a conference in Vietnam discussed and mapped out several ways out of the crisis: 1) financial assistance from Japan (in the amount of $ 30 billion from the Fund for Assistance to Structural Reforms organized by Japan for this purpose). In reality, only Malaysia and Thailand were able to use it, which received $ 1.85 billion each; 2) the introduction of the collective currency of the ASEAN member countries, control over the migration of capital and the strengthening of state regulation of national economies in general. However, this path has not yet received universal approval, but it has not been removed from the agenda for the future development of the region.
In November 1989, the APR hosted the first conference of the ministers of foreign affairs and trade, which established a new integration economic grouping - Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, which united 18 states of the region (Australia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Canada, China, Kiribati, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Singapore, USA, Thailand, Taiwan, Philippines, Chile), then to these states were joined by Vietnam, Peru and Russia.
Thus, APEC includes member countries of NAFTA, ASEAN, and the Australian-New Zealand Free Trade Area (ANSERTA).
From the very beginning, APEC was given consultative status, i.e. all decisions are made by consensus. However, in fact, within the framework of its working bodies, regional rules for conducting trade, investment and financial activities are being developed, meetings of industry ministers and experts on cooperation in various fields are held. Such bodies are committees for trade and investment, research and development in industry and technology, telecommunications, transport, human resource development, energy cooperation, etc.
At a meeting of heads of government in 1994 (Indonesia), it was decided to create a free trade zone and liberalize the investment sphere by 2020 (for developed countries - until 2010), reduce barriers to trade in goods and services in accordance with the principles of the WTO ...
APEC surpasses the rest of the world: its share (together with the NAFTA countries) accounts for 40% of the world's population, about 60% of the gross world product and investments, more than 40% of world exports.
45. The place and role of Russia in the internationalization of economic life
The place and role of any country in the world economy, MRI and in the internationalization of economic life depend on the following factors: the level and dynamics of development of the national economy, the degree of its openness and involvement in MRI, the progressiveness and development of foreign economic relations (FEC), the ability of the national economy to adapt to the conditions of international economic life and at the same time to influence them in desired direction.
The inclusion of Russia in MRI and global economic relations will ultimately depend, firstly, on the recovery of the country's economy along the path of its structural restructuring and transition to market conditions of management, and secondly, on the creation of effective legislative, organizational, material and technical prerequisites for this.
The key to creating a viable transition economy in Russia is its openness. In an open economy, world market prices directly and indirectly determine prices for domestic products and do so much more efficiently than any government agency. In this case, Russian producers are left with one main path to prosperity - improving the quality and competitiveness of products, expanding their production while reducing costs. The transition to an open economy is a purposeful process carried out in stages so that external competition does not turn, instead of a creative factor, into a force that destroys the Russian economy.
The formation of prices for products in the Russian economy in transition under the influence of the world market brings to the fore mechanism for assessing the main factors of production- natural resources, capital and labor. At the same time, however, the estimates will deviate from the criteria of the world market, since a collision with the world market will reveal their uncompetitiveness and unprofitability.
Hence, the task of the state is a centralized redistribution of financial resources aimed at creating conditions that ensure the survival of the domestic economy in conditions of its ever-increasing openness. Needed economic revaluation and economic protection of all public resources- land, natural resources, funds, stocks of raw materials, materials, finished products. The main asset of Russia in the transition period is natural resources. They require rational use, evaluation in accordance with the criteria of the world market.
1. The totality of interacting national economies of all countries of the world and international economic relations is ...
£ world production
World economy
£ world market
2. The number of independent states recognized by the world community at present:
3. The number of the most economically powerful developed countries with market economies:
4. Modern world economic relations are based on:
The total predominance of market relations
£ limited spread of market relations
£ dominated by political agreements
£ to strengthen the role of anti-terrorist agreements
5. "Open economy" presupposes:
Availability of the domestic market for attracting foreign capital
£ elimination of national borders
£ complete abolition of customs duties and restrictions
6. System-forming factor of the modern world economy:
£ offer
Capital
7. The uneven economic development of countries means:
£ Differences in the standard of living of the population
Difference in the level of industrial development and technical equipment of labor
£ varying degrees of openness of the national economy
8. Indicators expressing the openness of the national economy:
£ volume of foreign investment
Import quotas
£ number of employees in export production
9. Groups of countries in the world economy in accordance with the UN typology:
Developed market economies
£ industrialized countries
Countries with economies in transition
£ newly industrialized countries
Developing countries and territories with market economies
10. Criteria for assigning a country to a particular group:
The type of her economy
Socio-economic development level
£ level and quality of life of the population
£ development of the military-industrial complex
£ gross domestic product
The value of GDP per capita
11. Countries in the "group 7":
£ Brazil
France
12.Countries of the "New Industrial Countries" group:
£ Nigeria
£ Uruguay
Taiwan
£ Vietnam
Singapore
13.Countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:
Netherlands
Norway
Ireland
14.Characteristic trends inherent in the modern stage of development of the world economy:
Deeper international division of labor
£ autarkism
Globalization
Aggravated competition
15. Newly industrialized countries of the "first wave":
Taiwan
£ Indonesia
The Republic of Korea
Hong Kong
Singapore
£ Vietnam
16. Key changes in the traditional scheme of equilibrium of the world economy "North-South" after the 70s. XX century occurred due to ...
£ collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
The emergence of NIS
£ CMEA decay
17. Key changes in the traditional scheme of the balance of the world economy "West-East" after the 70s. XX century occurred due to ...
The collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
£ the emergence of NIS
The collapse of the CMEA
£ the formation of new markets for the sale of goods
£ collapse of the colonial system
18. In the technogenic model of world development, the "periphery" took
Dependent and subordinate position
£ dominant position
19.In the technogenic model of world development, the "periphery" specializes in supplying the world market
Mineral raw materials
Energy carriers
Agricultural products
£ high technology products
20. Protectionism of foreign trade policy of the world economy is based on
Import substitution
£ export promotion
State or international regulation
£ market freedom
21. The liberalization of foreign trade policy of the world economy is based on
£ import substitution
Export promotion
£ national or international regulation
Free market
22.The main features of the manifestation of the uneven development of the world economy are considered
£ the gap in development levels between CPs and developing countries has narrowed
The differentiation of developing countries by the level of economic development is growing
Leading countries are changing
In the context of the globalization of the world economy, newly industrialized countries have approached the group of leading exporters
Development gap between CPs and developing countries widened
23. Countries with market economies are considered
OPEC countries
£ CIS countries
24. Countries with economies in transition are considered
£ OPEC countries
CIS countries
25 The emerging global world economy includes national economies
Industrialized countries
New industrial countries
Developing countries
£ countries supplying raw materials
Countries with economies in transition
£ countries with command and control system of control
26.The main results of international cooperation are considered
£ strengthening friendship between countries
Increased output of manufactured goods
£ obtaining licenses and patents free of charge
£ deepening MRI
27. Motives for the participation of countries in the international division of labor
£ gaining access to new technologies
£ redistribution of spheres of influence between countries
Obtaining economic benefits
£ access to sources of raw materials and energy
28. Economic benefits of the country from participation in the international division of labor:
£ getting information about competitors
Saving national costs due to the refusal of domestic production of goods and services due to their cheaper imports
£ receiving land rent
29. Reasons for the development of the international division of labor:
Differences in natural and climatic conditions
£ geopolitical features of the country's position
£ implementation of the import substitution policy
30. The form of participation of the country in the international division of labor, subject to the production of products in excess of domestic needs:
£ international division of labor
£ international cooperation
£ sectoral division of labor
International production specialization
31. The form of combining labor at various stages of production and sale of goods and services is called:
£ international division of labor
£ productive collaboration
International cooperation
£ import substitution
£ international specialization
32. The increase in the export quota reflects:
Increasing the level of competitiveness of export-oriented products
£ increase in labor productivity
£ favorable conjuncture of world commodity markets
33. The main forms of the international division of labor:
International specialization
International cooperation
£ regional integration
£ internationalization of production
£ globalization of the world economy
34. The intellectualization of the international division of labor is expressed in:
£ increase in the export quota
Form of scientific and technical cooperation
Form of technological cooperation
£ strengthening the role of TNCs
35. The classical theoretical principles of the development of the international division of labor are considered ...
£ supply and demand theory
Relative advantage theory (D. Ricardo)
The theory of absolute advantages (A. Smith)
£ mercantilist theories
36. The main functions of international cooperation:
Increase in labor productivity
£ deepening the international division of labor
Increased production of goods and services
£ receiving gratuitous aid
37. The export quota indicator indicates:
£ level of cooperation of production
Degrees of orientation of individual sectors of the national economy to foreign markets
£ the nature of foreign economic relations
Industry level international specialization
38. Quantitative indicators of the openness of the economies of the world economy are
Export quota
£ export quotas
Import quota
£ import quotas
Foreign trade quota
39. The most dynamically developing areas of the international division of labor at the present time:
£ production
£ transport
Information Services
£ investment
40.The specific specialization of countries in the production of certain goods and services depends on ...
Natural and geographical conditions
Scientific and technical cooperation of countries
Industrial cooperation
£ using international regulations and rules
41. Correspondence between the subjects of the world economy and the specific forms of their manifestation
42.The essence of the international division of labor is manifested in:
Dismemberment of the production process
Combining the production process
£ diversifying sources of raw materials and labor
43. The main types of international specialization are considered ...
Subject
£ unit
Detailed
Technological
£ private
44. The main areas of international specialization:
Manufacturing
£ scientific
£ technological
Territorial
Cross-sectoral
Intraindustry
45. The main actors of the global world economy:
Globalizing capital - TNK, TNB, MFC
£ United Nations (UN)
46. The solution to the contradictions of the globalization process comes down to ...:
£ Strengthening aid to least developed countries
Giving the globalization process a social focus
To channel the process of globalization for the benefit of the least developed countries of the world economy
£ tackling corruption problems in the developing world
47. Problems associated with the relationship "man-nature":
Using the resources of the oceans
£ development of culture, education, health care
£ providing employment for the economically active population
£ international terrorism
48. Problems associated with the relationship "person-society":
Development of culture, education, health care
£ peaceful space exploration
£ disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ preserving and restoring ecological balance
49.The main areas of activity of ECOSOC, as one of the main divisions of the UN
£ politics
£ science and culture
Economy
50.The development of education, science and culture in the UN system is dealt with by
51. The main activities of UNCTAD:
international trade
£ cultural environment
£ art
£ international STP
52. In the process of globalization, contradictions arise between ...
Countries with market economies and countries with economies in transition
Advanced and least developed countries of the MX
£ leading countries of the world
53. The main reasons for the emergence of the "anti-globalization" movement:
Globalization is for the benefit of the "club of selected countries"
Globalization is realized on the basis of taking into account the cultural values of the "West"
All countries are enjoying the fruits of globalization
54. Global demographic problems are
World population growth
£ population migration
Population aging
£ illegal migration
55. Global problems in the political sphere:
Rogue countries
International terrorism
£ religion
56. Global problems in the economic field:
£ economic wars
Growing Lagging Developing Countries
International debt problem
£ confrontation between interstate blocs
£ conflict between TNCs and national companies
57. Global social problems:
Income inequality
Unemployment
£ drop in real wages
£ urbanization
58. Global environmental problems:
£ limited resources
Waste and pollution problem
Climate warming
£ agricultural land problem
59. Characteristic features of the globalization of the world economy:
Liberalization of foreign trade
Strengthening the role of TNCs in the world economy
£ unresolved external debt problem
£ increased international terrorism
Enhancing the regulatory role of international economic organizations
60. Reasons for the acceleration of the globalization process at the beginning of the XXI century:
Information Technology
New financial technologies
Growth of the international capital market
£ financial crises
£ uneven economic development of the countries of the world economy
61. The area of the most dynamic development of the globalization process:
Economy
£ technique
Information
£ culture
£ politics
Finance
62. Global socio-political problems:
Disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ energy problem
Providing employment for the economically active population
International terrorism
£ natural disasters
63. The global problems of "natural and economic" nature include
Economic problems
Energy supply
£ demographic problems
£ health problems
£ problems of interethnic relations
Food and raw materials problem
64. The main activity of the specialized organization of the United Nations - FAO is considered
£ development of international cooperation in the field of education, science, culture
Collection, synthesis and analysis of information on nutrition, nature management, fishing
65. The most common mineral:
£ iron ore
66. Of the fuel and energy fossil resources, the largest reserves are:
£ biofuel
67. A peculiar geographical phenomenon of the last decades of the XXI century, which has received the name "expansion" of the resource boundaries of the world economy in scientific literature, is associated with:
£ involvement in industrial exploration and development in almost all countries of the world
The beginning of the development of new sources of minerals in the conditions of hard-to-reach territories and shelf waters
£ discovery of fundamentally new types of minerals
68. Countries that almost completely satisfy their needs for fuel and energy resources from their own sources:
£ Mongolia
Norway
69. The biosphere's ability to cope with the consequences of human activity is based on the concept of the development of modern civilization ...
£ concept "limits of economic growth"
£ the concept of a "new quality" of economic growth
The concept of "sustainable development"
70. The natural resources that create the conditions for human existence, first of all, include:
71.The absolute scarcity of mineral resources is associated with (note):
£ involving new types of resources in the economic turnover
£ cardinal shifts in the production basis
The general limited scale of our planet and all types of resources
72. Renewable (reproducible) types of natural resources:
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
73. The relative scarcity of mineral resources is associated with:
£ general limited scale of our planet and all types of resources
Cardinal shifts in the production base
Involvement of new types of resources in the economic circulation
74. Five countries, in the depths of which 100 billion tons of oil are concentrated (or 2/3 of all proven reserves):
£ Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
£ Norway
75. Seven countries, in the depths of which 60% of the proven reserves of natural gas are concentrated:
£ Ethiopia
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
£ Ukraine
Saudi Arabia
76. The main oil exporters are currently:
Mexico
£ Ethiopia
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela
77. Major importers of oil:
EU countries
£ Mexico
78. Top five places in the global demand for primary energy resources:
Hydropower
Natural gas
Atomic Energy
£ wind energy
£ solar energy
79. The main factors that, according to P. Samulsson, will provide both individual countries and the world economy as a whole with "crisis-free development":
Natural resources
Population
Capital
Technical innovations
£ democracy
£ culture
£ ecological cleanliness
£ humanity
80. "Six" of the leading countries in gold mining:
Australia
81.Science, which, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, investigates the processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population is called:
£ globalistics
£ sociology
£ political science
Demography
£ world economy
82. The population of the Earth is predicted to be:
£ gradually decrease
£ shrink slowly
Grow more and more slowly
£ grow at an ever faster pace
83. The movement of the rural population to the cities inevitably leads to:
£ marginalized
Urbanization
£ democratization
£ demopulation
84. The movement of people across the borders of certain territories with a change of place of residence permanently or for a sufficiently long period is:
£ diversification of the population
£ marginalization of the population
Population migration
£ geopolitization
£ urbanization
85. Workers - frontaliers are:
£ officially registered migrant workers
£ illegal immigrants
Workers crossing the border daily
£ family members of migrants
86. The increase in the proportion of highly qualified specialists among migrants leads to:
£ significant losses
£ increased economic crime
£ political instability
Significant economic impact for host countries
87. Population groups united by national, ethnic or religious grounds and living in a new region (country) for themselves are called:
£ nationality
Diaspora
88. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
£ an increase in the number of births
£ reduction in mortality among the population
Depopulations
Decreased life expectancy
£ increased life expectancy
89. A long-term trend of population aging is characteristic of the following countries:
£ developing countries
Industrialized countries
£ countries in transition
90. The occupational structure of the population reflects:
£ the country's political activity in the international arena
The degree of development of society as a whole
£ age and sex composition of the population
The achieved structure of the economies of the countries
£ unemployment rate in the country
General trends in the distribution of the labor force by sector of employment
91. Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAN in industrialized countries:
£ growth of EAN in agriculture
Decrease and stabilization of EAN in agriculture
Employment growth in the service sector
92. Typical trends in the distribution of employment in developing countries:
£ growth of employed in agriculture
Industrial employment growth
High employment in agriculture
Employment growth in the service sector
93. Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAP in countries with economies in transition:
Consistently high employment in agriculture
Growth of employed in the service sector
£ growth in employment in industry and construction
Decrease in employment in industry and construction
94. Reasons for international migration:
Economic
Demographic
Military-political
Environmental
£ terrorism
95. The characteristic features of the notion "Population explosion" are
Decreasing mortality
£ low mortality
High fertility
Sharp increase in population growth rates
£ declining fertility
£ stable or growing population at minimum dynamics
£ low fertility
96. The characteristic features of the concept of "demographic maturity" are
£ declining mortality
Low mortality
£ high fertility
£ declining fertility
Low fertility
Stable or minimally growing population
97.Demographic crisis is characterized by
£ high fertility
High mortality
Vital movement rate with a minus sign (-)
Depopulation
Mortality exceeds birth rate
98. Countries and regions of the world with high population growth rates include
Countries of Southeast Asia
Bangladesh
£ Israel
99. Correspondence between countries (regions of the world), and characteristic trends
100. Areas of activity that belong to the category of "high" technologies:
Nanotechnology
Information Technology
Biotechnology
£ continuous casting technology
Technologies based on the use of new materials
101. Indicators characterizing the scientific and technical potential of the world economy:
The number of specialists employed in science and scientific services
£ number of EAN in industry
Share of R&D expenditures in VMP
Share of high technology products in VMP
Share of high-tech products in the world market
102. Cycles of scientific and technological development of the countries of the world economy according to the theory of cyclical development of N. Kondratyev come to the end:
Change of technological structures
A technical revolution
£ political crises
103. The sequence of stages of the formulation of the world information space:
1: the emergence of writing
2: invention of the printing press (typography)
3: creating a telegraph, radio, telephone, TV
4: the emergence of computer technology
5: the emergence of Internet technologies
104. The reasons for the sustainable growth of the knowledge intensity of the world economy:
Reducing the life cycle of knowledge-intensive goods (frequent change of generations of computers, household appliances, etc.)
The rise in the cost of research and development itself
Large expenditures on scientific and basic research
Transnationalization of production
£ globalization MX
105. Quantitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
£ R&D management organization system
Availability of research personnel
Material and technical support of R&D
£ main directions of scientific research
£ provision of scientific and technical information
106. Qualitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
R&D management system
£ availability of research personnel
£ logistics R&D
Main directions of scientific research
Provision of scientific and technical information
107. International scientific and technological exchange can be carried out
on a non-commercial basis by ...
License agreements for the rights to use inventions, etc.
Scientific and technical publications
Scientific conferences
£ migration of scientists and specialists
108. A drop in the efficiency of the applied technique leads to:
£ energy crises
Search for new scientific ideas and technical solutions
Innovation boom
Massive renewal of generations of machines
£ mass migration of the population
109. Number of least developed countries (LDCs) (UN list):
110. Estimated population in least developed countries ...
111. The least developed countries are predominantly located in:
£ Latin America
£ South Asia
Tropical Africa
£ Eastern Europe
112.Differentiation by the level of economic development between developed and developing countries in the twentieth century:
Has increased
£ remained constant
£ decreased
113. Unevenness and contradictory development of countries in the modern world:
£ decreased
£ increased
Stopped
114. "Periphery" has taken a place in the technogenic model of world development - ...
£ equal position with "center"
Dependent position
£ independent position and specializes in supplying the global market
High technology products
£ minerals
Agricultural products
115. The main features inherent in the modern world economy:
£ transition to a postindustrial development model
£ a socially oriented model of a market economy emerged
The market economy has become universal
Increasing interdependence of countries and regions
The gap between the center and the periphery of the world economy has widened
£ developing countries catch up with developed countries in terms of economic development
116. Features of the catch-up development model:
Protectionism
£ liberalization of foreign economic activity
£ national currency convertibility
Strengthening state regulation of the economy
£ strengthening of integration processes
117. The highest level of differentiation in income distribution in ..
£ developed countries
Developing states
£ newly industrialized countries
£ OPEC countries
Countries in transition
118. The share of developing countries in world GDP is
£ less than 5%
£ about 10%
Over 30%
119. The share of countries with economies in transition in world GDP is ...
£ more than 20%
£ about 50%
£ about 10%
120. The main resources in an industrial society are
£ natural resources
Capital
£ information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ manpower
121. The main resources in a post-industrial society are
£ natural resources
£ capital
Information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ manpower
122. The dominant sector in the economy of developed countries is
£ primary
£ secondary
Tertiary
£ quaternary
123. The dominant sector in the economies of the least developed countries is
Primary
£ secondary
£ tertiary
£ quaternary.
124. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) in China at the end of the twentieth century was
Up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
£ less than 2% per year
125. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) in Germany at the end of the twentieth century was
£ up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
Less than 2% per year.
126. The Marshall Plan was associated with
£ the implementation of international control over key branches of the military industry of the EU countries
£ transfer of the leadership of the coal mining of France and Germany to a supranational authority
£ the creation of the European Atomic Energy Community
US economic aid to Western European countries.
127. The period of implementation of the "Marshall Plan" falls on
1948 - 1951
128. The Treaty on European Union came into force with
£ 01.01.1991
£ 31.12.1995
129. The document of the commencement of the functioning of the Treaty on European Union is considered
£ White Paper
Single European Act
£ Maastricht Agreement
£ NATO Treaty
130.The high level of technical equipment of Japanese production was achieved due to
High level of development of fundamental research
Borrowing scientific and technological achievements from abroad
Active purchase of foreign licenses
£ joint development with partners for scientific and technical cooperation
131. The main EU institutions are
European Parliament
£ Single European ACP
£ EURATOM
132. Candidates for EU membership are
Slovakia
£ Belarus
Hungary
Estonia
133.The United States meets its mineral needs through
£ 100% import
About 50% of imports
£ 25% imports
Own resources
134. For Japan, a "vital import" is
£ food
Fuel and raw materials
£ labor
£ semiconductors and home appliances
£ foreign currency
135. For Japan, a "vital export" is
£ foreign currency
£ food
£ fuel and raw materials
£ labor
Semiconductors and home appliances
136. NAFTA is a free trade agreement between:
£ US and Canada
£ US, Canada and EU
USA, Canada and Mexico
£ USA, Russia, Canada
137. Approximate Amount (Percentage of World) Mineral Resources Possessed by Russia
More than 20%
138 Approximate Amount (Percentage of World) Mineral Resources Possessed by the United States ...
£ more than 20%
139. The three economic centers of power in the world economy are considered ...
140. USA, EU and Japan share in world GDP ...%
£ less than 40
£ about 30
141.Participation and role of the state in the economies of most developing countries
£ small
Quite active
£ is absent at all, since the main engine of economic development is foreign capital
142. The economic reforms in China at the present stage, which caused an economic upturn in the country, began in ...
143. Most of China's population lives
£ in cities
In the countryside
£ overseas ("huaqiao")
144. Financing of the development of priority industries in China is made at the expense of
£ state budget funds
£ off-budget funds
Foreign investment
£ private investors
145. The common features of most developing countries are
Deep socio-economic backwardness
Diversified economy with various forms of ownership
Influence of traditional institutions in society
High population growth rates
£ specialization in MRI primarily in power generation
£ fairly developed market relations
£ strong dependence on the inflow of resources from outside
146.The modern economic model of the development of the national economy of developing countries is characterized as
Import substitution industrialization
Export-oriented model
£ convergence
£ liberalization
£ free trading
147. Share of developing countries in world GDP
Is increasing
£ decreases
£ remains the same
148. The share of developing countries in the world GDP is ...%
£ over 50
£ less than 20
£ about 10
149. Japan used a model of economic development in relations with developing countries.
Flying geese
£ flying flock
£ adaptation effect
150. Differentiation within developing states
Increasing
£ remains the same
£ decreases
151. Differentiation within developing countries is due to
Developed countries' policies
NIS development
£ the rapid development of China
£ competition from Russia
152. OPEC countries export mainly
£ natural gas
£ electronics
153. Population growth in developing countries
Higher than developed
£ about the same level as developed countries
£ less than developed due to high mortality
154. The population of developing countries is predominantly living
£ in Latin America
£ in Africa
155. Relations between Russia and APEC:
Russia is a member of APEC;
£ Russia is not a member of APEC;
£ Russia plans to join APEC
156.The most developed integration group in the world is considered
157. As a result of the formation of the CIS, mutual economic ties between them
£ remained the same
Decreased
£ increased
158. The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) was established within the framework of an integration association ...
159. The forms of integration, in accordance with the plans of the organizers of the EU, provided for the creation of
£ cooperation with Russia
Political union
Economic and Monetary Union
Single (common) market for goods, services, capital, labor
£ political-military alliance
£ integration with the USA
Customs Union
160. The main forms of international economic integration are considered
Common Market
Customs Union
£ syndicate
£ international association
Free trading zone
Economic and Monetary Union
161. The "Visegrad Four" integration group includes
£ Bulgaria
Slovakia
£ Romania
Hungary
162. EU candidates from the former USSR are
£ Ukraine
Estonia
£ Belarus
163. The OECD was founded in ...
164. Russia's relations with the OECD:
£ not bound by bilateral agreements
£ is a member of the OECD
Not a member of the OECD
Bound by a bilateral agreement
£ is in a hostile relationship
165. Unification stood at the origins of the EU
166. The ECSC included states
£ Spain
Benelux countries
France
Germany
167. The sequence of stages of formation of the economic and monetary union of the EU countries
1: Free Trade Zone
2: Customs Union
3: "Common Market"
4: Economic and Monetary Union
168. Russia's external debt is in the range of ... billion dollars
£ less than 50
169. The largest in the 90s. XX century was the fall of mutual economic ties of Russia with ...
£ industrialized countries
£ countries of Central and Eastern Europe
£ developing countries
Former republics of the USSR
170. The main component in Russian exports to Western European countries is currently
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Fuel and raw materials
£ machinery and equipment
£ agricultural products
171. Economic, scientific and technical relations between Russia and China are considered
£ little promising
Very promising
£ economically unprofitable
172.The main reasons for the sharp decline in economic relations between Russia and other CIS countries are
£ decrease in the degree of interdependence of most of the union republics
£ national dislike
£ non-fulfillment of deliveries under intergovernmental agreements
The desire to export their products for hard currency to the countries of the "far abroad"
Painful transition from a single centralized supply system within the USSR to market interaction mechanisms
173.The main components in Russian exports to developed countries are
£ machinery and equipment
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Semi-finished products
Fuel and raw materials
£ agricultural products
174. The main advantages of Russia in the world are
Natural resources
£ scientific and technical potential
High educational level of the population
Nuclear weapon
£ developed economy
£ developed market infrastructure
175. In the end of the 20th century, Russia's economic power stations were primarily focused on
OECD countries
£ CIS countries
Countries "far abroad"
£ CEE countries
£ developing countries
GDP per capita
Educational level of the population
£ military potential of the state
£ inflation
177. The place that Russia occupies in the world according to the human development index (UN) at the beginning of the 21st century
Between 60 and 80
£ in the top ten states
£ between 10th and 20th place
£ between 20 and 40 seat
£ between 40 and 60 seat
178. Industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century
£ decreased slightly
£ increased slightly
£ decreased by 10%
Decreased by more than 60%
179.The decline in industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century was associated with ...
£ confrontation with the USA
The severance of economic ties with the former republics of the USSR
Transition to market reforms
£ increased military tensions
180. GDP per capita in Russia correlates with the world average:
Below the world average
£ above the world average
£ is approximately equal to
181. The main components of the problem of Russia's external debt are considered
Debt from developing countries to Russia itself
Russian debt to leading PRS, commercial banks and a number of Eastern European countries
Debts of the former USSR
£ servicing Russia's external debt
£ relationship with the London Club
182. The largest demographic decline in Russia was observed in:
£ 20s of XX century
£ 30s of the XX century.
£ years of so-called Stalinist repression
90s of XX century
The first years of the XXI century.
183. The largest decline in GDP (GNP) production took place in:
£ Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War
£ the world economy during the Great Depression
£ USA in the 30s of the XX century.
£ countries of Western Europe in the 30s of the XX century.
Russia in 1992-1996
184. The international division of labor is based on the principle:
£ sectoral isolation
Territorial separation
£ technical and technological community
£ natural division of labor
Comparative advantages
185. Formation and development of the world market is associated with:
£ protectionist policy
Deepening and expanding the international division of labor
Development of industrialization
Development of transport and communication systems
£ autarchy of national economies
186. The internationalization of production is a process of economic relations between countries based on:
£ exchange of finished products
£ differences in natural and climatic conditions
Specialization and cooperation of production
£ overcoming economic dependence by countries
International movement of factors of production
187. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, countries specialize in the production of products based on the comparison:
£ production costs
Cost of factors of production
£ marginal utilities of the goods exchanged
£ labor costs
Abundance or shortage of certain factors of production
188 Leontyev's paradox is that the United States should be seen as a country:
£ capital surplus
Labor surplus
£ with limited natural resources
£ with limited manpower
£ with limited capital
189. Net exports are understood as :.
£ the difference between the proceeds from the export of products and the costs of its production
Foreign trade balance
£ share of exports in total production
£ share of imports in the total volume of consumed products within the country
Difference between export and import volumes
190. Re-export means:
£ import into the country of products manufactured abroad with the help of national capital
£ export from the country of products manufactured with the help of foreign capital
Export of products that were previously imported
£ export of finished goods, which contains imported components
Export of products previously imported into the country
191. Foreign trade turnover is determined:
£ by subtracting the value of exports from GDP
£ added to GDP by the value of exports
Summing up the values of exports and imports
Current account for goods and services
£ by subtracting the value of imports from the volume of exports
192. At present, world trade is dominated by:
£ food items
Manufacturing products
£ patents and licenses
£ "experience and knowledge", engineering services
193. The degree of openness of the national economy is determined by:
£ country share in world trade
Export volume per capita
£ share of national production in world production
Share of exports in national production
£ share of national production in international exchange
194. The policy of protectionism is aimed at:
£ expansion of imports from abroad
Protection of domestic production from foreign competitors
£ reduction in domestic exports
£ restriction on the import of foreign capital
Creation of barriers to imports of goods and ensuring the inflow of foreign capital
195. The policy of foreign economic liberalism (free trade) is pursued by the countries:
The most successful in their development
£ low-industrialized economy
£ agro-industrial
£ politically independent
Not afraid of flooding the domestic market with imported goods
196. Transnational corporations are characterized by:
£ limitedness of their activities within the framework of the national economy
£ multinational
International business activities
Capital of national origin and the international nature of its activities
£ multinational capital and international nature of its activities
197. Multinational corporations are characterized by:
£ the national character of the origin of their capital
Multinational capital
£ the international nature of the business and the capital of national origin
£ restrictions in the field of international economic relations
International nature of business
198. The essence of the export of capital is:
£ export of value for the purpose of its realization and appropriation of profits in
Exporting value for the purpose of generating new value and profit
Overcoming protectionist barriers preventing the export of goods to the country
£ advancing the cost for the purpose of obtaining the rent
£ upfront cost to recover production costs
199. Foreign direct investments are those that provide their owner:
£ appropriation of profit
Establishing control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ receiving interest on the loan provided
£ obtaining a share of the capital of a foreign enterprise that does not provide control over the activities of the enterprise
Setting up your own business abroad
200. Portfolio foreign investment:
£ investment of capital ensuring the establishment of control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
Investment of capital that prevents the establishment of control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ granting a loan to a native partner
Acquisition of an insignificant part of the shares of a foreign enterprise
£ buying up a controlling stake in a native enterprise
201. Loan form of capital export:
Assumes the return and payment of imported capital
£ secures majority ownership of the company
It involves the provision of a loan and receipt of interest on it
£ gives the right to own a certain share of the company's capital
£ is characterized by gratuitous capital transfer
202. On the eve of the First World War, in the export of capital, the first place was occupied by:
Great Britain
£ France
£ Belgium
£ Netherlands
203. In the middle of the XX century. the first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ UK
£ France
£ Germany
204. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. the first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ Germany
£ oil producing countries of the Middle East
£ UK
205. Until the middle of the XX century. the main importers of capital were:
£ developed capitalist countries
£ socialist countries
£ socialist countries of Europe
£ EEC countries
Developing countries
206. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. the main recipient countries of capital were:
£ developing countries
£ countries that have embarked on the path of industrial development
£ socialist countries
Developed capitalist countries
£ post-socialist countries
207. Reinvestment of foreign capital means:
£ export of part of the profit to the capital exporting country and its investment
Investing a certain share of the profit on foreign capital in a given country
£ using the profit to pay off the debt of a foreign investor
£ export of all profits earned on foreign capital
Recurrent investments from part of the income received on previously invested capital
208. International labor migration is influenced by:
Demographic situation in the country
High domestic unemployment
Differences in wage levels
£ excess capital within the country
£ low economic growth
209. The departure from Russia to the United States of more than 50 thousand scientists and specialists was caused by:
£ lack of democratic freedoms in Russia
£ unwillingness to live in our country
Easing U.S. immigration policy towards former socialist countries
Lack of funding in Russia for R&D and higher education, low wages
The policy of "human rights" and the openness of the economy
210. The $ 1 trillion "brain drain" from Russia to the United States means that:
Depleted by "reforms" Russia acted as an intellectual donor
The wealthy US acted as an intellectual "vampire"
The flight of "human capital" from Russia has become the most profitable item for the United States in relations with our country.
£ Russia has received large revenues
£ Russia has strengthened its scientific and technological potential
211. The migration policy of Russia in the modern transformation period should proceed primarily from:
Ensuring scientific, technical and economic security
£ ensuring the openness of the economy
212. The migration policy of Russia in the modern transformation period should proceed primarily from:
Priority of national interests
£ Compliance with international human rights law
£ the need for priority inclusion of the country in the process of globalization
Preserving and increasing the potential of human capital
£ the need to increase emigration from Russia
213. Only economic integration is characterized by:
£ expansion of the international division of labor
£ growth of mutual trade
The presence of a single mechanism for regulating social and economic relations
£ internationalization of production
The closedness of the integration block
214. The final stage of economic integration is:
£ waiver of export and import quotas
£ waiver of licensing for export shipments
£ free movement of factors of production within one economic space
Creation of a political and economic union of countries
Formation of a currency union of countries
215. The softening of US immigration policy towards post-socialist countries was aimed at:
£ its humanization
£ Strengthening compliance with international human rights standards
Capitalizing on human capital inflows
£ improving the situation of workers in Russia
Building your own intellectual potential
216.Golden Parity:
Based on the gold content of the currency
£ represents a gold coin
£ expressed in paper currency
£ is the price scale
This is the ratio of national currencies based on their gold content
217. Currency parity expresses:
£ purchasing power of the currency
£ exchange rate of the national currency
£ weight amount of gold contained in a currency
Legislative ratio between national currencies
The ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content and is adequate to gold parity
218. The exchange rate is characterized by:
The ratio of national currencies, determined by their purchasing power
£ ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content
£ the ratio of national currencies established by a willful decision
The purchasing power of one currency relative to another
219. The cross-rate of the currency is determined on the basis of:
£ gold content of foreign currency
£ gold parity of the other two currencies
Exchange rates of two other countries
The purchasing power ratio of the currencies of the three countries
£ currency parity
220. Currency arbitration presupposes:
£ protection of the currency parity of the country's currency
£ protection of the exchange rate of the country's currency
Operations with the aim of generating profit as a result of different quotes of cross rates of the same currency
£ speculative transactions based on the forward rate
Speculative trades based on cross rates
221. A foreign exchange transaction is called a "spot" rate if:
£ a deal takes place under a forward contract
£ the deal is medium-term
The deal is carried out in accordance with the current rate
£ the transaction is carried out in accordance with the exchange rate set for a certain date in the future
The operation is based on cash (cash) transactions
222. The forward rate provides for:
A deal made on the basis of a forward contract
Reconciliation of the rate for a certain date in the future
£ deal based on the current rate
£ spot rate
£ non-hedging or speculation transaction
The number of national currency units corresponding to the foreign currency
£ the number of foreign currency units corresponding to the national currency
£ by the ratio of the exchange rates of two other currencies
£ gold parity
£ currency parity
224. The reverse currency quotation is based on the expression:
£ amount of national currency in foreign currency
The number of monetary units of foreign currency in national currency
£ of one currency through the ratio of rates of two other currencies
£ gold content in foreign currency
£ currency parity
225. The demonetization of gold was carried out by the decision:
£ Bretton Woods Conference
Kingston (Jamaican) Conference
£ Genoa Conference
By a decision of the United States in 1971
£ by decision of Russia in 1897
226.The real, and not only the counting international monetary unit is (was)
£ transferable ruble
227. To determine the "weight" of each national currency in the currency "basket", data on:
£ per capita income
£ national wealth
Share of countries in world exports
The value of GDP
Share of countries in world foreign exchange reserves
228. Trade balance:
Part of the balance of payments
Expresses the relationship between exports and imports of goods and services
£ includes balance of payments
£ not related to the balance of payments
£ does not include re-export
229. Balance of payments:
£ is an integral part of the trade balance
Includes trade balance
£ does not include income and expenses from foreign exchange transactions
£ is not associated with the interbank foreign exchange market
Provides a report on the entire set of international transactions
230. The weakening of the national currency and the depreciation of its exchange rate is caused by:
£ positive balance of payments
£ positive trade balance
Negative trade balance
£ lower taxation
Negative balance of payments
231. The strengthening of the national currency and its appreciation are associated with:
£ negative trade balance
Trade surplus
£ negative balance of payments
Positive balance of payments
£ increased taxes
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1 ... The essence of the concept of "World Economy".
WORLD ECONOMY - the economy of all countries of the world community, considered taking into account intercountry economic relations and interactions. This is a set of national economies, united by various types of world economic ideology.
The world economy as a science (or academic discipline) is a part of the theory of a market economy that studies the patterns of economic interaction between different states in the field of international exchange of goods and services, the movement of factors of production ties.
The world economy is a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital freely circulate in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
World economy- a set of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by mobile factors of production. This is a worldwide, global, geo-economic space in which goods, services, and capital freely circulate in the interests of increasing the efficiency of material production.
The characteristic features of the modern world economy are as follows:
* development of international movement of factors of production, primarily in the forms of export and import of capital, labor and technology;
* the growth on this basis of international forms of production in enterprises located in several countries, primarily within the framework of transnational corporations;
* economic policy of states, providing for the support of the international movement of goods and factors of production on a bilateral and multilateral basis;
* the emergence of an open economy within many states and interstate associations.
2. Natural resource potential of the world economy
Natural resources are the primary source, the starting base of the economy of all countries at all stages of their development. Natural resources are of two types: renewable and non-renewable. Recoverable resources can be used periodically and in an amount that does not deplete their cash for future consumption. Renewable natural resources include land, sea, rivers, solar heat and energy, etc. Forests, wildlife and fish stocks can also be examples of renewable resources. If logging and fishing are carried out moderately and rationally, then nature itself will take care of their reproduction. Non-renewable resources include those that are used once and are not reproduced by nature itself. These resources include coal, oil, gas, etc.
Natural resources have two important economic dimensions - stock size and flow. The amount of each resource is determined by the very nature and intensity of the previous use. Natural resource flows depend on the level of their annual consumption. Human needs determine this flow, and depending on them, natural resource stocks can be consumed quickly, slowly, or not used at all.
Labor force as an active part of the population is the second important component. The higher its share in the population, the more significant the productive capacity of the national economy.
The size of the employed (active) labor force depends on many economic, social and demographic factors. In terms of the share of employed, developing countries are significantly inferior to developed countries, and the number of hours worked per week is much higher in developing countries.
The rapid population growth in developing countries, the low share of its active part significantly slow down, even lower the growth of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, which dooms the ongoing efforts for economic development to failure. All attempts to solve the problems of economic growth in developing countries are doomed to failure on their own. The solution to the issue is possible only within the framework of the world economy, in which each country will find its own writing in the MRI system.
What population size should be considered optimal from an economic point of view, and what are the criteria for such optimality? Since the per capita income depends on the population size, the optimal amount can be considered such an amount that maximizes per capita income .
Labor resources and the population movement as a whole is demography- a science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological, geographical factors, explores the patterns of what is happening in the structure, dynamics, as well as the distribution and movement of the population. On the basis of this, a population policy is being developed, predictive assessments of changes in the country's population of the country, region and within the framework of the world economy as a whole are made.
Urbanization processes are an integral part of demographic processes in the world economy. . Urbanization is a multifaceted socio-economic, demographic and geographical process taking place on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In the narrow sense of the word, this is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in the country, region, and the world.
With a fixed level of technology, the amount of land and capital, a too small population does not provide the necessary space either for the maximum effect of the division of labor, or for the full realization of the effect of the scale of production of national industry.
Problems of big cities: significant geographic disparity between jobs and workforce in the suburbs and urban centers, which requires the creation of an efficient transport system; environmental pollution.
Fossil resources. Their deposits have varying degrees of knowledge and varying degrees of estimation accuracy. In foreign countries, the following classification is applied. Explored reserves are divided into reliable and probable according to the degree of exploration. There is also a category of possible stocks. In general, the study of the subsoil is still insufficient. The specific weight of proven reserves for some types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves. Mineral reserves vary by country.
The influence of the natural resource potential of the state on the development of the national economy and its integration into the MEO.
To understand this issue, you need to get acquainted with the essence of the so-called ... "Dutch syndrome"... Many countries rich in raw materials are subject to its influence, incl. and Russia. The essence "Dutch syndrome" consists in the fact that the presence of a large number of various minerals does not guarantee prosperity for the country at all, and under certain conditions even harms its economy, and vice versa. As a rule, a stable inflow of export earnings from the fuel and energy complex or other raw materials industries (sectors) leads to the fact that the country ceases to pay attention to the development of its manufacturing industry, preferring to purchase imported equipment and finished products.
In Russia, this disease began to develop back in the 70s. This was due to a jump in oil prices and the discovery of new oil fields in Western Siberia (Samotlor and others). Soviet industry, during this period, produced mainly non-competitive products. In addition, the USSR had no export guidelines and came into contact with the outside world exclusively through the supply of raw materials and fuel. High-tech equipment was purchased for the proceeds from export, and most of it was not accepted by the economy, since the system that existed at that time was not focused on innovation. Oddly enough, radical reforms only made the situation worse. The reformers, guided by the Darwinian principle of natural selection (everything that is viable must survive, and what is not viable will die), pushed the domestic economy not to renewal, but to primitivization. It has become increasingly focused on fuel and raw materials exports.
An example of the opposite approach is the experience of Western Europe, Japan, the United States and the newly industrialized countries (NIS). The first three, faced with a fuel and raw materials crisis in the 70s, focused on the development of energy-saving technologies and reduced energy consumption by 30% over 30 years. The latter (NIS) took advantage of the transfer of labor-intensive industries from developed countries to developing countries, which began in the 60s, and made to fill a niche in the market of consumer goods and household appliances.
The main difference between the experience of the raw material countries of Southeast Asia and Russia is that, albeit with a twenty-year delay, they nevertheless focused on the development of the manufacturing industry.
So one can do output, that the availability of minerals is an important condition for the country's integration into the MEO, however, if the stake is placed only on them, this inevitably leads to a weakening of the country's position in terms of the competitiveness of its exports, since stable income can only be provided export of manufacturing products ... The experience of the countries of Southeast Asia shows that economic success can also be associated with the quality of the labor force. Confucianism left a legacy of these countries with the most important qualities: discipline, learning, hard work, patriotism.
3. Classification of countries by the level of socio-economic development
Not all countries (and there are about two hundred of them) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of the level of their development and socio-economic organization of production and the complex structure of the world economy, the center and the periphery are quite clearly seen.
The center is made up of a relatively small group of industrially developed countries (24 states), which account for almost 55% of world GDP and 71% of world exports.
The periphery includes mainly developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of common features can be distinguished:
* the multi-structured nature of the economy with a predominance of off-market relations and non-economic levers for organizing the economy;
* low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
* raw materials specialization.
NEW INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES - a group of developing countries that have reached, by the end of the XX century. significant economic recovery, approaching in terms of basic socio-economic indicators to highly developed economically countries, for example, Brazil, South Korea, Taiwan, etc.
A country's activity in world trade is measured using indicators such as:
but) export quota, i.e. the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP / GNP; at the industry level, this is the share of all goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume;
b) import quota- an indicator characterizing the volume of imports of a certain product, established in accordance with the needs for it and the volume of its own production. It is the ratio of a given country's gross imports to its GDP. It shows how much of the import is from the GDP;
in) foreign trade quota is the ratio of the value of the country's foreign trade turnover to the volume of its GDP. It shows the total volume of foreign trade turnover of a given country with a partner country or with the entire world community, i.e. serves to measure the level of development of foreign economic relations of a given country.
b) export structure, those. ratio or specific weights of exported goods by type and degree of their processing. The export structure makes it possible to single out the raw material or machine-technical orientation of exports, the country's role in international industry specialization;
in) import structure, the ratio of the volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished products. This indicator most clearly shows the dependence of the country's economy on the external market and the level of development of the branches of the national economy;
d) the comparative ratio of the country's share in world production of GDP / GNP and its share in world trade. So, if the share of a country in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in world trade in this product is 1-2%, then this means a discrepancy between the manufactured goods and the world quality level as a result of the low development of this industry.
4. International division of labor and its importance for the development of the world economy
INTERNATIONAL DIVISION OF LABOR - specialization of countries in the production of certain types of goods, for the manufacture of which the country has cheaper resources and preferable conditions in comparison with other countries. With this specialization, the needs of countries are met not only by their own production, but also through international trade. This is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain goods and services in order to sell them in other countries.
MRI is a system or method of organizing interdependent production, in which enterprises in different countries specialize in the manufacture of certain goods and services, and then exchange them.
The first factor has to do with natural benefits. These include reserves of natural resources, specific climatic conditions.
Other factors relate to acquired benefits. So the surplus of machinery and equipment relative to other resources stimulates specialization in the production of capital-intensive products. Countries that invest heavily in education and knowledge production gain a comparative advantage in the manufacture of high-tech and science-intensive products.
The main driver of MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of social and economic differences, is their desire to obtain economic benefits.
Intra-industry, which expresses the concentration of efforts of enterprises of different countries that are part of some industry on the production of certain items and the exchange of these items between them.
Within its framework, it is necessary to distinguish between single-species, multi-species and all-species subject intra-industry specialization.
Interbranch, which means the division of labor between different sectors of the same kind of production (industry, agriculture, etc.).
Intergeneric is the division of labor between the kinds of production - industry and agriculture, industry and construction, etc. National economic I according to its economic content, it corresponds to the interregional form of the division of labor within the country and represents the division of activities between countries on the scale of their complete national economies.
5. The process of internationalization of the modern world economy
INTERNATIONALIZATION OF THE ECONOMY - the formation, development of economic ties with other countries; processes of economic convergence, manifested in the growth of international trade and other forms of international economic cooperation, the growth of intercountry financial flows, labor migration. Distinguish between the internationalization of production, capital, trade, science. One of the important forms of internationalization of the economy is the emergence and development of transnational corporations. The economic basis of the modern world economy is the internationalization of production - the development of such organizational and economic forms that link the production of some countries with the consumption of its results in others.
Internationalization of business activities- this is the strengthening of the relationship and interdependence of the economies of individual countries, the impact of international economic relations on national economies, the participation of countries in the world economy.
In its development, the internationalization of the economy took place a series of stages. Initially, it represented international economic cooperation: it affected, first of all, the sphere of circulation and was associated with the emergence of international trade (late 18th - early 20th centuries). At the end of the 19th century, the international movement of capital is gaining momentum. International economic cooperation means the development of stable economic ties between countries and peoples, the exit of the reproduction process beyond the national borders.
The next stage was international economic integration, objectively conditioned by the deepening of the international division of labor, the internationalization of capital, the global nature of scientific and technological progress and an increase in the degree of openness of national economies and freedom of trade.Integration translated from Latin (integratio) means the connection of separate parts into a common, whole, single.
International economic integration- convergence and mutual adaptation of national economies, their inclusion in a single reproduction process on an international scale. This is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to the convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinatedly regulated by interstate bodies.
Economic integration, in particular, is expressed in :
Cooperation between the national economies of different countries and their complete or partial unification;
Elimination of barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital, labor between these countries;
The convergence of the markets of each of the individual countries in order to form one single (common) market;
Erasing the differences between economic entities belonging to different states;
The absence of any form of discrimination against foreign partners in each of the national economies, etc.
By the end XX in. practically all civilized countries participate in various international economic organizations. For example, by 1996, 183 countries were members of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), 180 states were members of the World Bank (WB), about 150 countries are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), over 100 countries are members of the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs. It is important to note that international law does not preclude the simultaneous participation of any country in several international economic organizations.
Although practically all states of the world take part in the global integration process, the degree of participation of each of them in this process is not the same. Some of them are at the lowest stages of economic integration, while others, having reached the highest limits of international economic relations, are expanding interstate cooperation to the level of military and political spheres.
The prerequisites for integration are as follows:
*The proximity of the levels of economic development and the degree of market maturity of the integrating countries
*The geographical proximity of the integrating countries, the presence in most cases of a common border and historically established economic ties.
*The commonality of economic and other problems facing countries in the field of development, financing, economic regulation, political cooperation, etc.
*Demonstration effect.
*"Domino effect".
Integration goals
*Taking advantage of economies of scale .
*Creating a favorable foreign policy environment .
*Solving the problems of trade policy.
*Facilitating structural adjustment the economy .
*Support for young industries of the national industry .
Integration stages
At the first level , when countries are just taking the first steps towards mutual rapprochement, between them are preferential trade agreements (Table 12.1). Such agreements can be signed either on a bilateral basis between individual states, or between an already existing integration group and an individual country or group of countries. In accordance with them, countries provide more favorable treatment to each other than they provide to third countries.
On the second level integration countries are moving to creatingfree trade zones , providing for not a simple reduction, but a complete abolition of customs tariffs in mutual trade while maintaining national customs tariffs in relations with third countries.
Third level integration linked to education customs union (TS)- coordinated cancellation by a group of national customs tariffs and the introduction of a common customs tariff and a single system of non-tariff trade regulation in relation to third countries. The Customs Union provides for duty-free intra-integration trade in goods and services and full freedom of movement within the region. Usually, a customs union requires the creation of an already more developed system of interstate bodies coordinating the implementation of a coordinated foreign trade policy. Most often, they take the form of periodic meetings of ministers directing the relevant departments, which in their work rely on a permanent interstate secretariat.
When the integration process reaches fourth level - common market (OR) -- integrating countries agree on freedom of movement not only of goods and services, but also of factors of production - capital and labor.
Finally, on the fifth, the highest level of integration turns into economic union (ES), which provides, along with the general customs tariff and freedom of movement of goods and factors of production, also the coordination of macroeconomic policy and the unification of legislation in key areas - currency, budget, monetary. At this stage, there is a need for bodies that are no longer just endowed with the ability to coordinate actions and monitor economic development, but also make operational decisions on behalf of the grouping as a whole. Governments consistently relinquish part of their functions and thereby cede part of state sovereignty in favor of supranational bodies. Such interstate bodies with supranational functions are empowered to make decisions on issues related to the organization, without the consent of the governments of the member states. Within the EU, it is the EU Commission.
In principle, it is possible to exist and sixth level integration -political union (PS) , which would provide for the transfer by national governments of most of their functions in relations with third countries to supranational bodies.
9 globalization of the world economy
GLOBALIZATION OF ECONOMY - strengthening of interconnections, interactions and interdependence of economies, economic systems of different countries of the world; The globalization of the world economy can also be characterized as an increase in the interdependence and mutual influence of various spheres and processes of the world economy, expressed in the gradual transformation of the world economy into a single market for goods, services, capital, labor and knowledge.
The process of globalization covers different areas of the world economy, namely:
· Foreign, international, world trade in goods, services, technologies, objects of intellectual property;
· International movement of factors of production (labor, capital, information);
· International financial and credit and foreign exchange operations (gratuitous financing and assistance, loans and borrowings of subjects of international economic relations, operations with securities, special financial mechanisms and instruments, operations with currency);
· Production, scientific and technical, technological, engineering and information cooperation.
Economic globalization is the process of accumulating structural shifts and the gradual formation of an organically integral world economy
The main prerequisites (driving forces) that determine the process of globalization:
1. Production, scientific, technical and technological:
· A sharp increase in the scale of production;
· Rapid dissemination of knowledge as a result of scientific or other types of intellectual exchange;
2. Organizational:
· International forms of industrial and economic activity (TNC): organizational forms, the framework of which goes beyond national borders, acquire an international character, contributing to the formation of a single market space;
· The emergence of non-governmental organizations on a multinational or global level. International organizations such as the UN, IMF, World Bank, WTO, etc began to play a new global role;
3. Economic:
· Introduction by international economic organizations of uniform criteria for macroeconomic policy, unification of requirements for tax, regional, agricultural, antimonopoly policy, employment policy, etc .;
· Strengthening of the trend towards unification and standardization. 4. Informational:
· A radical change in the means of business communication, exchange of production, scientific and technical, economic, financial information
· The formation of systems that allow one center to manage production located in different countries, creating opportunities for the prompt, timely and effective solution of production, scientific and technical, commercial problems no worse than within individual countries.
· 5. Political:
· Weakening the rigidity of state borders, facilitating the freedom of movement of citizens, goods and services, capital;
· The end of the "cold" war, overcoming political differences between East and West.
6. Social and cultural:
· Weakening the role of habits and traditions, social ties and customs, overcoming national limitations, which increases the mobility of people in territorial, spiritual and psychological relations, contributes to international migration;
· Manifestation of the tendency of the formation of globalized "homogeneous" mass media, art, pop culture.
· Overcoming boundaries in education thanks to the development of distance learning;
Globalization processes are most often welcomed in developed countries and raise serious concerns in the developing world. The degree of positive influence of globalization processes on the economies of individual countries depends on the place they occupy in the world economy; in fact, rich countries or individuals receive the bulk of the benefits.
The inequitable distribution of the benefits of globalization creates the threat of conflicts at the regional, national and international levels.
The problems potentially capable of causing negative consequences from globalization processes in all countries include:
De-industrialization of the economy,
Attempts to undermine national sovereignty, i.e. transfer of control over the economies of individual countries from sovereign governments to other hands, including the most powerful states, multinational or global corporations, and international organizations.
Rising unemployment.
Potential global instability due to the interdependence of national economies at the global level.
10.Subjects of world economic relations
The subjects of world economic relations are private (individuals) and organizations (legal entities) engaged in the implementation of international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of the national economy, the subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents are economic entities permanently located in the territory of a given country, regardless of their national (state) affiliation.
Non-residents - business entities permanently located on the territory of a foreign state, even if they are citizens of this country, but permanently residing abroad, or branches of business units of a given country located outside its borders.
In addition to organizations directly involved in foreign economic activity, supranational international institutions are beginning to play an increasingly active role in the world economy. They are represented by international economic institutions involved in organizing and coordinating world economic relations. The tasks of these organizations are to create the "rules of the game" for the normal functioning of the world economy and to control the practical implementation of world economic relations.
The priority of international law in operations on the world market does not mean the complete internationalization of the foreign economic activity of the state and the replacement of its foreign economic institutions with the activities of international economic organizations.
The duty of any state is to defend national economic interests, including through foreign economic activity. Therefore, in modern conditions, the state itself determines its foreign economic policy. To implement it, each country develops its own national legislation on foreign economic activity. For example, for Russia, the fundamental laws are the federal laws "On state regulation of foreign trade activities"). "On foreign investments in the territory of the Russian Federation", etc. ...
Special institutes are engaged in direct regulation of foreign economic activity in each country. In Russia, such institutions include: the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations, the Ministry for Cooperation with the CIS, the Customs Committee, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Vneshtorgbank, etc.
These state organizations register foreign institutional units in the country, regulate exports and imports through the issuance of licenses, quotas and the establishment of customs tariffs, facilitate the signing of interstate agreements, the promotion of domestic residents into economic unions and the world economy in general.
The states participating in the world economic process, organizing and regulating international economic relations directly within the country, can also influence world economic relations as a whole. This kind of influence is realized in many ways, first of all by using the right of the participants of this or that international economic organization to develop and correct the rules of the intra-union "game".
In addition, it should be noted that the states participating in the world economic process, especially the most economically developed and richest, have both direct and indirect opportunities to influence world economic relations, regulating them in their national interests.
Direct regulator is an protectionism, with the help of which this or that state or union in its own interests presents advantages in the export and import of goods, services and capital.
Indirect regulation states can carry out world economic relations through their private firms (especially banks) and transnational companies (TNCs).
Thus, modern states, organizing their national economy for broad participation in the world economic process, at the same time actively organize and regulate the entire complex of world economic relations. This process allows countries not only to defend their economic interests in the international arena, but at the same time to improve and develop the world economy and international economic relations.
11. Classical theories of world trade.
Mercantilists essentially proposed the enrichment of some countries at the expense of others, but their merit lies in the fact that for the first time they drew attention to the problems of foreign trade, emphasized its importance for the economic development of countries, described and substantiated a certain ratio of export and import costs, i.e. ... laid the foundations for the balance of payments.
Adam Smith noted that the well-being of a nation depends not so much on the amount of gold it has accumulated, but on its ability to produce final goods and leave. He also developed the first classical theory of foreign trade - theory of absoluteadvantages.
ABSOLUTE ADVANTAGE - the ability of the state, region, company, arising as a result of geographic location, successful location, resource potential, and other favorable conditions, to produce goods with minimal costs of production and circulation in comparison with other countries, regions, firms that produce the same or similar goods. Thanks to this advantage, it is possible to sell your product on the market at a lower price and bypass competitors. A. Smith argued that those countries that are actively involved in the international division of the pile will receive the greatest benefits. A country that has certain advantages in the production of a product must specialize in its release for delivery to other countries
Absolute advantage theory - countries export those goods that they produce with lower costs (in the production of which they have an absolute advantage), and import those goods that are produced by other countries with lower costs [in the production of which the advantage belongs to their trading partners).
This statement of A. Smith was supplemented by David Ricardo, creating theory of comparative advantages.
COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES - lower costs of one producer in comparison with the costs of another, which allows dividing the output between them in favor of the first producer in order to obtain greater returns, benefits. Comparative advantages are most characteristic of different countries and are manifested in international trade.
Theorycomparativeadvantages -- Since the country's producers specialize in the production of those goods that they can produce at relatively lower costs compared to other countries, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than in the other.
Ricardo proved that foreign trade brings additional benefits even to highly efficient economies.
in the 20-30s of our century to create Heckscher's theory -Olyn.
Heckscher - Ohlin theorem - each country exports those factor-intensive goods for the production of which it possesses relatively surplus factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative lack of factors of production.
In this theory, the factors that determine the international division of labor are already associated not only with the natural conditions of production in the country, but with the realities that have arisen in the process of development of production. The theory proceeded from the fact that the historical and natural conditions of the development of individual countries predetermined the unevenness in the provision of labor resources and capital. Therefore, different factor intensity and factor saturation determines the specialization of the country in the production of certain goods.
Factor-intensity is the ratio of the costs of various factors of production for the production of a certain product
Factor saturation is the relative provision of the country with production factors .
Factor price equalization theorem(Heckscher - Ohlin - Samuelson theorem) - international trade leads to equalization of absolute and relative prices for homogeneous factors of production in trading countries
In 1947, the American economist Vasily Leontiev, examining the structure of US exports and imports, found that more labor-intensive goods were exported, and capital-intensive ones were imported. V. Leontiev's research showed the opposite, and its result became known as Leontief paradox.
The Leontief paradox- the theory of the ratio of factors of production Heckscher - Ohlin is not confirmed in practice: labor-surplus countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-surplus - labor-intensive.
An attempt to take into account the influence of the scientific and technological revolution in international trade led to the creation neotechnological theories foreign trade. Their supporters try to explain the emergence of foreign trade ties not by the provision of production factors, as the neoclassicists did, but by the costs of research and development, the level of average wages and the share of skilled labor. This school explains the emergence of advantages by a monopoly on individual discoveries and new technologies, which makes it possible to dominate both the production of these goods and their sale on the world market until these technologies are mastered by other countries.
technology gap theory, the foundations of which were laid by the English economist M. Posner in the early 60s. Posner suggested that if one of the developed countries, as a result of some kind of discovery, has a fundamentally new technology or a new product, then this product will be in demand even in countries with the same resource availability. Then, as a result of the predominant position of one country, a technological gap arises between the countries.
This model was developed by another American economist, Raymond Vernon, who in 1966 published an article describing a model of the life cycle of a product, which can be considered both as an independent theory of international trade, and as a theory that develops the theory of comparative provision of factors of production. But unlike her, she explores the comparative advantage of countries not in static, but in dynamics.
International trade is based on differences in the relative prices of goods that arise due to the different endowments of countries with specific factors of production, with factors specific to the export sector developing, while factors specific to the sector that compete with imports diminish.
Theory of the firm associated with the strengthening of the role of individual firms and corporations in international trade. IN in the final analysis, it is not the nation that always gains the comparative advantage, but the individual exporter of the given product. In the course of research, it turned out that technologically complex products are created by a separate company based on the needs and demands that exist within the country. Only after the expansion of production and saturation of the internal market can the company enter the external market. But in order to sell your products, you need to find a buying country, whose structure of demand in the domestic market would be as close as possible to the structure of demand of the exporting country. This explains the possibility of carrying out trade transactions between countries that are at the same level of economic development, in particular between developed industrial countries. This provision was first substantiated by an American economist E. Linder.
A kind of generalization of the modern development of theories of foreign trade is theory of international competitiveness of the nation, developed by the American researcher M. Porter. He concluded that the place of each country and its specific producers in the world market depends on four basic conditions: the quantity and quality of various factors of production, the conditions of demand in the domestic market, the presence of related and service industries, the firm's strategy, and internal competition.
12. Modern theories of international trade
All theories of international trade in one way or another pay attention to the formation of the equilibrium price in the world market and the distribution of income.
Neoclassical theories considered the problem of income as one of the key ones. Theory Heckschera - Olin proved that the owners of relatively excessive factors of production receive additional profits from foreign trade, and the owners of relatively insufficient factors lose.
The theory of specific factors of production substantiates the provision on an increase in the income of the owner of a specific factor used in export industries, and, accordingly, on a reduction in the income of the owners of a specific factor used in industries. competing with imports.
In the process of trade between countries, prices for goods sold and purchased may change. How, in this case, will the incomes of the owners of the factors of production change? The answer to this question was given in a study by American economists P. Samuelson and F. Stolper. They suggested that two types of goods are produced in a single country: one is labor-intensive, and the other requires a large amount of land to produce.
Stolper - Samuelson theorem - As a result of rising prices in the world market, prices for the factor of production, which are relatively more intensively used in the production of the first good, rise, and prices for the factor of production, which are used relatively intensively in the second production, go down. Moreover, as a rule, an increase or decrease in the price of factors of production occurs to a greater extent than a change in the prices of goods.
English economist T.M. Rybchinsky drew attention to the fact that the rapid development of some industries often leads to a reduction in production in others. In his work, he proceeded from the same conditions as Stolper and Samuelson, except for one thing: he considered the prices of goods unchanged.
Rybczynski's theorem- an increasing supply of one of the factors of production leads to a disproportionately large percentage increase in production and income in the industry for which this factor is used relatively more intensively, and to a decrease in production and income in the industry in which this factor is used relatively less intensively. From the point of view of international trade, Rybczynski's theorem says that the expansion of export production due to an increase in supply of a relatively intensive factor will lead to a reduction in other industries, which will force the country to increase imports of goods that are in short supply. An increase in the supply of factors for the development of other industries will accelerate their development and reduce imports.
The distribution of benefits from foreign trade between individual countries depends largely on how domestic prices change under the influence of foreign trade. Of the two countries, the country where prices have changed more usually wins. This is the so-called benefit-sharing rule, which says that the gains from foreign trade are distributed in direct proportion to price changes in both countries.
13. Supply and demand in international trade
In order for a country to be able to trade on the world market, it needs to have export resources, i.e. stocks of competitive goods and services that are in demand on the world market, currency funds or other means of payment for imports, as well as a developed foreign trade infrastructure- vehicles, warehouses, communication facilities, etc. Settlements for foreign trade operations are made by banking organizations, and the country's insurance business insures transportation and cargo.
Two counter flows of goods and services form the exports and imports of each country Export is the sale and export of goods abroad, import -- it is the purchase and import of goods from abroad. The difference between the value estimates of exports and imports is trade balance, and the sum of their estimates is foreign trade turnover.
At the bottom of the market there is trade in ferrous metallurgy products, construction materials, textiles, garments, footwear and other light industry products. On the Middle level sell machine tools, vehicles, rubber and plastic products, basic chemicals and woodworking products. On the highest level sells aerospace equipment, automated office equipment, information technology, electronics, pharmaceutical products, precision and measuring instruments, electrical equipment. The last tier markets are the most promising and are developing at a much faster pace than other markets.
Quality goods are always more expensive and are only available to countries with high per capita incomes. Lower quality goods are bought by countries with low per capita incomes. This predetermines the fact that countries with the same income have approximately the same structure of demand for finished goods, and the coinciding demand predetermines the most intensive exchange of finished goods between these countries.
14. Types of foreign trade policy
Foreign trade policy
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal government intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand.
Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through the use of tariff and non-tariff instruments of trade policy. This is the theory and practice of reacting foreign trade, aimed at protecting the subjects of the national economy from foreign competition.
The development of protectionist trends allows us to single out several forms of protectionism:
selective - directed against individual countries or individual goods;
sectoral - protects certain sectors, primarily agriculture, within the framework of agricultural protectionism;
collective - is carried out by associations of countries in relation to countries that are not part of them;
hidden - carried out by methods of domestic economic policy.
Protectionism as a theory of foreign economic behavior was established in XIX in. in competition with free trade (theory and practice of free trade). The results of free trade between countries with different levels of economic development were especially fiercely criticized by supporters of protectionism. It was believed that the developed countries were primarily interested in free trade, but it hindered the creation of national industries for relatively backward states.
In a developing national economy, protectionist measures are necessary for protecting only new industries that have arisen as a result of scientific and technological progress from the competition of efficient foreign firms operating in the world market for a long time. It was under the protection of protectionism that the formation and development of the national economy of modern developed countries took place.
During periods of serious tensions in relations between states and increased international tension, protectionist measures are used to preserve the security of the state, which is facilitated by the production of all necessary, vital products on its territory.
Despite the clearly positive influence of protectionist measures on the development of the national economy and international trade, this method of regulating foreign trade relations has its opponents. As a rule, they distinguish the following arguments against protectionism.
protectionism is not beneficial from the point of view of national production, because it destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges, entails sclerosis of the economy;
he inflicts damage to consumer interests since under the conditions of customs bans, sales prices for protected goods rise. The consumer suffers from this;
he is a threat to international peace, because fuels interethnic rivalry, weakens bonds of interdependence between countries, a fertile atmosphere for MRI and economic cooperation
There is a certain illogicality inherent in protectionism - in pursuit of the goal of achieving a positive trade balance, protectionism restrains import operations, and international partners are also beginning to enter, as a result of which the volume of export operations is curtailed. This does not lead to a positive balance, but to an imbalance.
under protectionism sectors of the national economy, protected by its barriers, lose incentives for development, as the mechanisms of competition diminish, and the desire for progress and innovation is destroyed by the opportunities to preserve the achieved income and monopoly privileges.
oppositionism has a certain multiplying effect - the technological interconnection between industries leads to the fact that when protectionist protection is introduced for some sectors of the technological chain, it is immediately required by the industries that are technologically related to the protected.
under protectionism the national economy canetake full advantage of the international specialization- restrictions on more cheap imported goods do not make it possible to import them into the country.
Freedom of trade- a policy of minimal government intervention in foreign trade, which develops on the basis of free market forces of supply and demand. In this case, the latter is implemented and developed in accordance with the international division of labor and the modern version of the theory of comparative advantage. It is believed that such a policy leads to the most efficient allocation of resources on a global scale and to the maximization of global income. Despite the fact that the theory of free trade is quite convincing and attracts with many advantages, the policy of non-interference of the state in international trade is practiced very carefully.
The positive aspects are already visible in the criticism of protectionism. Freedom of trade:
allows distribution of products in accordance with the law on comparative production costs and entails international specialization beneficial to all;
facilitates the development of competition and maintains a spirit of innovation not only among domestic producers, but also in relations with other countries;
allows you to expand the market. It leads to the development of mass production, and therefore to lower prices as a result of falling production costs, which is beneficial for the consumer. In addition, the risk of shortages associated with tight localization of production and markets is reduced.
15. Foreign trade policy of states and its economic instruments
Foreign trade policy is a set of measures used by the state to regulate trade relations and relations with other countries. While these measures are trade-oriented, they cannot but affect direct producers and domestic consumers.
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