During the entire perspective under consideration, the task of the integrated use of hydrocarbon raw materials will remain the urgent problem.
To ensure the internal demand of Russia in high-quality engine fuel, lubricating oils, societies and other petroleum products, as well as the export of petroleum products of the Russian energy strategy of Russia, it is envisaged to increase oil refining for 2015-2020. up to 220-225 million tons / year with a simultaneous increase in processing depth to 75-80% in 2010 and up to 85% by 2020
The main direction of the development of oil refining is the modernization and the root reconstruction of the operating refineries with the advanced construction of facilities for the deepening of oil refining, improving the quality of petroleum products and the production of catalysts.
In order to approach the production of petroleum products to their consumers, it is possible to build new high-performance oil refining plants in the areas of concentrated consumption of petroleum products, and in remote northern and eastern regions, the development of certified small refineries with a full cycle of oil refining is permissible.
The objective task of the industry is also the provision of raw materials (straight gasoline, gasoline for chemistry, aromatic hydrocarbons, monomers, sage raw materials, etc.) of the petrochemical industry, the products of which are an order of magnitude higher in terms of the cost of refining itself.
The result of the technical labeling of the EEC industries and industries for the production of equipment for the EEC industries is the low depth of processing its products, preserving predominantly raw material exports. In the 1990s, the volume of oil refining and the production of basic petroleum products decreased sharply. The main reason is a reduction in domestic demand due to the fall in industrial production while simultaneously increasing oil supplies to export. As a result, the medium-wide loading of oil refining capacity is 57% at the most economical level of capacity utilization of oil refineries 80-85%. Power supply for refurbishment of refinery increases the already high costs of oil refining.
The average depth of oil refining at Russian factories is 63-65% (at the US oil refinery - about 90%, it comes to 98% on the best American refineries) and based on the demand of the USSR fuel balance in fuel oil. The low yield of the most valuable processing products makes the relatively low average market price of "Basket" of petroleum products obtained in our country from 1 tons of oil. With a high proportion of fuel oil in the structure of the Russian oil refining, the price of this "basket" on the world market is approximately 20-25% less than the price of 1t raw Russian oil.
This creates additional incentives to the export of crude oil, and not products of its processing or petrochemistry, increases the monotizing dependence of the economy of our country, enhances its exposure to conjunctural fluctuations in the global market. This also leads to the additional loss of the country, since poorly reheated Russian fuel oil is sold in the foreign market at boiler-fuels, i.e. For about a third below the prices of crude oil. Then the light fractions that are not extracted in Russia are additionally extracted from it, and the sale of the second time is retrieved by price.
About Gaza
In order to deter inflation and creating conditions for the growth of production by the Government of the Russian Federation, severe measures were taken to limit the increase in prices and tariffs for the products of the subjects of natural monopolies in the fuel and energy complex. Thus, the wholesale prices for natural gas, implemented by consumers of the Russian Federation (except for the population), remained unchanged for three years - from October 1996 to November 1999. Tariffs for electricity released by industrial consumers grew three times lower rates than Inflation in industry. The preservation of consistently low prices for gas and electricity tariffs has created favorable conditions for the growth of the production of export-oriented energy-intensive industries (chemistry, black and non-ferrous metallurgy) and obtaining additional profits, in fact, at the expense of the EEC industries.
At the same time, the orientation of the relatively low gas prices and electricity tariffs does not stimulate energy saving and investment in the production of energy-saving equipment, as well as the introduction of new energy-efficient technologies in all areas of activity. This worsens the financial condition and opportunities for investment primarily in the gas industry, it does not stimulate an increase in gas supplies to the domestic market with a growing leading demand for it as the cheapest fuel.
Natural gas, the highest quality energy, with existing state regulated prices, it turned out to be the cheapest energy carrier in the country, which led to the pillage of prices for interchangeable fuels. In world practice, the price of coal, in terms of conditional fuel, is approximately 60% of the price of oil, i.e. Equivalent to the price of fuel oil. In turn, the price of coal (fuel oil) is approximately 60% of the price of natural gas in Europe, 40% of the price of liquefied natural gas in Japan and corresponds to the price of natural gas in the United States. In Russia, under the market dynamics of prices for coal and artificially frozen gas prices, coal per ton of conditional fuel in many regions was more precious than gas. More expensive gas was in the domestic market and fuel oil (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2.
The ratio of coal prices, natural gas and fuel oil in Russia and abroad
The role of energy in the framework of international economic cooperation is exceptionally large. Currently, the states of the world are in varying extent with energy resources and necessary for their transformation into energy technological, transport and production facilities. Ensuring reliable and stable energy supply is one of the most relevant and complex tasks faced by the international community today.
The general concept of the term "International Economic Cooperation" is defined as a global, multi-level system of international economic cooperation of all subjects of the international system aimed at ensuring sustainable mutual economic development and receipt of economic benefits. From a legal point of view, international economic cooperation includes public legal activities of states aimed at creating the legal and organizational foundations of economic relations, as well as the private form of the interaction of business entities located in various states.
In refraction to the concept of international energy cooperation as an integral part of cooperation in the economic sphere, as well as taking into account the globally integrated nature of the energy sector and the growing interdependence between states in the specified energy industry, it is a comprehensive cooperation sphere, which is mainly covered by the economic, trade, scientific and technical , social, ecological spheres and sphere of security of states.
Considering the general state of the energy industry, a number of features related to the projected estimates of energy resources, the technological features of the "production chain" from intelligence to the sale of energy resources, the price policy of "supply and demand" of consumer countries, producing countries and transit countries, international issues -tal base of regulating energy relations, problems of global energy security, etc.
The sustainable tendency to reduce the traditional stocks of energy sources - oil, gas, coal necessitates the need for reasonable use of energy resources, balanced accounting of the interests of various states requiring the new approach to international legal regulation. According to the American company "Eksenmobil", in the period up to 2030, world energy consumption in general will increase by 50% compared with the level of 2005. At the same time, the main increase in energy demand will have to develop countries. According to forecasts of specialists, the main energy carriers in the period up to 2030 will still remain fossil fuels - oil, gas, coal, etc. Their share in the world fuel balance is currently about 80%, and, as expected, this indicator is not significantly will change and in the period up to 2030
The fastest pace will grow the use of the energy of the Sun and Wind - about 10% per year, the growth of hydropower consumption will be about 2.2% per year. Nevertheless, by 2030, there will be only about 9% of world energy consumption for these types of energy resources. Nuclear power will also not take in the period under review of the significant share of the world fuel and energy balance, its share in the global energy balance in 2030 will be about 5%.
Characterizing the conditions for the development of the global energy market, it should be noted a number of problematic factors that negatively affect the state of energy in the field of energy are high and unstable oil prices; the growing dependence of many countries from imports of energy resources; the depletion of the largest hydrocarbon fields and the closeness of information on hydrocarbon reserves; Insufficiency of investment resources directed to the development of new fields and infrastructure development; political instability in a number of mining regions, primarily Middle East; Infrastructure vulnerability in front of natural and technogenic cataclysms.
Recently, the largest representatives of the global energy market are increasing contradictions on the main issues of its development, in particular, such as the direction of laying new routes for transporting hydrocarbons, directions and volumes of hydrocarbon supplies, the conditions for the access of transnational companies to markets, and many others. Moreover, these problems are transmitted from the corporate plane into the category of interstate with all their negative consequences for the global economy as a whole. So far, the world community has not found a single, efficient and effective mechanism for the permission of international disputes in the field of energy.
Coordination of efforts in the energy sector to develop all parties to rules could contribute not only to increasing the economic efficiency of international trade in energy resources, but also an increase in energy security of energy consumers in the provision guaranteeing plan. These issues are particularly relevant for the natural gas market, which currently has a significant imbalance of the positions of consumer countries, suppliers and transit countries. The inconsistency of the positions of all indicated parties is a certain threat to ensuring the reliability of energy supply.
In a significant increase in energy consumption, precisely due to the above reasons for ensuring the reliability of energy supplies recently acquired political painting. Problems of ensuring and maintaining energy security put the governments of a number of countries before the need for the formulation of the basic principles of their energy policy to protect national interests.
The main tool for achieving the goals of energy policy was the energy diplomacy, in fact, a new direction of traditional diplomacy. The most important task of diplomacy as a whole is the establishment and maintenance of a sustainable balance of interest in relations between different actors, often having opposite interests. Diplomacy is designed to find a way to harmonize these interests in order to find a balance. This statement is true and in relation to energy diplomacy, which involves ensuring the balance of demand and supply of energy resources, their transit, mutual investment, as well as coordination of trade rules.
As part of the new approaches to issues of international cooperation in the field of energy, the practice of sharing energy assets and mutual share participation of companies in the entire "manufacturing chain" is developing - from geological exploration and mining until the end consumer is delivered. Active energy dialogue with major countries - consumers and manufacturers of energy resources, as well as with major regional associations of countries (European Union, Eurasian Economic Community, etc.) and international organizations (Shanghai Organization of Cooperation, Organization of Oil Exporting Countries, Forum of Gas Exporters , International Energy Agency, etc.).
The use of renewable energy sources in the world, despite the essential financial and economic and other scientific and technological costs, continues to grow. World practice suggests that the ideas of the development of renewable energy will not be ignored primarily in developed countries. For example, Europe and the United States build up energy facilities to a greater extent due to alternative sources, such as the Sun and Wind (in 2009, at the expense of these renewable sources in Europe, about 60% of additional energy facilities were produced, and in the USA, this indicator exceeded 50% ).
Global nature has also acquired some environmental issues directly related to the development of energy. Among them there is a climate problem ("greenhouse effect"). There was a stable tendency of the growing interdependence of the energy and environmental components in the economic policies of states. One of the possible effective solutions of this problem seems to diversify the sources of energy and an increase in the share of renewable energy sources in the global energy balance. The implementation of this approach allows simultaneously to strengthen the energy security system and weakened the negative impact on the environment.
A brief excursion to the history of the formation and development of legal regulation of international economic relations in the field of energy is appropriate to be considered from the post-war period (1945). With the adoption of the UN Charter and strengthening the positions of the USSR as "superpower" in the world the possibilities of Western states on the seizure of territories rich in energy resources are significantly reduced. At the same time, the needs of developed countries in the energy resources increased significantly. As a result, the world community faced the problem of legal regulation of interaction in global energy markets and organizational design of such interaction. The lack of specialized agreements on energy cooperation of States parties at the regional level was considered a significant disadvantage of the legal activities of regional economic associations of that period of time.
Already in the second half of the XX century. The formation of global markets for energy resources and legal forms of attracting and protecting foreign investment (mainly world oil market) began. Especially acute energy problems (it was the problems of sustainable provision of their own energy systems) manifested themselves in developed countries of the West. Accordingly, the provision of energy carriers has become an intensive motive for integrating the efforts of Western countries and in this special area. The reaction to the consolidation of the legal policy of consumer consumers of energy resources was the association or coordination of efforts in terms of the regulation of energy issues and other states. There were major centers for the formation of global energy policy, including Organization of countries - oil exporters - OPEC (1960) and International Energy Agency - MEA (1974).
The process of the formation of European international energy structures (bodies) began during the implementation of the Marshall Plan (Economic and Political Assistance Plan of the US post-war Europe). Originally created Organization of European Economic Cooperation. As the economic integration of leading countries in Europe has increased, new international integration economic structures arose: European Association of Coal and Steel (EUS), the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), European Economic Community (UES), European Free Trade Association (EAT) et al. in the framework of the 1960 created in 1960 Organizations of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) There are more than 20 energy policy bodies, including the Energy Policy Committee, the Ecological Committee, the Steering Committee on Nuclear Energy, and others. Created European (Regional) Organs, organs and structures in the field of energy were the basis for the subsequent formation of the International Economic System (energy) cooperation.
A special role in the further development of legal regulation of the global energy system was assigned to the activities of international organizations. So, the governments of five developing countries - exporters of Iran's oil, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuelas founded Organization of countries - oil exporters - OPEC (Baghdad, 1960; headquarters is located in Vienna since 1965). Currently, in addition to the listed founding countries, Algeria, Angola, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Ecuador are also included in the organization.
One of the main reasons for the creation of OPEC was the desire of countries exporting oils, combined efforts to protect their economic interests in relations with the international cartel of large national oil companies (the so-called cartel "Seven Sisters" - Corporation "Chevron", "Mobile", " Texaco "," Gull "," Exxon "," British Petroleum "," Shell "). In fact, OPEC, substantially weakening the role of "seven sisters" in the intercorporative regulation of world oil markets, marked the beginning of interstate regulation in this area. It is interesting to note that OPEC has largely used the experience of seven TNCs, which coordinated their efforts in world oil based on informal cargo agreements.
The task of OPEC was the submission of the unified position of the oil producers in order to limit the influence of the largest oil companies to the market. However, actually OPEC in the period from 1960 to 1973. The placement of forces in the oil market could not change. The situation has changed in the first half of the 1970s, when the Western World collided with the enhancement of inflationary pressure and the lack of raw materials. A lack of oil was particularly acute: the United States, in the 50s of the XX century. Former self-sufficient oil production, in the 70s were forced to import about 35% of petroleum products. At the same time, OPEC began to tougher defend the position in relation to the principles of the separation of profits in the oil market.
OPEC Charter puts the main purpose of the organization (Art. 2) cooperation and unification of the oil policy of its members and the definition of the best means to protect their interests both individually and collectively. The organization should develop methods and means of ensuring the sustainability of prices in international oil markets. Proper attention will be constantly paid to the interests of oil producers. In art. 3 contains provisions that OPEC in its actions is guided by the principles of equality and sovereignty, and members of the organization voluntarily fulfill their obligations in accordance with the Charter. It is also envisaged that if the monopoly OPEC apect directly apply various sanctions against one or several OPEC member countries, other members of the organization do not have the right to take advantage of the benefits that can be proposed by monopolies in order to block OPEC solutions (Article 4 ). A member of OPEC be any country with significant oil exports, which has similar interests with other member countries. "For" the introduction of a new member to the organization must give the votes of 3/4 of full members of OPEC, including all founders. The highest authority of this organization is the Conference convened twice a year, the prices and the production strategy of the participating countries are considered and approved. All conference decisions are adopted unanimously, with each country has one voice. The conference is plenious to make decisions if there are 2/3 delegations. OPEC Conference Decisions are mandatory after their ratification or approval by the relevant authorities of the organization's member countries.
The mechanisms for regulating the world oil market are to establish a quarterly total oil production limit for member countries, adjusting this limit, taking into account the situation in the global market, the distribution of the general limit of member countries and control over compliance with quotas. Initially, quotas for each OPEC member countries were established on the basis of three main indicators: oil reserves, the level of economic development and population. The greatest quotas are installed for Saudi Arabia, Iran, Venezuela. Decisions of the sessions of the Ministerial Conference on quotas after their approval take the force of law and become mandatory for execution. Given that only national companies operate in all countries in OPEC, these solutions are usually implemented. However, countries of OPEC members are not always subject to "cotting" discipline and often deliberately go to exceed quotas. This leads to serious debates and proceedings at ministerial conferences.
An example of regulating the market actions of OPEC could serve as the situation in 1997, OPEC countries decided to increase since December 1997 by 10% of the national oil production quotas (from 25 to 27.5 million barrels per day). As a result of an agreed increase in oil production by March 1998, world prices fell by 40%.
The effect of OPEC decreased in the second half of the 80s of the XX century. As a result of the increased oil supply from other states, as well as from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, which were not satisfied with the role of participants supporting the price balance. But at that time, OPEC's charter existed a rule that required a unanimous vote when making a decision on an important issue, as well as there was no system for coercion measures against member countries that violate the charter and these are opposite to its goals. Internal conflicts, an example of the exacerbation of which was the occupation in 1990 by the territory of Kuwait Iraq, did not allow this organization to become an integration association of developing states in this area.
Currently, OPEC controls about 65 - 70% of global oil reserves. OPEC member states account for about 40% of the entire global oil production. As for exports, OPEC countries export about 50% of the total oil exports. OPEC may make recommendations to non-members of the organization, but affecting the global market (Norway, Russia, Mexico, etc.), in terms of reducing oil production, thereby regulating the market actions of the main exporting states.
Starting from 1998, Russia is an observer in OPEC. During this time, there was a certain format of regular meetings of Russian ministers with officers of OPEC and colleagues from countries belonging to this organization. The strategic goal of cooperation between Russia with OPEC is to facilitate the provision of long-term sustainability of the oil market in the interests of all participants.
In 1968, the Arab countries - international exporters were created by the International Organization of Arab countries - oil exporters (Opack)similar to OPEC activities. The organization forms a general policy of participating countries in the field of oil production, and also implements joint industrial projects in areas such as oil transportation and tanker construction. Members of this organization are currently Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates. One of the features of the Ocaque is direct dependence on OPEC solutions. So, st. 3 Charter of the Opack obliges countries - members of the Oak, even if they are not members of the OPEC, perform OPEC solutions. The legal action of the Opack's contract does not apply to the legal effect of OPEC treaty in terms of the rights and obligations of OPEC member countries.
The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating the organization of developed countries - consumers of energy resources, which would oppose OPEC counterbalance and agreed on international energy policies, proceeded from the United States, which in the early 1970s made relevant initiatives. The energy crisis of 1973-1974, caused by the Arab Oil Embargo on the United States and other developed States, accelerated the association of industrial countries to organize economic cooperation and development (OECD).
INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY (MEA) It was created by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development as an autonomous international body in 1974 in order to coordinate energy policies. The agency consists of 28 Member States (Norway - for a Special Agreement). Maa headquarters is in Paris.
The main goal of the IEA is the creation of a collective energy security system. The main principle of the system is the redistribution between the participants of the organization of existing oil reserves in the event of serious supply interruptions. Mea member countries also agreed to coordinate other aspects of energy policy. The objectives and objectives of the agency were formulated in the International Energy Program (1974) and found their further development in the Long-Term Cooperation Program (1976), as well as in the document, called "General Goals", approved at a meeting of ministers of the Energy Member States MEA in 1993
The following main issues are related to the competence of the MEA: the improvement of the global structure of supply and supply in the field of energy (by providing assistance in the development of alternative energy sources and increase its efficiency); Strengthening and improving the system of combating interruptions in supplying energy; Monitoring, processing and analysis of current information relating to the state of the International Petroleum Market and Energy Sources; promoting a combination of environmental and energy policy; Consideration of energy issues in the global context of cooperation with countries not included in the Agency, as well as with international organizations.
Decisions adopts the Governing Council in which the energy sector of each of the participating countries is represented at the highest government level. Once every two years, ministers of energy ministers of Mea member countries are held. The decision of the operational tasks is responsible for the IEA Secretariat, which collects and analyzes the information, assesses the energy policy of the member countries, is forecasts, conducts research and provides recommendations to participating States on special issues in the field of energy. The Secretariat is headed by the Executive Director. Within the framework of the IEA, there is a number of permanent groups and special committees.
A feature of the practical activity of the Agency is a rather high level of interstate regulation in the collective security system. This system is based on the principles of interstate regulation developed in the 1974 International Energy Program Agreement in accordance with the Agreement Each Country Member of the IEA is obliged to have oil reserves that correspond to at least 90 days of its net imports, limit the needs and share oil with other Mea Members . The oil redistribution system is driven by supplying interruptions - if the lack of oil in one or several member countries exceeds 7% of the usual consumption. In addition, it is envisaged to reduce oil consumption by Mea Members and the use of rational planning. This system has passed a successful test during the war in the Persian Gulf, initiated by Iraq against Kuwait, 1990-1991, when the MEA countries organized a significant amount of oil supplies to the global market from their reserves, which made it possible to satisfy the global oil demand at the required limits.
The special importance of the IEA also attaches to the issues of diversifying energy sources and an increase in energy efficiency in the framework of the long-term cooperation program. The MEA is actively involved in the preparation and holding of meetings in the framework of the G8 and other events on which global energy security issues are discussed.
Analyzing other aspects of the IEA activity, it is necessary to note the importance of annual reviews of energy policies and member countries. The agency also prepares annual analytical reviews of the situation in the oil, gas, coal and electric power sectors of world energy.
The main interests of Russia in relation to MEA are associated with a strategic line to integrate into the global economy, entry into the system of energy infrastructure of industrialized countries, as well as participation in the collective security system of Mea member countries. The basis of the interaction of the IEA with Russia is laid in a joint declaration on cooperation in the field of energy between the Government of the Russian Federation and the International Energy Agency adopted in 1994
By the beginning of the 90s of the XX century. The formed system of international agreements on energy cooperation of states at the regional level needed an appropriate "superstructure" in the form of intergovernmental organizations. This need was determined by a number of factors: the growing mutual dependence of the subjects of energy markets; the preservation and development of mutual integration and cooperation of the economies of developed European countries in the conditions of its association; The need to facilitate the integration of Eastern Europe's TECs and the former USSR into the market system.
Another regular step of the further development of international energy cooperation was the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a single European energy space, which was first nominated at a meeting of the European Council (Dublin, June 25, 1990) by the representative of the Netherlands R. Lybers. This initiative has found support for the EU, and then all participants in the Safety and Cooperation Meeting in Europe (CSC) as a proposal, logically deriving from the changed political situation in Europe and aimed at strengthening security and stability in the key sphere of economy - energy. In the established conditions in 1991 was adopted European Energy Charter (Charter).
The Charter is a political declaration of state intentions to cooperate between the East (the country of the former USSR and the Council of Economic Mutual Assistance) and the West (EU Member States, USA, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand) in the field of energy based on the principles of a market economy, openness and Competition. The main objectives of the Charter were: improving the reliability of energy supply; ensuring production efficiency; Conversion, transportation, distribution and use of energy in order to increase the level of security and minimize environmental problems. Currently, EEC Parties are 58 countries, as well as two European communities (European Community and Euratom). It should be noted that the Charter is not a legally binding document.
The European Energy Charter has become a starting point for further negotiations, which led to adoption in December 1994. Treaty for the Energy Charter (DEH), legally binding for all sided parties. An important innovation of Dach should consider the inclusion of environmental issues, issues of international investment, as well as the transition to special agreements in the field of trade in energy resources and transit.
The history of the development and conclusion of the European Energy Charter and the Treaty to the Energy Charter coincided with a number of significant international events, in particular with the collapse of the USSR and the formation of a number of independent states (1991), the completion of the Uruguay Round of the negotiations and the signing of the WTO Agreement (1994 ), signing an agreement on partnership and cooperation between Russia and the EU (1994).
Dah became the result of a complex compromise achieved under the strong political pressure of Western states in a relatively short time, which was reflected in the individual provisions and statements of the contract, many of which are contradictory, and sometimes not enough to be balanced.
The contract for the energy charter was opened to signature on December 17, 1994 in Lisbon. At the same time, a protocol on energy efficiency issues and appropriate environmental aspects was also signed. In April 1998, the contract entered into force. By 2012, DEH signed 51 states and two European communities and ratified 46 participants, with the exception of Australia, Belarus, Iceland and Norway.
Special position within DEH occupied the Russian Federation. Russia signed an agreement in 1994, but did not ratify it and applied on a temporary basis in accordance with Part 2 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of International Contracts of 1969 and Section. 2 of the Federal Law of July 15, 1995 N 101-FZ "On International Treaties of the Russian Federation". Russia has repeatedly stated that Dah does not meet the interests of our state. The main objects of critics were the unbalanced nature of the contract in terms of the economic interests of consumer countries and energy suppliers, as well as the inefficiency of transit provisions. The latter circumstance played a key role in making a decision on the termination of the temporary use of DEC, which followed after the completion of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict related to the gas transit through the territory of Ukraine, in 2009 from October 18, 2009, the refusal of the Russian Federation from temporary use entered into force Dah. Thus, Russia expressed his intention not to become the party to the contract.
The purpose of the Agreement is to establish a legal framework for "providing promoting long-term cooperation in the field of energy based on complementarity and mutual benefit, in accordance with the goals and principles of the Charter" (Art. 2 DEH). According to DEH content covers a wide range of energy relations. The main provisions of DEH can be divided into three blocks: shopping, investment and transit.
The contract by its structure is a comprehensive document consisting of eight parts. In addition, it includes 14 applications and five solutions for the Energy Charter Conference, which are considered as its integral parts. There are also three groups of auxiliary norms: declarations, protocols and understanding.
The legal structure of the Dah trade regime consists of two documents: the relevant provisions of DEX on the basis of the rules of GATT 1947 (as amended, adopted in December 1994) and amendments to the associated DEH provisions based on the relevant WTO rules (the document adopted in April 1998 G., entered into force on January 20, 2010). Article 29 of DEH subordinates the rules of the Gatt trade in energy between the parties, at least one of which is the part of the GATT. That is, the parties of DEC, which are not included in the WTO, follow the energy trade in the rules of this organization before joining it (with seizures formulated in Appendix G). The relationship between WTO members participating in the DEH is governed exclusively by the rules of the GATT and the associated documents (Article 4). The trade amendment spread the action of DEH's trade provisions to trade in power equipment.
The investment unit of the contract includes provisions based on the content of bilateral investment contracts. States are free in the adoption of rules and regulations on foreign energy companies that carry out investment in their territory, provided that they comply with the basic principle of the contract - non-discrimination.
The contract contains legal requirements, which are contained in most bilateral investment contracts, in particular: the fulfillment of any obligations that the Contracting Party assumed on the investor of another Contracting Party (the principle of the inviolability of the Agreement); payment of fast, sufficient and effective compensation for any expropriated assets; The permit to the foreign investor is freely translated from the country to their capital and related income in freely convertible currency; Permission to investors hire key personnel in their choice and others.
Protection against discrimination is one of the most important components in creating a favorable investment climate. Clause 7 Art. 10 of the contract obliges a Contracting Party to provide investments in investors of other Contracting Parties regulations, no less favorable than the one that it provides investments of its own investors or investors of other countries, i.e. The national regime or the regime of the greatest favored, depending on which one is most favorable.
Protection of foreign investors in the case of expropriation is a key element of investment agreements. Treaty in paragraph 1 of Art. 13 recognizes legitimate expropriation only in cases if it is carried out: with the aim of which meets public interest; without discrimination; with adequate legal procedures; Simultaneously with the payment of rapid, sufficient and effective compensation.
The principle of opening energy markets in the form of eliminating restricting access to foreign investors does not meet the modern situation of things. In practice, most countries introduce new restrictions on the access of foreign investors in the fuel and energy industry, i.e. In fact, the preinvestment norms of DEH does not observe. When collisions with other contracts of Contracting Parties are more favorable for investments, DEH provisions are priority, which makes it possible to gain exemptions formulated in contracts. Thus, for example, withdrawals, formulated in relation to the TEK in Annexes 3 and 4 of the Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between Russia and the EU, 1994, can be managed by the use of more liberal provisions of DEH. The "soft" DEH standards on access to the markets of the Contracting Parties, allow the interpretation, according to which the opening of markets from the Declaration turns into an obligation to apply the mechanism of state arbitration.
For the purpose of protecting investments, DEH contains detailed prescribed procedures for resolving international disputes. There are two main forms of mandatory dispute resolution: arbitration between states (Art. 27) and arbitration between the investor and the state (Art. 26).
In accordance with paragraph 4 of Art. 26 The contract for the transfer of business to the international arbitration. A foreign investor has the right to choose between three alternative procedures: an international center for the settlement of investment disputes established by the Convention on the settlement of investment disputes between states and individuals or legal entities of other countries of 1965 (Ixid); sole arbiter or arbitration court aD HOC. In accordance with the Arbitration Regulations of the UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL); The Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce.
The contract also provides for special provisions to resolve interstate disputes in the field of trade (Art. 29, Appendix D) and transit (Article 7). The regulations on the settlement of trade and investment disputes are based on the WTO arbitration regulations (for trade) and bilateral investment contracts (for investment). It should be noted that the rules for disputes associated with transit, competition and the environment were new elements of the dispute resolution system.
Special attention in DEH has been drawn to transit questions. Article V GATT prescribes the principle of freedom of transit and certain rules for non-discrimination and reasonable need. The specification of this article for the contract was necessary for its application to specific transit issues on pipelines, power grids and other structures, such as sea terminals, if they are used only to work with energy materials and products. The parties are required to contribute to the transit of energy in accordance with the principle of transit freedom (paragraph 1 of Art. 7). At the same time, it was recorded that this principle does not entail an unconditional right to access the facilities for transporting energy (understanding 1 (b) (i)). The contract provides for the obligation to ensure the current transit energy flows, including the prohibition of interrupting or reducing transit when the dispute associated with the transit is completed until the procedure for resolving disputes provided for paragraph 7 of Article. 7 DEC (except in cases where the right to interrupt / reduce transit is provided in the agreement regulating transit, or authorized by the decision of the world intermediary) (paragraph. 5, 6, Article 7).
However, provided for in paragraph 7 of Art. 7 DEH mechanism for resolving transit disputes has never been applied in practice. This mechanism can be involved after the exhaustion of "contractual or other means of resolving disputes previously agreed by" arguing parties. In the event of an emergency with the interruption of the transit of energy, the parties of the conflict, it is prescribed to wait for the deadline for the expiration of the dispute resolution procedure, provided for by the Agreement (temporary terms of dispute resolution by the contract are not defined and can occupy a long time). The obligation recorded in paragraph 3 of Art. 7 DEH (application of the national regime to the network transit of energy), which requires tariffs equivalent to the internal transportation tariffs to the energy transit, is not respected in practice. In particular, according to the study of the Secretariat of the Energy Charter, DEH transit countries (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Slovakia) use higher tariffs for transit than internal transportation.
As the energy development improves, environmental issues began to occupy a special place. The preamble of the contract provides a provision on the need to comply with the Contracting Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992, the Convention on Transboundary Air Pollution over long distances 1979 and the Protocols to it, as well as other acts concerning Ecology issues.
A feature of the contract is a new approach to environmental protection: the relevant duties of Contracting Parties arise as a consequence of their sovereignty over natural resources.
In art. 19 of the treaties are defined by the "environmental parameters" of this Act, which consisted into the consent of the Contracting Parties with the fact that all activities in the energy sector must comply with the goal of sustainable development. The article gives the definition of the category of "economic efficiency" as a system of measures aimed at achieving a specific goal at the lowest costs or obtaining maximum benefits in these costs (sub. "D" clause 3 of Article 19). In addition, the principle of preventiveness is enshrined in this article, i.e. Preventing and preventing the deterioration of the environment from the standpoint of economic efficiency, and also provides for the economic mechanism for environmental protection through special payments by environmental users for environmental disorders ("Pollution Correspondence").
In the protocol to the energy charter on energy efficiency issues and the relevant environmental aspects of 1994, the contract standards were further developed. At the same time, the target plants of its regulation are: promoting energy efficiency policies that meet sustainable development; Creating framework conditions that encourage manufacturers and consumers to use energy as efficiently and environmentally as possible; Encouraging cooperation in the field of energy efficiency.
Currently, negotiations continue on the coordination of the draft protocol to the energy charter on transit (official negotiations were started in 2000, the specified project was developed in October 2003 by the Conference on Energy Charter). The document implies permission of a number of issues aimed at strengthening the safety of transit flows of oil, gas and electricity in order to develop existing transit provisions in the energy charter and in the contract. In particular, it is proposed to strengthen measures to prevent illegal selection of energy materials during transit; establish clear criteria in providing stakeholders in cash capacities for transit in pipeline systems and networks; To clarify the conditions for determining transit tariffs and ensure that the legitimate interests of transit countries in the consumption of energy resources, as well as to develop a mechanism for the conciliation resolution of transit disputes.
Contract establishment Energy Charter Conference as the highest institutional authority. His tasks are: promoting the coordination of general measures to fulfill the principles of the Charter and the Treaty, as well as the promotion of general efforts aimed at assisting and stimulate market reforms and the modernization of energy sectors in countries with economies in transition (clause 3 of Article 34).
The conference convenes twice a year. The conference sessions are held regular meetings of the subsidiary bodies of the Conference - working groups on transit, trade and investment, as well as energy efficiency and environmental aspects, which include not only specific duties (adoption of work programs and approval of the budget, decision-making on the secretariat, etc. ), but also more general provisions.
At the meeting of the XX session of the Conference on the Energy Charter in December 2009, a Roman application was adopted, which contains a call to consider the possibility of modernizing the charter process, taking into account the Russian initiative to develop a new international legal framework for cooperation in the field of energy. In March 2010, the Strategy Working Group received a mandate to determine the directions for the modernization of individual DEH provisions.
Recently, there has been further development of a number of individual directions of international energy cooperation. Thus, one of the most significant examples of regional cooperation is the interaction of Russia and the EU in the energy sector. Russia over the years has been the largest foreign trade partner of the European Union. At the same time, certain problems have emerged in this cooperation. One of the main reasons for the current situation is that the international trade of energy resources, as well as any other product, must be built primarily on the uniform and fair principles of economic feasibility of all participants in transactions. When developing fundamental documents of the functioning of the European energy market, the interests of energy suppliers were not taken into account. On the one hand, according to the recognition of the EU, the energy market is free and non-discriminatory, but, on the other hand, the regulation of this market was made exclusively in the interests of the consumer. Moreover, the interests of not only Russian manufacturers, but also the largest European companies in the energy sector were not taken into account. Recently, the Conference on the Coordination of Energy Strategies of Russia and the EU has posted a positive impact on the current situation in matters of the mutual exchange of information, but these steps are clearly insufficient to ensure overall stability in the European energy market.
One of the most important aspects of cooperation between Russia and the EU is the Energy Dialogue (EU Energy Unit), which was established at the Paris summit in October 2000. During the summit, the initiative of the Chairman of the European Commission was approved, which suggested with Russia a dialogue on a significant increase in Russian supplies Energy in the European Union in exchange for Western investments and technologies. The purpose of the Energy Dialogue between Russia and the EU is the development of a long-term energy partnership in the framework of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement between the Russian Federation and European Communities (1994). It is aimed at approving the common interests of Russia and the EU in the energy sector, contributes to the practical development of the common European economic space between Russia and the EU. The dialogue focuses on issues of oil and natural gas supplies, on cooperation on the unification of the EU and Russia's power grid, as well as on the sale of nuclear materials. Energy priorities are discussed at meetings of the Permanent Council of Partnership of Russia and the EU at the level of energy ministers, and the course and results are discussed during the regular meetings of the EU Energy Code Coordinators. The coordinator of the Energy Code from the Russian side is the Minister of Energy of the Russian Federation, from the European - Member of the European Commission on Energy. Currently, four thematic groups and the Advisory Council are formed and functioning, in particular: the Group on Energy Markets and Strategies; Energy Efficiency and Innovation Group; electric power group; Nuclear Energy Group; Gas Advisory Board.
Integration processes that acquire a global scale have a significant impact on the development of the global energy market. Countries forming regional integration associations are trying to generate a single energy strategy for the entire region. The regional level of economic, including energy, cooperation within the countries of Europe, Asia and the Pacific region should be confirmed by the confirmation of this topic. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), Eurasian Economic Cooperation (EurAsEC), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) are most dynamically developing recently by integration associations. A number of participating countries and observers of these organizations are not only the largest manufacturers of energy carriers, but also the largest consumers and transit countries. In this regard, the proposals put forward by Russia on the general support and promotion of the policy of expanding and deepening cooperation of the participating countries in the energy sector in these regions will undoubtedly have a positive effect on the transparency and predictability of both the general energy market of countries of these regional associations and the global energy market in Overall.
One of the promising areas of cooperation in the field of energy is the activities of states Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). Member States (Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and observer countries (Afghanistan, India, Iran, Mongolia and Pakistan) of this organization are not only the largest producers of energy resources, but also the largest consumers and transit countries.
Important decisions on the further development of the energy component were adopted at the SCO Moscow Summit (October 26, 2005), including the development of the oil and gas sector, exploration of hydrocarbon reserves and the sharing of water resources. The idea nominated by the President of Russia at the Shanghai summit in June 2006, on the creation of the SCO's energy club as a mechanism that combines producers of energy carriers, transit countries and consumers was supported by the remaining heads of state. The Russian side was made a proposal to establish an international center for the provision of nuclear fuel cycle services. In addition to Russia, China and Kazakhstan are also active in the region's development steps in the region.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) - International Economic Organization (Forum), established on the initiative of Australia in the city of Canberra in November 1989 at the Conference of Foreign Ministers and Economy 12 countries of the Asia-Pacific region (ATP) in order to further develop integration links between the countries of the Pacific Basin. At present, APEC unites 21 economy of various levels of development: Australia, Brunei, Vietnam, Hong Kong (Special Administrative District PRC), Canada, Chinese People's Republic (PRC), Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua - New Guinea, Peru, Russia, Singapore, USA, Thailand, Taiwan, Chile, Philippines, South Korea, Japan. APEC has no charter, acts as an international forum and an advisory body to discuss economic issues.
APEC countries are ready to take additional obligations to strengthen the APEC energy security, promoting energy efficiency and the development of more environmentally friendly energy resources to achieve sustainable development.
In addition, at the APEC summit in 2012, agreements were reached on the analysis of the current state and the prospects for the development of energy markets in the APEC region with an eye to an increase in the share of natural gas in the structure of energy sources in the region to facilitate the transition to a lower carbon economy, not to the detriment of the other Fuel types. It is also planned to promote sustainable investment in the energy infrastructure, including the production of liquefied natural gas as a means of increasing energy security and economic growth in the APEC region.
Active work on the formation of a common energy market is currently being conducted and within the framework of another integration association - EurAsEC.. This organization was established in 2000 in the format of five countries - Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. For a short period of existence within the EurAsEC, an extensive structure of mechanisms and tools for various measurements of the integration process was formed.
One of the main directions of work in the energy sector under the EurAsEC should be the unification of legislation in this field. A great help to improve the level of mutual confidence and awareness in the energy sector could have the creation of a joint energy agency of the EurAsEC participating countries, within which the parties could work in detail the most important aspects of interaction in the energy sector. It was within the framework of this agency that the work could continue to work on the development of joint fuel and energy balances of EurAsEC countries and the formation of their common energy market.
In conclusion, it should be noted that the international cooperation and integration of Russia into the global economy, including in the energy sector, is the most important state challenge, from the implementation of which the further development of the country and the successful implementation of the current economic course depends. In general, after joining in August 2012, Russia is considered a recognized full-fledged member of the world community and a member of the majority of the most influential international integration associations.
Currently, from the Russian Federation, steps are being taken to create unified international rules in the field of energy cooperation. So, in November 2010, in Geneva at the 19th session of the UNECE Sustainable Energy Committee, the Convention on the Provision of International Energy Security was presented. The document was developed in the development of ideas set forth in a conceptual approach to the new legal framework for international cooperation in the field of energy, nominated by the President of the Russian Federation in April 2009, the Convention is intended to become a new universal international legally binding document covering all aspects of global energy cooperation.
Currently, the Arctic is considered by many states as a strategic region due to the colossal reserves of hydrocarbon resources and the strengthening of the role of factors and conditions underlying the political and energy security of the leading industrialized countries of the world.
The industrial development of the Arctic implies the intensive exploitation of hydrocarbon resources, the development of transport, the production of biological resources. The special vulnerability of severe Arctic nature determines the need for international cooperation, studying and solving the problems of maximizing the natural habitat, developing and implementing a rational multi-product ecological-balanced model of sustainable environmental management.
Modern environmental state in the Arctic
The Arctic Ecosystem is highly sensitive to anthropogenic effects and is very slowly restored after unreasonable intervention. Interest in the environmental problems of the Arctic is high. It offers unique prospects for the development of energy resources, despite the fact that the Arctic is characterized by a harsh climate - with extreme fluctuations in illumination and temperature, short summer, snowy and ice in winter, extensive territories of permafrost. Part of the Arctic flora and fauna adapted to such conditions, however, this adaptation in some cases made them more sensitive to human activity.
The climatic and hydrological features of the water area of \u200b\u200bthe Arctic Ocean - depth, speed and direction of flows, temperature, salinity, stratification of water, river stock and a common water balance - contribute to the essential dilution of contaminated effluents and intensive precipitation of harmful substances, for long-standing in marine ecosystems. In addition, pollutants from Western Europe are brought to the Arctic atmospheric masses and the flow of Gulf Stream.
Studies have shown that the Arctic can have a strong influence on climate warming. Siberian peat swamps formed about 11 thousand years ago, after the end of the glacial period, all the time is isolated methane, which is held by the permafrost or postponed in it in the form of methanihydrates (in a solid-shaped form), and when melting enters the atmosphere. Joint studies of Tomsk and Oxford universities have shown that in recent years, methane emissions accelerated. Of course, the complete release of the associated methane may take hundreds of years, but the greenhouse effect from it is 21 times more than from carbon dioxide. Thus, methane from Siberian swamps will have the same effect on warming as 10-25% of the amount of carbon dioxide, which today all world energy energetics is thrown into the atmosphere.
One of the consequences of changing the climate of the Western Arctic can be an increase in the number of icebergs, which today in the Barents is practically no. This means that when mastering hydrocarbon deposits on the Russian Arctic shelf will have to create a special tracking system for them.
Studies conducted in recent years show that the area of \u200b\u200bglaciers are constantly reduced due to global warming. According to the specialists of the UK meteorological administration, the ice cover area of \u200b\u200bthe Arctic Ocean decreased since the 1950s to date by 20%, and the average ice thickness in the winter decreased from 1970 by 40%. According to scientists, the "Ice Cap" on the North Pole may disappear after 80 years. According to American researchers, the current rates of the disappearance of glaciers are 8% in 10 years. If this trend is preserved, in the summer of 2060 Ice in the Arctic may not stay at all.
The possible increase in the average air temperature by 3-4C by 2050 will lead to a reduction in the area of \u200b\u200bpermafrost by 12-15%. In Russia, its south border will shift to the northeast of 150-200 km. The depth of summer pulling will increase by 20-30%. This can cause numerous deformations of facilities - oil and gas pipelines, hydroelectric power plants, cities and towns, roads and railways, airfields and ports. In general, this will affect the durability of buildings - by 2015 their operating time without repair is shrinking twice. According to available estimates, more than a quarter of residential five-story buildings built in the 1950s and 1970s in Yakutsk, Vorkuta and Tiksi, can become unsuitable for operation already in the next 10-20 years. Later, their share (for example, in Vorkuta) will grow to 80%.
The ecological pollution of the Russian Arctic began in the 1970s, since the development of the Northern Sea Route, when the ports began to serve as the basis of the development of the region. The negative impact on the environment was the tests of nuclear weapons on the New Earth's archipelago, Siberian Chemical Combines, the activities of the Northern Fleet of the Navy of Russia, the icebreaking fleet of the Murmansk Shipping Company.
In contrast, for example, from Canada, where the natural resources of the northern regions were initially mastered by the Watch method, the USSR adopted a strategy for the settlement of resource areas on an ongoing basis. In addition to the scorched spots around the cities and combines, the Russian Arctic sector suffered severely from pollution by garbage, resulting from the work of scientific and geological missions and military facilities. Under conditions of low temperatures, local nature is not able to recycle it even hundreds of years.
In this regard, the Barents and Kara Sea were especially injured, at the bottom of which are huge "stocks" of toxic and radioactive waste. Their disposal is a problem, the solution of which can stretch for many years.
The inheritance period of the Russian economy has seriously affected the infrastructure potential of the Arctic regions. The Arctic zone is absolutely necessary to modernize on the basis of the latest technologies. The continuing intensive exploitation of the infrastructure of priarctic regions without any modernization led to a further deterioration of the environmental situation. Many islands and ports are turned into large-scale landfills of garbage and waste management. To solve this problem, a coordinated national program is required, within which the state and private business will unite their efforts in the form of public-private partnership.
Today, the Arctic region produces products that provide about 11% of the national income of Russia (with a share of the population living here in 1%) and the amount of up to 22% of all-Russian exports. A multidisciplinary manufacturing and social infrastructure has been created in the region; mainly commodity sectors of the economy, as well as the military-industrial and transport (northern seaway - SMP) complexes.
Most of the types of profile products of the North are non-alternative from the point of view of possible production in other regions of the country or procurement to import. In fact, no sector of the economy and social sphere of Russia can function without fuel and energy and other resources produced and manufactured in the northern regions. At the same time, the development of the Arctic deposits puts many problems and requires significant investment. In addition, new production and transportation technologies are required that guarantee the preservation of the Opolyar region's environment.
In the Russian area of \u200b\u200bthe Arctic, 27 districts singled out (11 - on land, 16 - in the seas and coastal zone), which received the name of "impact". The four main focus of tension is the Murmansk region (10% of the total emissions of pollutants), the Norilsk region (more than 30%), the areas of development of oil and gas fields of Western Siberia (more than 30%) and the Arkhangelsk region (high degree of contamination with specific substances).
In these regions, negative environmental processes have already led to the strongest transformation of a natural geochemical background, the pollution of the atmosphere, the degradation of plant cover, soil and soils, the introduction of harmful substances in the supply chain, increased morbidity.
The problem of disposal of industrial waste is extremely acute for the Arctic zone, which in huge numbers accumulate around industrial enterprises. Thus, only OJSC "Apatit" annually wares about 30 million tons of waste. In total, about 400 million tons of waste has accumulated in the repositories of this company.
Significant risks in itself and the upcoming development of the Arctic shelf, which has a colossal energy potential (see table. one).
Table 1. Environmental risks associated with the extraction of hydrocarbon resources on the shelf of the Arctic
| Type of activity / Ecological risk | Possible consequences |
|---|---|
| Drilling of the wells | Emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and marine environment, resetting reservoir water |
| Emergency spills oil | Slip emissions of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons from the well during drilling process |
| Burning oil associated gas (NPG) | Education on the sea surface of thin unstable films around platforms |
| Greenhouse gas emissions | Climate change by emissions of a large number of greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4, as well as NOX |
| NMVOCV emissions (volatile organic carbons of non-metal row) as a result of evaporation of crude oil when stored or overloaded terminals | Increasing the concentration of ozone in the surface layer can harm the health of people, vegetation, buildings |
| Long exploitation of deposits | Significant increase in the level of seismological hazard of the region in connection with the seeding of rocks in vast territories |
| Tanker transportation of hydrocarbons | Spills when performing loading and unloading works and bunker operations, with emergency situations |
| Transportation by pipeline system | Spills due to emergency situations |
| Emergency on marine platforms | Environmental catastrophe associated with human victims, pollution of marine water area, the destruction of sea and coastal flora and fauna |
Even a slight leakage of hydrocarbons produced, especially on the shelf, most of the year covered with ice covered with a significant thickness, will lead to irreparable environmental damage, and also requires colossal penalties. So, in 1989, in Alaska, the tanker crash "Exxon Valdez", filled with oil, led to one of the largest ecological catastrophes on the sea. As a result of the spill, a sharp decrease in fish populations occurred, including humpbacks, and the restoration of some arctic nature districts will need at least thirty years. The court ordered Exxon to pay compensation in the amount of $ 4.5 billion.
A distinctive feature of accidents on marine facilities is the process of developing emergency processes related to the release of hydrocarbons and their combustion in the conditions of dense accommodation of equipment.
In the world history of mastering the continental shelf (including in the northern seas), a number of accidents with disastrous consequences were recorded, which arose as a result of insufficient attention to measures to identify and mitigate security threats.
Below are the largest accidents that occurred on the drilling vessels and platforms of various types (semi-duty, submersible, mobile, stationary) for the period 1979-2005. (cm. table. 2. ).
Table 2. The largest accidents on marine drilling vessels and platforms in 1979-2005.
| Date and place | Type of accident | Brief description of the accident and the main reasons | Number of victims, damage |
|---|---|---|---|
| 25.11.1979 Yellow Sea | Flooding platform | During towing in the open sea, the drilling platform fell into the storm (10 points), as a result of the flooding of the pumping room, turned over and sank | 72 people died, damage - the cost of the platform |
| 02.10.1980 Red sea | Uncontrollable oil release | During drilling on the Ron TappMayer platform, an uncontrolled oil release occurred with a subsequent explosion. Emission to sea oil (~ 150 thousand tons) and bulk reagents bags | 19 people died, environmental damage - up to 800 thousand dollars. |
| 15.02.1982 Coast Canada | Flooding platform | In the storm conditions overturned and sank self-lifting floating drilling rig (SPMU) "Ocean Ranger". Causes are disadvantages of construction, unpreparedness and improper acts of crew, insufficient rescue | 84 people died, damage - the cost of the platform |
| 27.03.1983 North Sea | Platform destruction, fire, explosion | In the storm conditions, the "Alexander Kielland" platform support was destroyed with a subsequent explosion and fire. The reason for the death of personnel is damage to rescue | 123 people died, damage - the cost of the platform |
| 25.10.1983 Chinese Sea | Flooding platform | During the passage of the tropical typhoon, the drill vessel "Glomar Java Sea" disrupted with anchors and turned over, as a result of which it sank | 81 people died, damage - the cost of the platform |
| 06.07.1988 North Sea | Explosion, fire, platform destruction | When operating a gas field on the production deck of the Piper Alpha platform, a number of explosions occurred, a fire originated, as a result, the platform collapsed | 164 people died, damage - the cost of the platform |
| 15.03.2001 Atlantic Ocean, Brazil Coast | Explosion, Platform Destruction | As a result of a series of powerful explosions, there was damage to one of the pontoons of the base of the petrobras oil production platform. The platform sank. 125 thousand tons of oil fell into the ocean | 10 people died. |
| 27.07.2005 Indian Ocean | Collision with a ship, fire and destruction of the platform | A surf wave hit an auxiliary vessel next to the platform, with the result that it crashed into the platform design | 49 people died. |
| 22.04.2010 Gulf of Mexico | Explosion and fire on the platform | The platform "Deepwater Horizon" drove by the company "British Petroleum" sunk off the coast of Louisiana. Large-scale ecological catastrophe, damage to Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi | Damage - about $ 40 billion. |
Obviously, the emergence of such incidents in the Arctic zone can lead to irreparable consequences due to the remoteness of the work and sensitivity of the region's ecosystem.
Legal basis of international cooperation in the Arctic
Photo: www.ufz.de.
Tanker Wheel "Exxon Valdez"
in Alaska in 1989
The Arctic needs to be investigated as an important component of a global climate system associated with its other elements - heat transfer, moisture, salt and water due to the circulation of the atmosphere and the ocean. Many of the problems of the Arctic have a circumpolar character, and international cooperation should play a major role in their decision. This area of \u200b\u200bcooperation began to develop intensively since the early 1990s.
In 1989, Finland, Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the USSR and the United States began working together to protect the environment in this region. In June 1991, a meeting of the environmental ministers of eight countries was held in Rovaniemi (Finland), on which the Rovaniemi Declaration Rovaniemi Declaration was signed and approved Environmental Protection Strategy in Arctic Arctic Environment Prevention Strategy, AEPS). The main objective of the strategy is to identify, restriction and, ultimately, prohibition of pollution of the region.
International organizations involved in the Arctic policies are very numerous and are heterogeneous in their functions, powers and nature of activity. Four organizations are most influential - the Arctic Council (AC), the Barents / Eurarctic Region Council (Sber), the European Union and NATO.
The Arctic Council (Arctic Council) was established in September 1996 in Ottawa (Canada). The main thing its attention is focused on the protection of the environment of the Arctic, ensuring sustainable development as a means of improving the economic, social and cultural welfare of the peoples of the North. The Council is going at the ministerial level annually.
According to experts, the format of international organizations creates serious opportunities for Russia in terms of development of cooperation in the Arctic: from ecology to interaction in search and rescue operations. The only exception can be considered NATO whose attention is formally focused on the environmental consequences of global warming of climate and human activity in the Arctic, the risk of environmental and man-made disasters. Along with this, it is obvious that one of the most important priorities of the presence of NATO in the Arctic - the struggle for the energy resources on a global scale.
The most favorable prospects for cooperation are related to the Arctic Council. For Russia, a selection is also used as an international institution, which contributes to the improvement of multilateral cooperation and the development of the Russian Arctic zone.
Forms of international cooperation in the field of environmental safety
Photo: 3.bp.blogspot.com
Transboundary teachings "Barents Rekey", 2011
One example of practical international cooperation in the Arctic zone can be called transboundary teachings "Barents Raby", which are held every two years on the initiative of the collection alternately in each of the four countries of the Barents region.
The first exercises took place in 2001 in Sweden. Then the forces of four countries worked out the skills of eliminating the accident at the nuclear power plant. In 2005 and 2007 The exercises took place alternately in Norway and in Finland. In 2009, for three days of the exercises held this time in the Murmansk region, the rescuers worked out five different scenarios, including the actions in the conditions of radioactive infection of the environment and spill of petroleum products. In September 2011, the large-scale international teachings of the rescue services "Barents Requen" again took place in Sweden with more than 2,000 rescuers.
Another example of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection and security in the Arctic is to create a navigation research center in Warde (Norway), where there is already a journalism monitoring center in Northern Norway. The monitoring center for the shipping of the coastal administration is responsible for tracking and wiring offshore ships off the coast of Northern Norway. He plays a key role in Russian-Norwegian cooperation on the safety of navigation and developing scenarios for the fight against oil spills. Agreement was concluded between the two countries to form a joint information system for the management of ships "Barents VTMIS".
In the 2000s, a working group on the humanitarian aspects of radioecological safety problems, utilization of nuclear submarines, radioactive waste disposal and speaking nuclear fuel, conducted their activities in the Murmansk region. This group was created on the basis of the work experience, which was concluded between the Swedish International Nuclear Security Project (SIP, today the Swedish Nuclear Security Inspectorate - SKI-ICP), the Government of the Murmansk Region and the Federal State Unitary Enterprise Sevrao on the Support Project Programs of public relations on the problems of Andreeva's lips.
Within the framework of this project, several joint stocks were held - shooting films about the problems of rehabilitation of the object "Sevrao" in Andreev's lip, a sociological study with the subsequent development of a public work program on this issue, seminars.
An important step in increasing the level of environmental safety in the Arctic was the creation of an information center at the Lenin atomic icebreaker in Murmansk. The center receives information about all radiation objects in the territory of the Murmansk region and is engaged in the dissemination of information about the radiation situation in the region. A center has been created with the participation of Dutch professionals. In 2006, the European Union allocated 1 million 300 thousand euros on the creation of the Center.
One of the tools of international cooperation in the Arctic, aimed at increasing the level of environmental safety, an effective maritime management system can be. Currently, the formation of such a system is considered as the most important prerequisite for the successful development of any country having a coastline.
The shelves, being natural formations, are organized systemically. If we talk about economic activities carried out within their limits, then individual industries (transport, fisheries, oil and gas production, etc.) now do not form a single systemic community. Their set (a set of connections and relationships) has not yet has such a nature of interaction that would be aimed at obtaining an integral focused useful result. In other words, the complexity of marine economic activities in the Arctic is not yet a result, but only the process in the development of marine spaces and resources. It is not by chance that there are the concepts of the fisheries complex, ship repair complex, oil and gas complex, etc.
Comprehensive management methodology requires the development of a unified strategy and action program for all sectors (nature users). Environmental principles act at the same time the main criterion for assessing such activities.
The concept of integrated maritime management management, which distinguishes it from ordinary management activities, is based on the management of everything and all who or what is related to this marine ecosystem and to the coastal zone. In this case, integral marine environmental management should include feedback channels and mechanisms of advanced impact to prevent negative impact on the environment in order to make the most effective provision of various nature users in the Arctic. The most fully ideas of rational integrated environmental use were reflected in the works of Academician Matishov.
The following is a schematic diagram of a comprehensive integrated environmental management (see fig. one).
Picture 1. Concept of integrated integrated environmental management
Comprehensive management implies impact not on the processes occurring in nature, but on human activity, which should be organized in such a way as to be in harmony with nature.
* * *
It is important to understand that the planned expansion of the search and production of hydrocarbon raw materials, the strengthening of the military presence in the Arctic will entail an increase in pressure on the Arctic ecosystems. In the absence of effective mechanisms for the struggle for environmental purity, this can even more exacerbate environmental problems, especially on the continental shelf of Barents, Pechora and Kara Seas. The seriousness of environmental problems requires the state of increasing due attention to their decision.
The successful solution of the problem of integrated environmental management will allow for many years to preserve the fragile ecosystem of the Arctic, which is designed to become a guarantor of energy security for humanity for many decades.
Obviously, the decision of this issue is impossible without effective international cooperation and all-time consolidation of political and economic resources.
reference Information
Currently there are a number of international legal instruments related to oil and gas production to the sea, including:
- international Civil Liability Convention for Damage to Sea Pollution Oil (1969);
- international Convention on the Creation of an International Fund to compensate for damage to oil pollution (1971);
- Protocols on the change in the International Convention on Civil Liability for Damage to Sea pollution by oil in 1969 and on the change in the International Convention on the Creation of an International Fund to compensate for damage from oil contamination of 1971 (1992);
- London Convention for the Prevention of Sea pollution by waste discharges and other materials (1972);
- International Convention for the Prevention of Sea Pollution from Ships Mairpol 73/78;
- Convention on Civil Liability for Damage to Pollution of Oil as a result of exploration and development of the mineral resources of the seabed (1976);
- UN Convention on the Maritime Law (1982);
- INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION To ensure readiness in case of oil pollution, combating it and cooperation (1990).
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Development of economic relations between the exporting countries of hydrocarbon raw materials
In the post-Soviet political and economic space, among the fifteen young independent states, four to five are more clearly visible, which are already discovering either with high probability can acquire a number of signs similar, although in a very different degree, with participants in the organization of the countries in a 10-20 year perspective Oil exporters. A lot of common features also appear with other relatively large producers of hydrocarbon raw materials and its suppliers to foreign markets, especially from the former third world.
Previously, such similarity, according to the author, begins to appear from the "four" in the composition of Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan, which therefore deserve the focus. Less than certain, it is more difficult to predict the subtitution of the Fifth Republic - Uzbekistan - to the conditional group indicated herein. Next, an attempt was taken to convertiently trace the declared analogies (and, on the contrary, differences) on several characteristics of national oil and gas complexes (resource, industrial, export potential, partly on the national economic value); According to the strategy, the tactics of their development and foreign economic relations, by regional and international (mainly "market") weighing countries, real and / or expected, possibly with the "fan" alternatives. Against this background, the problem of relationships between the owners of the largest export potentials of oil and gas in the CIS and OPEC.
We will immediately at least three circumstances complicating the solution of the problem. First, well-known qualities, the difficulties of unifying cash post-Soviet and other statistics sometimes limit the accuracy of quantitative comparisons. Accompacised, however, reasonable measures not to question the focus of discussed trends. Secondly, incomplete or weak detailing data on individual republics is forced to often operate more general information about the CIS participants, but only those from indicators that are really determined by countries - objects of study in the Commonwealth. Thirdly, efforts are made to limit the circle of these objects extremely. Therefore, it is not included in it, for example, Ukraine, which, until the mid-90s, divided the second-third (after Russia) the place for the production of all primary energy resources of the CIS with Kazakhstan. Moreover, the volume of production of Ukrainian oil and gas in 1994 were respectively fifth and fourths, and proven gas reserves and less proven resources held even stronger the same rating. However, modern and promising energy consumption trends leave Ukraine a large net importer of hydrocarbon raw materials, withdrawing it (with nine other post-Soviet republics) beyond this work.
Quantitative comparison of resource potentials, which have oil and gas complexes of the author of those interested in the author, is most appropriate, incl. According to the reliability and regularity of statistics, on the basis of the part of the "traditional" (or "ordinary" hydrocarbons retrieved or prepared to master the part of the reserves. The data (Table 1) convincingly show a high concentration of proven world oil and gas reserves along with the "explored" (proven together with a part of the likely) - as applied to the CIS.
This long-term geopolitical and geo-economic factor factor is more visible in terms of the conditional indicator - the total proven reserves of liquid and gaseous mineral fuels, which are calculated through the translating data on natural gas in the oil equivalent on the basis of color. The proportion of OPEC and the Commonwealth in the world by the beginning of 1996 reached almost 61%, respectively and more than 21%, leaving outside of these two groups of states less than 18% of traditional hydrocarbon raw materials. Approximately identical (17-19%) turns out to be a share, so to speak, "third" countries outside of OPEC and the CIS in more familiar indicators of oil and gas reserves taken separately.
But the mutual resource proportions of the participants of the organization and the Commonwealth in the oil and gas potentials of the modern world are greatly different. If an exemplary parity is observed on gas, then OPEC oil has been outweighted by the CIS by more than 13.65 times. True, a number of experts carefully predicts a 10-16-year-old perspective, and perhaps a little earlier than the reduction of this gap. Some general world redistribution of positions on the reserves of liquid fuel in favor of the CIS participants, if they are implemented, at least partially, extensive programming programs of well-known major deposits in the north and east of Russia, in the Caspiani, in the Caspian shelf and in several districts. Only after careful clarification of their reserves (resources) from categories of possible and probable could go to the proven. While the premature euphoria of individual publicists, sometimes representatives of the administrative and political and business circles of the Commonwealth, it is often fastened to mix these concepts, obviously harmful to raising estimates, forecasts and practical actions.
The analogy between OPEC and the CIS on the internal "resource" structure of each of the groups is perhaps the closest in the field of the concentration of geological stocks, firstly, in more limited subgroups and, secondly, in individuals, the generous of the total "gifted" nature of countries - Leaders. Among the participants of the organization for eight Middle Eastern and North African states (seven Arab plus Iran) account for 84.6% of all hydrocarbons, incl. 87.5% of oil and 78.2% gas. In the Commonwealth, 97.2% of total reserves, including 91.7% liquid and 98.0% of gaseous fuel, focuses the already mentioned "big five" in the composition of Russia, three Central Asian republics and Azerbaijan.
"Resource Leadership" of Russia in the "Big Five" of Oil and GasExporters of the CIS (85.6% of the total, 70.1% of oil and 87.9% of gas reserves) is much stronger than the weight of Saudi Arabia in a hydrnevous support subgroup (33, 1%, 40.7 and 13.1%, respectively). Comparimed both "leader" among themselves and directly (see Table 1), but only in the total reserves of all traditional hydrocarbons, which detects a relatively small Russian "advantage", which is purely conditionally theoretical. In practice, the mirror opposite of the proportion "oil: gas" is much more important, which is 89.1: 10.9 in Saudi and 11.1: 88.9 in Russia, in other words, the differences in the "oil and gas superpower" of modernity.
The current ratio of approximately 2: 1 between liquid and gaseous fuels in the global consumption of primary energy resources; Significantly higher mobility and maneuverability of the first compared to the second as goods in world trade, i.e. The relative ease of changing partners in the process of oil sales and on the contrary - natural gas, when technical and economic imperatives of long-term, durable bonds are noticeably enhanced depending on distances, methods of transportation and other conditions; A number of global factors, regional and national characteristics in most cases put the owners of "black" gold to more winning positions than the owners of the Blue. From these positions, the Saudi Kingdom objectively opened "operational and tactical space" for maneuver resources across the global energyary market is much broader than before the Russian Federation, at least to the first decades of the XXI century. True, the argument of the last thesis implies a deepening into multifaceted issues, far away beyond the work framework.
The qualitative characteristics of oil and gas wealth of OPEC and the "Big Five" of the CIS (almost exclusively Russia, which is only comparable information) are important here especially from an economic point of view. For a number of reasons, mainly on the availability, reliability and representativeness of estimates, it is necessary to limit the same indicator. These are "full-scale specific costs, including 15% of the target value of the annual return on the entire capital, invested in intelligence, mastering and increasing the production of" Mineral fuel units in addition to its volumes of its current production. Moreover, the evaluation data on the objects of analysis here is not actual, but conventionally normative also because they are translated into a single base of the highest performance and efficiency of equipment, technologies and organizational techniques used in modern business practices by the United States. The author relied mainly on the system and the results of calculations of the American independent expert T.r.Shetuffer, from whose publication you can learn the authentic details of the methodology of this Washington analytics.
Its calculations reaffirm: the Middle Eastern group of OPEC participants, especially the "Big Four" in the composition of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, is, and, apparently, will remain on the foreseeable perspective by the owner of the most extensive natural resource potentials that allow increasing oil production Minimum costs. And although T.r.Stalaoffer notes that the global trend of the growth of specific capital expenditures in the 70-90s did not bypass these four countries of the Persian (Arab) bay district, all the same, their indicators remained below $ 2 / Barr. Almost never go beyond 5 dollars / barrel. The cost of Libya - the owner of the largest oil reserves in Africa, modest, however, by Middle Eastern scale. In very wide ranges (2.5-3; 6-9; $ 12-20 / barre.) Variable estimates of the cost of increasing oil production in various oilfield areas of Abu Dhabi - the only participant in OPEC, which is not inferior to the magnitude of the reserves of traditional liquid fuel "Big Four ", except for her" leader "- Saudi. Moreover, the situation in Abu Dhabi is difficult to clarify due to the lack of information on the prospects for increasing production in each of the various "cost" ranges separately. From the members of the organization outside the Middle East and North African regions, only Venezuelas by the mid-1990s could still notice the oil production with relatively "low" cost-effective costs of up to $ 5 / barrel Growth.
Outside of OPEC, this expert allocates only two states - Russia and Mexico - with closest largest, large-scale (billions of tons) with oil reserves, whose involvement is cheaper than $ 10 / Barr., Most likely, with "average" even " Low "conditional increases of 5-6 and 3-6 dollars / barrel. respectively. Unfortunately, in the absence of calculations on the same methodology, in relation to the republics of Central Asia and Azerbaijan, it remains to be limited to a cautious assumption as in the development of the CIS oil industry, which are implementing the other participants of the "Big Five", specific investment not higher than Russian.
Two more or three countries (called Malaysia, Oman) fit into the category of "medium" in cost-effective oil production costs ($ 5-10 / barrel) but there is its intelligent reserves (0.60-0.72 Accordingly, respectively), by 7.1-8.5 times, he is inferior to Russian, by 9.7-11.6 times - Mexican and at least some Central Asian.
In other major oilfield regions of the world (USA, Canada, British and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea), these indicators are assessed as "high" for the UK and Norway at least $ 13-16 / Barr. Plus 3-6 dollars / barrel. The current costs that make up a large independent expense article here. In variations of the average world export prices for crude oil in 1994-95. in the range of 13-18 dollars / barrel. The expansion of its production on the "expensive" fishery was put on the line of profitability. Either mining is generally reduced under pressure from adverse natural (mining and other) and market factors, as happens in the United States continuously since 1986.
On comparative economic estimates on world gas potential, and in particular the post-Soviet and Russian, according to a comparable methodology, the author is not yet known. Although there are no shortage of traditional hydrocarbon raw materials in publications about this form of traditional hydrocarbon raw materials. You can refer, for example, on one of the recent forecasts of the gradual increase in the specific costs of new production capacity and transport infrastructure in the main gas-volume areas of the Russian Federation. However, along with most others, it does not contain absolute value indicators, but only the relative, expected 7.0-3.5 times on the largest "old" gas fisses of Urengoy and Yamburg.
Therefore, discussions on themes like: "What are the prospects for Russia to become" Gas Saudi "XXI century?" - While pretty overwhelmed with scholasticism. However, such issues are not expensive, but on the contrary - theoretically and practically significant, very deserved in-depth development.
Even the most approximate economic sectoral characteristics of modern oil and partly of the gas industry make it possible to outset the narrow circle of countries, which in the state and trends of the conjuncture on the world's energy markets of the mid-90s have the natural resource potential of the required quality sufficient to build exports of liquid and gaseous fuels It is simply profitable, but also by realizing substantial differential revenues of the rental origin of different types.
It is the problems of the practical implementation of a monopoly on possession and disposal of limited natural wealth with qualitative advantages and remain in the center of the economy and policy of environmental management. With regard to the topic of this work, these are specific processes of extraction, distribution, redistribution and application of mountain rent from the exploitation of oil and gas resources, to which in essence almost infinite many political and economic entities from the owners and users of subsoil to end users of energy, fuel, chemicals.
Especially without affecting the complex independent structure of the structural structure, positions and functional bonds of oil and gas complexes within the considered countries of exporters of traditional hydrocarbons and their products, focus mainly on foreign economic activity. In this area of \u200b\u200boil owners, and possibly gas, reserves with "low" and "media" (according to global criteria), increased costs of development combines an important characteristic - the dominance of state-political, administrative institutions, as well as enterprises belonging to the state in whole or in part But under his strict control, often with many monopoly signs.
In principle, the functions of natural monopolists - undersensants and renders are inherent in the state authorities of different levels almost everywhere, including countries with highly developed market economy. However, the greatest centralization of these functions in the 70-90s is characteristic of OPEC participants, most of other developing oil and gas exporters, as well as for the EX-USSR, the post-Soviet Asian republics and in a slightly smaller, but still very much - for Russia, where the fuel and materials complex is stronger than the impact of liberal market and structural reforms.
Apparently, the strength of government positions here is determined by the key national economic value of oil and gas potential and in particular currency revenues from its operation for indigenous socio-economic transformations in the countries of the former "third world" and states with a "transitional" economy.
For founders of OPEC in 1960 (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela), the key value of "black gold" was determined long before this event, as a rule, before the Second World War, served by one of the main reasons for the creation of an organization. With some variations, often not fundamental, this quality they retain along with other "comrades" by joining later. The most clearly strategic role is manifested, perhaps, in the predominance of foreign currency components of oil rent among the income articles of state budgets. According to the Arab Monetary Fund in 1992-93. Only a variety of direct contributions, including direct tax and export receipts from the participation of state-owned enterprises in world trade of liquid fuel, brought nine members of the Foundation (six Arabian monarchies, generating the Board of Arab States of the Bay, as well as Iraq, Algeria and Libya) 75.7% and 73.8% of the currency to the budget or 92.2 billion and $ 86.1 billion for each year, respectively.
Collect comparable data on the CIS countries, especially about the cash execution of their budgets, is very difficult. Therefore, it is necessary to rely on the information of foreign trade statistics, according to which the share of mineral fuels (gas and partly oil) reached the maximum of 85% in the export of Turkmenistan, but was exposed to fluctuations outside the same period of the first half of the 1990s. Russia exportation of all products of the fuel and energy complex in "Far Abroad" brought over 60% of solid currency. Several below was the proportion of the fuel and energy complex in the currency receipts of Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan, significantly lower - Uzbekistan.
However, lower relative indicators and / or their instability at that time indicated rather not about the smaller value of the oil and gas economy for the last three members of the "Big Five" of the CIS (partly less significant it is only for Uzbekistan), not about the lowest export quotas in production and in general Doubted the external orientation of these industries, and much more revealed transit problems and, accordingly, the choice between trading partners in the far and neighbor (conventionally speaking, in "hardness and mild") abroad.
As the latest in the Asian Republics of the CIS, which do not have a direct access to the world ocean for their export liquid fuel, which are far from the largest natural gas importers outside the Commonwealth, the indicators of the Big Five states are likely to come close to each other and with the levels of Arab participants of OPEC . So far, these trends are most intensively acted in Russia, finding its advantages not only in the scale of mino-generating potential, the degree of its development, the presence of infrastructure, but also in geographical position, primarily close to the markets of Western and Central Europe.
It is enough to compare several Russian indicators 1992-1994. During this period, general-industry export quotas (from production) increased by crude oil and gas condensate from 34.6% to 38.9% and by natural gas - from 29.5 to 30.3%, and in supply to countries outside the CIS - from 16.5 to 28.2% and from 13.7 to 18.0%. In general, Russia was characterized by an explicit reorientation of oil and gas industries (especially oil) to foreign countries in the non-refinery markets in the steady increase in the supply of liquid and gaseous fuels not only in relative, and in absolute terms (from 66 to 89 million tons of oil and from 88 to 109 billion m 3 gas). This happened against the background of continuing, albeit in a slow-down pace, the decline in production (by gas of a more moderate decrease), as well as the outpacing coagulation of intraskosky consumption of hydrocarbons and their export in the Republic of CIS. Even stronger, such trends were manifested in the Russian export of petroleum products (mainly diesel fuel and fuel oil, 27 million tons or 70.5% of which were realized in the far and only 29.5% - in the near abroad in 1993).
By the mid-1990s, a number of objective factors were gradually strengthened, which urged many industry experts and "adherents" of microeconomic concepts in high probability, almost the inevitability of increased competition in world energy markets between exporters of traditional hydrocarbons in the next five or ten years. Accordingly, the possible exceeding supply over demand was predicted and deterioration, in varying degrees, conjuncture for owners and sellers of oil and gas resources.
As often, it happens, develops and not so many opposite how other arguments mainly those whom can be conditionally attributed to supporters of institutionalism and systemic political and economic research. Very different sense. You can immediately state that the author's position has long been and firmly connected with this "second" group of methodological principles.
For the subject of this work it is very important to emphasize that representatives of both directions planned here usually unites the overall characteristics of the export potentials of OPEC and the CIS as very important, if not key factors for the development of a market situation at least in the short and medium term. Tables 2 and 3, which in the calculated and predictive indicators rely on the selection of the most cautious estimates from a very wide "fan" alternatives and deserve more detailed analysis in other publications, as a whole confirm a similar characteristic.
hydrocarbon foreign market oil and gas
List of sources and literature
1. Economic browser. โ2. M., - 2009
2. Economic browser. Number 3. M., - 2010
3. Asia and Africa. โ5. M., 2009.
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Domestic energy demand determines the expected dynamics of economic development, changes in the economy and the level of its specific energy intensity.
Reduce the specific energy intensity of the economy is the central task of the energy policy of Russia, without deciding which the energy sector will prevent the country's socio-economic development. To solve this task, a rational restructuring of the structure of the Russian economy is necessary.
We need global transformations in the structure of the economy and in industrial production. That is, it is expected that with the help of market demand, the leading pace of development will be at low-energy industrial production industries, which produce high-tech and high-tech products. At the same time, the development of energy-intensive material and raw materials will be slow, and the structural transformation of the Russian economy will occur in favor of less energy-intensive industries and sectors. Consequently, in Russia at the manufacturing production and in the sector of high-tech high-tech services, which have significantly less specific energy intensity, the construction of a new, more powerful than oil and gas, complex - source of economic growth will begin.
The data "ENERGOSTEGY" of the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation suggest that by 2030, the share of low-energy industries (engineering, light, food industry, etc.) in industrial production will increase by about 1.5 times and will be more than half of the total industrial production in Russia against 33% is currently.
Along with structural changes in the economic industry, it is also necessary to intensively implement organizational and technological measures in order for fuel and energy, that is, to conduct targeted energy-saving policies. Transformations in the economic sphere and energy-saving policies should significantly reduce the energy intensity and electrical capacity of the Russian economy, which will have a positive effect on the domestic demand for electricity and primary energy.
It is hard to overestimate the importance of the Arctic region in the energy policy of Russia in the near future. The reserves of hydrocarbons, bioresources and the northern seaway from Europe to Asia are attracted not only by states, but also international companies. The possibility of oil and gas production, investing in the development of this region with the possibility of obtaining maximum profits, the establishment of international relations through cooperation not only between the Arctic countries, but also with many countries in Europe, Asia, America, which do not have borders in the Arctic Ocean. Moreover, the study of the Arctic will contribute to the improvement of the information base of the region, the creation of a new transport infrastructure, the development of bioresources and the use of the latest, modern technologies.
The development of world energy resources, including in the Arctic region, as well as the cooperation of the Russian Federation with countries in Europe and Asia for energy supplies, explore the specialists from many countries. And not accidentally a variety of theoretical approaches and practical developments on this issue are reflected in the works of a number of Russian scientists Agibalova S.V., Anikina L.S., Belitsky A.N., Bessarabova G.D., Volosova I.Yu., Dubovtseva D .G., Lakhno P.V., Loginova A.N., Karnuhova N.N., Kartovchenko I.V., Kulikova G.V., Lyashchenko V.P., Podakolina I.V., Selrtsy B.ji ., Spartak A.N., Cherkasyenko A.I. and etc.
However, many aspects of the modern development of the hydrocarbon energy market have not yet been studied fairly in-depth and comprehensively. But this problem cannot be studied in detail without taking into account the rapid development of the sphere of liquefied natural gas, without taking into account the industrial production of shale gas in the United States, the measures taken in developed countries in order to increase energy efficiency and energy saving, an increase in renewable energy sources in world energy balance.
In addition, the conjuncture of fuel and energy resources depends on these factors in the Arctic region, which is also necessary to analyze in detail. Therefore, it is very important to investigate the development and prospects for the demand for fuel and energy resources in the Arctic, as well as the strategic role of the Russian Federation in the development of the Arctic Energy Region, also from the point of view of energy security.
Exploring these problems, do not forget about the modern development of energy, specifically about the realities that the modern global economic crisis gave rise to.
The relevance and insufficient degree of development of these problems predetermined the choice of the topic, the purpose and the main tasks of this final qualifying study.
The purpose of the study is to determine the place and role of Russia in the global market of energy resources under the conditions of mastering the Arctic.
The object of the study is the global energy market.
The subject of research is Russia in the global energy market and the energy interests of Russia in the Arctic.
The goal has led to the following tasks:
- Consider the structure and features of the modern energy market.
- Explore the role of leading energy-exporter countries in the global market.
- Assess the Arctic as a promising region of energy mining.
- To allocate the main directions of the development of the energy interests of Russia.
The information and empirical base amounted to information, analytical and statistical data of the Federal State Statistics Service of the Russian Federation, reference information and documents, articles, scientific reports posted on the Web pages of leading research centers, universities and publishing houses of Russia, Monographs, materials of scientific seminars and conferences, legislative and other regulatory documents of state authorities of the Russian Federation and its subjects.
The current state of the problem of an energy issue and the established system of ways to solve it in Russia requires, firstly, further development and refinement of foreign economic policy in the field of energy, including the development of the legal framework, organizational and institutional base and methodological support; Secondly, establishing and improving the monitoring of the state of energy of the country and its regions.
The theoretical and practical significance of the study is that the significance of Russia in the global energy market is determined. Identification of new threats to this problem, which arose as a result of globalization of the global economy (negative consequences of the introduction of modern technologies using the achievements of scientists in the field of chemistry, physics and biology, environmental degradation) and economic factors (slowdown in economic development). This was the consequence of increasing the importance of international economic organizations and economic policies, both internal and external, states in the field of energy; The formulation of the direction of increasing the effectiveness of foreign economic policy in the field of energy.
This exhaust qualifying work consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusions and applications.
In the introduction, the relevance of the problem, the goals of WRC, tasks are considered.
The first chapter examines the theoretical aspects of this issue: the structure of the global energy market, international organizations engaged in this problem. The main countries of energy exporters, their capabilities, the degree of influence on the hydrocarbon market, as well as the prospects for the development of cooperation between exporters and importers are highlighted.
In the second chapter, the position of Russia in the current market of energy resources is studied in detail. Also, special attention is paid to the Arctic as a perspective region for hydrocarbon extraction. For Russia, this territory has not only energy, but also economic and political importance.
The conclusion summarizes WRCs, analyzes the execution of tasks and goals.
Chapter 1. World Energy Market
1.1. Structure and features of the modern energy market
International relations in the energy sector are also governed by some international organizations.
International Energy Agency (IEA; English. International Energy Agency, IEA) is an autonomous international body in organizing economic cooperation and development (OECD). It consists of 28 participating countries. It was formed in Paris in 1974 its main goal - to promote international cooperation in improving world demand and supply in the field of energy resources and energy services. In reality, they are defended by the interests of energy importers.
The annual industry and general-energy reports of the IEA are widely popular. The International Energy Agency (IEA) was formed in 1974, when the oil crisis was completed in 1973-1974. It was offered to create a USA who wanted to have a new international organization in counterweight. MEA is an autonomous authority in organizing economic cooperation and development (OECD). Now IEA consists of 26 OECD member countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Great Britain and the United States. The main goal of the MEA was determined when creating an organization in 1974 - to create a system of collective energy security. The basic principle of the system is to redistribute the oil reserves between the members of this organization, if there are strong supply interruptions. Mea member countries also coordinate other aspects related to energy policy. The main objectives and objectives of the IEA determines the international energy program, the program of long-term cooperation, as well as the "General Objectives", which was approved in 1993, at a meeting of ministers of energy mea member countries.
In the competence of the MEA:
- improve the global demand and supply in the field of energy, developing alternative energy sources and increasing its efficiency;
- strengthen and improve the fight against interruptions in the supply of energy;
- process current information about the status of energy sources and the international oil market;
- seek to combine environmental and energy policy;
- consider energy problems in a global context, cooperating with countries that are not included in the agency and with various international organizations.
IAEA (English IAEA, Socre. International Atomic Energy Agency) is an international organization that develops cooperation in the field of peaceful use of atomic energy, it was founded in 1957. The headquarters of the organization is located in Vienna (International Vienna Center).
The Agency was created as an independent intergovernmental organization under the UN system, and when an agreement was concluded on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, his work has changed somewhat, because the NPT ordered each State party to conclude a warranty agreement with the IAEA.
The aim of the agency in the country is to state that the work related to the peaceful nuclear area does not pursue military purposes. The state, when signing such an agreement, guarantees that it does not conduct various studies that may have a military orientation, so the name of this document is a guarantee agreement. But the IAEA is a purely technical authority. It does not evaluate the political activities of countries. The agency can work, only by operating by the facts, providing a tangible result of inspections. The IAEA warranty system does not interfere when nuclear material switches with peaceful targets for the military, and only detects this switching or using it is not intended and initiates consideration of such facts in the UN. At the same time, the conclusions of the agency are always extremely careful and correct.
The agency includes:
- encourage research and development in the peaceful use of atomic energy;
- encourage the exchange of scientific achievements and methods;
- form and apply ensuring that the use of civilian nuclear programs and developments will not be carried out for military purposes;
- develop, install and adapt health and safety standards
The organization of oil exporting countries is an international intergovernmental organization (cartel), which was created by oil-producing countries in order to stabilize oil prices. OPEC consists of 12 countries: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador and Angola. Headquarters is located in Vienna. The Secretary General (since 2007) is Abdalla Salem Al-Badri.
OPECA as a permanent organization created during the conference in Baghdad in September 1960. It was originally from Iran, Iraq Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela (initiator of the creation). To these countries, they were later attached nine.
Now in OPEC 12 members, taking into account changes in the composition, and in 2008 Russia stated that it was ready to be a permanent observer in the cartel.
The goal of the OPEC is to coordinate activities and develop a general oil production policy among the countries of the members of the organization, to maintain stable oil prices, ensure stable oil supplies to consumers, to receive returns from investment in the oil industry.
Meeting Ministers and Oil Ministers of OPEC members twice a year meetings are held to assess the international oil market and predict its development. These meetings are consistent with the actions that are necessary for a stable market. At the OPEC conferences, issues relating to changes in oil production volumes, taking into account changes in market demand.
Chart 1. - Dynamics of oil production in the world
Countries of OPEC members are controlled by approximately 2/3 of world oil reserves. Their share is 40% of all extraction in the world or half of world oil exports. This dynamics can be traced in a diagram 1.
Of the largest producers of oil peak, only countries of OPEC (with the exception of Venezuela) and Canada have not passed. The USSR passed the peak of oil back in 1988. In Russia since 1998, mining is constantly growing, but many experts suggest that in 2007-2008 the country has reached a peak.
The upcoming development of the energy markets of the world depends on how they are restructured, how much the share of developing countries will increase, how competition will exist. At the same time, uncertainty and risks in world markets increased significantly, including because there was a sharp and unpredictable dynamics of oil prices, make themselves to know the negative consequences of the global financial crisis, it is possible to deficit energy supplies, ambiguous prospects regarding international agreements in environmental politics and climate change. But many understand and support the increase in long-term sustainability in energy markets, global energy security, to ensure that it is necessary, without causing damage to the national interests of any state. This reflects, in particular, decisions and recommendations that were adopted in 2006 at the G8 summit in St. Petersburg.
In 2008, unprecedented, crushing events, which affected the global economy and the energy sphere. Due to the large-scale financial and economic crisis, world oil prices that have steadily increased the seventh year in a row, and then rapidly soared in June, and even overcame the unprecedented line of $ 135 / Barr., Overnight collapsed, and by the end of 2008 decreased Almost four times. All the dynamics of changes in prices for petroleum products can be traced in graph 1.
Chart 1. Changes in the global oil price since 1988 to 2013.
Such a trajectory and in the dynamics of prices for natural gas and coal. Price shocks were not in vain. The result was the result of a Skyatitz in the volume and structure of energy consumption of energy resources, in the nature of their production, in the commercial tactics of oil and gas companies, there was uncertainty in the development of the energy market of energy resources, both exporters and importers of hydrocarbons.
The global financial and economic crisis on the energy market has affected multifactorically and multi-vector. In recent years, the stable rise in prices was due to the steady demand for energy resources in China and India, generality inflationary processes, as well as a speculative factor. Many oil transactions began to be carried out using derivative financial instruments that were not provided with the supply of real goods. Thus, in the 1990s, transactions relating to the physical volume of oil occupied about 30% of the "paper" turnover, in recent years this figure did not exceed 1%.
Since 2005, prices have rather significantly and quickly, especially when American pension funds began to invest their finances into oil futures that were not provided with the supply of real goods. Then the US Senate conducted a hearing on how speculative operations affect the growth of oil prices. At the same time, the size of this effect on the demand, which is comparable to the importance of expanding the procurement of oil by China, voiced.
As a result, the oil became a speculative product, the prices of which were determined not only in demand and supply, and the nature and security of operations in the financial market. No wonder in the midst of the crisis corrected OPEC countries, export quotas could not mitigate the price amplitude.
In industrialized countries, price increases only revived energy saving efforts, increased the energy efficiency of the economy (in particular, the United States began to use backway gas more), the use of alternative energy sources has expanded. At the same time, the energy sphere and the agricultural sector were seriously collided, because due to the high prices for oil food crops (corn, oil drying, sugar cane, etc.) massively switched to the production of biofuels, and the cost of food has increased.
When the crisis aggravated in September 2008, and began to fall world GDP, it led to a reduction in global fuel needs, as well as to reduce financial opportunities for the purchase of energy resources. The prices began to collave, as a result of 2008, the expansion of the consumption of the main types of primary energy, as experts "British Petroleum" were rated, it became slow to 1.7% - this is the lowest level since 2001. And the OECD countries reduced energy consumption by 2.1 %, while developing states continued to increase it (in China - by 6, 9%, India - by 4, 7%, Indonesia - by 6.5%, Brazil - by 4.6%), resulting in the total energy consumption of developing For the first time countries began to exceed the overall consumption of primary energy by OECD countries.
But according to the assessment of the MEA, which basically expresses the position of importers of energy resources, in 2008, the global energy demand for energy was slowed down, and first decreased (by 0.3%).
According to OECD experts, in the future, the GDP of industrialized countries will decline by about 4.1%. In China, due to the effective state stimulation of the economy and improved economic situation, GDP growth is expected to 6.6%, and in Brazil, with a decrease in economic activity, it will decrease by about 0.7% - due to the fact that the domestic demand is expanded due to Government measures aimed at improving lending conditions.
In recent years, the global energy consumption of the main energy resource was oil, but the average annual growth rates of oil consumption decreased by 2 times, if we consider a similar indicator for natural gas, and 2.4 times - coal, which led to a decrease in oil dolly in power consumption with 37, 6% to 35.9%. Moreover, if coal and gas retained their increase in 2008, the consumption of oil for the first time in 10 years was reduced in absolute terms by 0.4%. It decreased by 0.6% and the production of energy at nuclear power plants.
The main consumers of oil are highly developed countries and new rising giants, but the bulk share of the world's hydrocarbon reserves is a relatively small group of developing countries and countries where the transition economy is observed. Such a contradiction is a major in the context of the scenario of the main players in the market. In the USA, the European Union and China, there is a concentration of both economic and political resources for expansion on the same markets, therefore competition is growing between them. Many resource rich countries are quite unstable in politically, and this is the basis for shocks in the global energy market and certain opportunities for Russian expansion. Below is Table 1, in which the dynamics of oil consumption by the main consumers is predicted.
Table 1
Oil consumption in the period 2011-2020.
| Region | Consumption, million tons. | |
| Bottom line | Top border | |
| The whole world | 3 800 | 4 000 |
| Russia | 126 | 129 |
| USA | 815 | 870 |
| China | 390 | 420 |
| Japan | 191 | 203 |
| India | 144 | 153 |
The main global hydrocarbon resources control national state-owned companies. In turn, transnational corporations are engaged in the control of processing facilities, logistics and transport schemes, as well as distribution of hydrocarbons. This leads to a different strategy of behavior of players in the market. The goal of large, transnational corporations is becoming increasing its own resource base. As for state-owned companies that have basic resources, seek to develop recycling. Moreover, one of the tasks is to obtain a certain proportion in the capital of transport and sales structures. This contradiction, which is increasing, according to many experts, will continue until 2020.
Every year, the number of regions where it is possible to increase the increase in the production and production of hydrocarbons, taking into account the lack of new technologies and production methods, is reduced, as a result of which activities are accompanied by multi-billion dollar investments. In this regard, the possibilities for maneuver key consumers of energy resources are minimized, especially after 2013-2017. It is worth noting a certain geostrategic rivalry between the United States of America and China. According to forecasts, China's imports on the oil market comes with the volumes of oil imported into the territory of the United States. However, the Chinese leadership clearly realizes that the lack of reliable partners who export energy resources will directly slow down the growth of the economy. That is why safety in the field of energy and the search for energy exporters becomes the issue of "survival" as one of the leaders of the global economy. On the other hand, the United States is absolutely not interested in strengthening China as the main competitor in the hydrocarbon market, and are ready to apply the maximum amount of effort, using all possible political and economic levers, to prevent Chinese oil and gas companies to markets.
According to experts from Cambridge Energy, the crisis in 2008 and its consequences in connection with the fall in oil prices can cause an energy crisis in the second half of 2014 and a serious jump in energy prices. Oil corporations are now lacking investment in their industry, which can help reduce production in the near future.
Cheap petroleum resources are not only low prices for gasoline, but also serious problems for economies that export black gold. And then, and other temporarily - as soon as the quotes begin to grow, the situation will change with them. There is a more serious problem that happened in connection with a serious fall in quotations in early 2009. Cheap black gold means the absence of an inflow of investment in the oil industry. That is, in simple language, the companies elementary there is no money to use the latest technologies for exploration, opening and commissioning new oil fields. And repair equipment. The consequence of this will inevitably be reduced oil production. This fact will launch the well-known chain: a decline in the offer is to increase prices. This can happen, despite the fact that in parallel the demand is reduced due to the global recession.
According to International Herald Tribune, referring to the research work of the Cambridge Energy Research Associates consulting firm, experts express the opportunity to have a particularly powerful increase in energy prices, as well as the likelihood of the crisis of the energy industry. After all, a serious decline and reduction of investment in oil companies and the industry as a whole, against the background of the recession, it can significantly reduce production by 7.6 million barrels per day in the next 5 years by the end of 2014 and amounted to 101.4 million barrels per day. A significant reduction in production will be the "powerful and lengthy consequence of oil prices".
The global recession, reduction of demand, reduce production and lack of lending forcing oil workers to cut possible investments, abandon development plans or transfer their implementation for a later date in almost all regions of the world. Despite the fact that the leading oil industry players, such as Exxonmobil and Royal Dutch Shell, promised to preserve all investments in the industry without changes in the current year, the rest of the companies significantly reduce the investment fund, newspaper notes.
1.2. Leading countries - Energosporters
Our age can be safely called the age of oil and gas. Production and consumption of these resources that changed wood and coal, growing every year. Nowadays, it is very important to control fuel and energy resources and means of transporting their transportation. Oil and gas are the foundations of the Russian economy, the most important source of export receipts of the country. Because of its competitive factors, Russia cannot significantly increase the share of finished products in its export and, above all, it refers to machine-technical products. The export of liquid hydrocarbons is still the main source of foreign trade foreign exchange earnings and, consequently, the main source of financing imported products. Import is needed not only to fill the consumer sector of the country's economy, but also in order to develop an industrial and agricultural base, bringing modern high-tech and efficient investment goods.
Oil and natural gases are the main source of energy, and they will very soon become the main component of fuel and energy balances of most states. Countries - oil exporters understand that oil exports are not the ultimate goal of developing their state, it is mainly the base in order to develop the economy as a whole. At the same time, the income from oil exports should inform the national economy's translational movement, and then a highly developed industrial society will be created.
The promising social and economic development of the oil producer can be labeled with such measures: it is effective to use labor resources, create new jobs, suppress inflation, create a state budget balance, solve social problems.
Control over the oil industry is the most important goal of the governments of those countries that produce oil. Large independent companies are mainly American. For many countries, oil producers are undesirable to dominate the presence in the global oil market of one country, and in political, and in an economic sense.
There is a huge territorial gap between the main regions of the extraction and consumption of oil, which within the limits of individual major regions of the world is overcome using pipeline transport, between the regions of the world - sea transport. The main importers of oil and petroleum products are economically developed countries of the West, which import 1430 million tons, and as the main exporters - developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America (OPEC - 2/3 of world exports).
The largest oil areas: the countries of the Persian, Mexican bays, the Caribbean. Oil is mined in 80 countries. From large countries - oil producers can be allocated Iran, Russia, Mexico, USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia.
In Iran, USA, UAE, Canada, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia there is another wealth - gas. World mining is constantly growing. A lot of exported gas is transported in liquefied. Very large interstate gas pipelines have North America, Western Europe. The main exporter of natural gas is Russia.
Among countries that have the largest oil reserves, Russia is on the 7th place. She is about 2 times more than in the United States, and 4 times more than in Norway. At the same time, it was overtaken by the Arab countries: oil reserves in Saudi Arabia, 5 times more, in Iraq, Kuwait, united Arab Emirates and Iran - approximately twice. However, Russia is the world leader in natural gas reserves. And therefore it leads on the total reserves of oil and gas.
Against the background of other countries, Russia has a fairly conservative policy of energy exports regarding stocks. Comparing large oil and gas exporters, we can conclude that there are two groups of countries. The first includes countries, the proportion of oil and gas of which in export is quite high. These include or key oil exporters in the Middle East, or rather poor countries, such as Gabon, Angola, Nigeria. In the second group, more developed countries, and can be attributed to Canada, Argentina, Australia, Mexico. Russia has a high proportion of oil and gas in exports against the background of developed countries, excluding Norway, where the share of commodity exports is also quite large. However, it should be noted that in relation to Russian reserves, the share of oil and gas exports is not high.
Saudi Arabia oil rich in terms of oil, it drops a little less than half of all reserves in the Arabian Peninsula. Less reserves in Kuwait, Iran, Iraq, UAE. All this can be said, small countries, which for a long time controlled Anglo-American capital.
In recent years, oil and gas production has increased dramatically in the United States. Representatives of the extractive industry, the industrial sector and policies began to discuss the issue of large-scale gas exports and cancellation of the export of oil, operating since the 1970s. While the debate on these issues was conducted from the point of view of business, economics and the environment.
Gas exports from the United States are actually limited to deliveries to the countries with which they have a free trade agreement. According to pipelines to Canada and Mexico, with which this agreement is, there are large volumes, but the supply of liquefied natural gas (LNG) is still insignificant. Construction of the first gas liquefaction outside the Alaska is only underway. In February, the Ministry of Energy approved the construction of an export LNG terminal in the state of Louisiana - the sixth since it began to issue such permissions in 2011. Boner called such paces "painfully slow". "Cancel the actual ban and speed up the approval of gas export applications - the obvious step, which the United States can take to support their allies and resist the aggression from Russia, while creating jobs for Americans," he said.
Companies such as Exxon Mobil, ConocoPhillips and Royal Dutch Shell support the idea of \u200b\u200bincreasing gas exports and cancellation of foreign oil supplies. They will be able to receive additional profits, supplying energy resources to world markets from Bakken shale deposits in North Dakota and Eagle Ford in Texas. Also, many other companies will benefit from this, which will be able to build oil and gas pipelines, as well as terminals for liquefying natural gas. The price of gas to the United States is about a third of the price in Europe and a quarter - from the price of Asia. Therefore, companies intended to deliver it primarily in Asia, but if the US government will make the issue of providing Europe with an important aspect of national security, priorities may change, at least partially. Republican Fred Upton, Chairman of the Committee on Energy and Trade of the House of Representatives, said that the United States should help, in particular, Eastern Europe to receive affordable energy resources from Russia. "The export of American LNG export is an opportunity to resist the impact and relics of Russia, and to achieve this goal we must quickly use energy diplomacy measures," he said.
Now Europe is about 30% of gas imported from Russia, which has repeatedly used the dependence of the old light from its gas as a tool of economic pressure, the Wall Street Journal notes. When price or political disputes arose, Russia slowed down or suspended gas supplies.
While for gas supplies abroad, an expensive infrastructure is needed, the possibility of oil exports depends only on the political decision. The export ban was needed in order to limit the dependence of the United States from oil imports. However, the import of oil from the late 2000s. It is reduced due to the growth of internal production, primarily due to shale deposits. US Energy Minister Ernest Monitis does not exclude the fact that energy resources export restrictions will be weakened. Now the United States exports only about 56,000 barrels of oil per day. It is less than 1% of imports - 7.7 million barrels per day this month. At the same time, it is expected that by 2019 the volume of oil production in the United States will exceed the record level, noted in 1970
In addition, the production and export of petroleum products increases rapidly in the United States (it is not limited). According to the data collected by WSJ and the IHS consulting company, US oil refineries intend to increase oil refining at least 400,000 barrels per day by 2018. Therefore, the export of petroleum products can also grow, especially since companies plan to build several ultralone oil processing factories, Eagle Ford extracted on the shale deposit in Texas. It is relatively inexpensive and fast: such plants are carried out only one stage of oil refining in gasoline or diesel fuel, and then such half recycled oil can be transported on the tankers abroad.
Today, there are more than four thousand international intergovernmental organizations in the world. Their role in the global economy is difficult to overestimate. One of these largest organizations whose name is today for hearing today is the organization of countries - oil exporters (English. The Organization of The Petroleum Exporting Countries; abbreviated OPEC, English Opec).
The organization, also called the cartel, was created by oil-producing countries in order to stabilize oil prices. Her history originates from September 10-14, 1960, from the Baghdad Conference, when OPEC was created to coordinate the oil policy of Member States and, most importantly, in particular the stability of world oil prices.
Proven reserves of oil countries emerging in OPEC today are currently 1,671 billion barrels. OPEC countries control about 2/3 of world oil reserves, which is 77% of all explored global stocks of "black gold". Their share has to produce about 29 million barrels of oil, or about 44% of the global extraction or half of world oil exports. According to the Organization's Secretary General, this figure will increase to 50% by 2020.
If Iraq will be able to perform an oil sales plan, in 2014 it will take second place among China's suppliers. Chinese companies have signed contracts for 882 thousand barrels of Iraqi oil per day, which is 68% more than this year.
In 2013, Iraq ranked fifth among oil suppliers for China, overtaking Iran, thanks to significant discounts on the main export variety BASRA LIGHT. According to Reuters, Iraq offered discounts at $ 0.40-1.10 per barrel to Arabian oil Arab Medium, whereas last year Iraqi oil cost more than Arabian. In addition, according to sources, Iraq compensated for some customers demrezh - payments for simple ships on terminals.
Recently, OPEC analysts released an annual report in which they predicted that the price of oil in the future until 2035 would remain quite stable and increase to $ 160 per barrel. The organization's experts also believe that the global energy needs by 2035 will increase by 52 percent, and more than 80 percent will be covered due to the production of natural minerals.
The expansion of quotas, despite the expected growth of world oil consumption in 2014 by 1.2 million barrels per day (up to 90 million barrels), prevents the increase in production in countries that are not included in the cartel. The growth of proposal in the market, according to OPEC forecast, will take place primarily by increasing the extraction of shale oil in the United States, the development of shelf projects in Brazil and increase supplies from Russia and Kazakhstan. For deliveries from OPEC countries, on the contrary, demand can decrease by 0.5 million barrels per day, expect to organize.
Today, one of the most important problems of the global economy is the question of global increase in oil products.
Despite all the protests and attempts to find environmentally friendly fuel, oil will remain the most popular and most important primary energy carrier in all countries for at least 20-30 years. According to the participants of the International Seminar "Short-term and long-term prospects for the development of world oil markets", the consumption of crude oil in 2005 amounted to about 81-82 million barrels per day, and by 2025 it will reach a level of 114-115 million barrels per day.
Special attention will be paid to Russia in oil markets not only in contacts with OPEC countries, but also in partnership with the main consumer countries. For Russia, without any doubt, this is the European market (about 90 percent of oil exports). Thus, within the framework of the Energy Union of Russia and the European Union, the country agreed, in particular, jointly studying the problems of the influence of strategic oil reserves for the stabilization of the oil market.
Now OPEC provides, according to different estimates, from 30 to 40% of world oil supplies, but its market share is doomed to decline due to increasing problems. Large manufacturers who are not part of the cartel (the same Russia and Brazil) are steadily increasing production without regardless of any quotas. Another occasion in the side of the cartel is a shale boom that makes large raw buyers more and more independent. Thanks to him, the USA and Canada over the past two years have increased production on average per million barrels per day, and in 2014 the states will add another million. The American course on non-volatility is disturbed by OPEC long ago and is harmoniously: in 2015, the United States can bypass oil and Russia, and Saudis.
Participants in the global oil market can be various companies that can be classified on features, dimension, scale, as well as specialization in manufacturing, financial, infrastructure activities.
National oil companies - companies that belong to the government of the state, manufacturer and exporter of this resource. In most countries, these companies are either in close cooperation or in a merger, with leading oil corporations of the world. The most famous oil companies are: Kuwaitskaya NNA (KOS), Petromine (Saudi Arabia), Elf Akiten (France), Statoil (Norway), Nicks (Iran), Eni (Italy), Ednock (Abu Dhabi), Total (France), Sion Break (Algeria), PDVSU (Venezuela), Pematov (Indonesia), NNPS (Nigeria), Pemex (Mexico),.
Four geographic regions are distinguished, which can be called crude oil markets. We are talking about the North American continent; Mediterranean and the Atlantic basin, including the countries of the Caribbean; Persian Gulf; Pacific coast. Petroleum products have five key regions, and they include North America, Western Europe, Mediterranean, Persian Bay, APR countries.
Large companies are interested in leading long-term cooperation and jointly master petroleum fields in countries of oil exporters. An important moment for them is the political and legal stability of these countries.
Numerous studies that conduct international organizations and national teams of scientists, including in Russia, suggest that, despite the fact that it is important and significantly, from the growth of energy consumption and, therefore, the production of energy in the world is not going anywhere, at least , in the next 25-30 years. The energy strategy proceeds from the fact that foreign economic cooperation is an important additional factor in stabilization of the situation of the country and its further efficient development, while at the same time providing Russia with an important role in meeting the needs for energy resources (especially in natural gas) of most European countries and a number of other regions of the world.
In the US and Canada, oilmen are interested in replacing imports, but not in the fall in prices for their products. Shale gas in America today is almost three times cheaper than Russian in Europe, but no one has proven that in the case of the formation of its global market, gas will benefit in Europe, and does not rise in price in America. The development of new deposits is the case is not cheap, especially when they open in countries that have never differ in the desire to dump their goods.
As for black fuel, the US is now unable to refuse import of oil, to significantly increase exports simply due to the absence of a sufficient amount of raw materials produced. Despite the rise in the level of oil production in the United States to 7.5 million barrels per day, the daily consumption in the country itself has already closely approached 19 million barrels per day. For comparison: Russia sends to 4.7 million barrels in the Western direction.
Prices for oil meanwhile and so declining, and significantly. And if in the remote future it can be useful, right now it is nothing but problems does not bring. In 2012, it rose to 111.86 dollars. And then the decline began: since the beginning of the current year, the average price of the barrel of the Northwaist mixture is 108.6 dollars. To keep them at least at such a level next year, the leading Arab participants of OPEC will need to reduce production by 1-2 million barrels per day, calculated Bloomberg. This, provided that Iran, Libya and Iraq will not refuse intentions to increase production unilaterally.
A civilized way to redistribute energy resources between countries is the real achievement of the XX century. In the next few decades, international energy fluxes will significantly increase compared to today, and regional and local energy markets will become transcontinental. As a result, the world community will have a high-quality, modern and more reliable energy system. Natural gas and oil will be the main sources of these achievements.
1.3 Arctic as a perspective region of energy mining
More than half of the fabric reserves of hydrocarbons in the Arctic zone accounted for in the territory owning or to which Russia claims. Pretends - because Russia has practically annually to prove in the UN Commission on the borders of the continental shelf that its 200-mile exceptional economic zone in accordance with the Law of the Sea should be expanded to 350 miles. In 2001, our country failed to prove that the Lomonosov Ridge and the Raising Mendeleev - the continuation of the Russian continental shelf. Today there will be the second attempt.
Under these conditions, Russia should strengthen work on international support. In this sense, it is still in isolation. But may, obviously, find a reliable ally - in the face of China.
The Arctic region has the impressive reserves of energy resources - according to the US geological studies, in the territory of the Arctic there are up to 22% of undisclosed gas fields and 13% of oil fields from world reserves. Geologists do not exclude that the region is also rich in gold, diamonds, nickel, coal and platinum. All these "wealth" are estimated at several billion dollars and are desirable objects for the participants of the Arctic Council.
It is worth noting that, according to international legislation, the North Pole is a "free" territory and does not belong to any state. The right to an exceptional economic zone (limited to 320 kilometers) have only states with the Arctic coasts.
The members of the Arctic Council are Russia, Canada, USA, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway and Iceland (see Appendix 1). The permanent participants are six organizations of the indigenous peoples of the Arctic (to which Atabasi, Aleuts and others include). In addition, there are countries that do not have access to the Arctic, but wearing observer status. So, in the recently past eighth session of the Arctic Council, India, Japan, Italy, South Korea, Singapore and China was provided by the observer. The latter is considered one of the most stakeholders in the development of the Arctic. "Accession to the Council is a largest political initiative of such countries as China. The desire to take place at the table of negotiations on the fate of the region reflects geopolitical ambitions, "said the executive director of the Arctic Institute in Washington Malt Gumpert.
According to experts, in the future, oil, gas, gold, coal, etc. is possible on the territory of the Arctic region. However, the prospects for the development of oil and gas fields in practice may not be such favorable - states and energy companies will have to invest a lot of money in creating the necessary infrastructure. According to estimates conducted in 2006 by the International Energy Agency, the development of energy resources in the Arctic may only be justified if the cost of extraction of one barrel will not exceed $ 60. Infield analysts appreciated the total "costs of incorporating proven oil and gas reserves through exploration and development" in the amount of 33 billion dollars only for the period up to 2017, and most of the spending will fall on Russia.
According to the analyst "Finam" Anatoly Vakulento, oil production in the territory of the Arctic may become for industry companies a competitive alternative to developing deep-air oil in hard-to-reach areas of Russia. "The possibility of delivering drilling equipment, as well as oil obtained by sea allows, despite the fairly complex drilling conditions and large depths of the occurrence, as well as the risks of leaks, seriously reduce costs. For the Russian Arctic shelf, an additional bonus is the revival of the use of the Northern Sea Path in connection with the departure of ice and the opportunity to transport oil to the markets of Southeast Asia, which increase consumption in recent decades, "the expert explained to AIF.RU correspondent, adding that Asian Companies are interested in developing these deposits.
Arctic areas and shelves of the seas of the Northern Ocean of all circumpolar countries are rich in many minerals, including hydrocarbons. According to the results of research both Russian and Western scientists, the most oil and gas is located in the Arctic territory and the Russian waters. Particular attention is paid to the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District, the Yamal Peninsula and the Gydan Peninsula. In the Krasnoyarsk Territory, the Yenisei Khatanga Mezhdachye and National Hatang district can be called promising territories in the field of energy. It is also worth noting the territory between the Rivers of Anabar and Lena in the north of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). As for the shelves of the seas of the Arctic Ocean, then especially saturated hydrocarbons, the shelves of Barents and Kara Seas, the Obskaya and Taza lips, the Yenisei bay. Work in the field of geology at these waters began quite recently, but a lot of giants such as Shtokman, Leningrad, Rusanovskoe and other deposits are open.
It is believed that Russia should not be in a rush with the study of the waters of the Northern Ice, because there is still a sufficient amount of oil and gas on land ... Undoubtedly, the prospects for hydrocarbon production are enormous, but this does not mean that the energy resources of the Arctic should apply only to exhaust all Reserves on the continent. Russia should purposefully and effectively develop its Arctic water area.
Russia must begin work in the Arctic today and maintain it systematically and measured. This is a particularly important task, since our country acts as a stabilizer of world oil and gas markets and actually performs this role.
As for the methods and technologies that are used in the development of energy resources in the Arctic, then an exclusively professional approach is needed. It is necessary to master all the best, use modern equipment, which is from our potential partners and at the same time create their own technologies that will not give up as, their instrument making and mechanical engineering, their scientific sphere.
At the end of last year, employees of the University of China's Oceanology Hemin and Zhao Yuisue published in the journal Katsei Yuzy ("Science and Technology in the Enterprise") article "Strategy of Sino-Russian Energy Cooperation in the Arctic", which was also posted on some Chinese sites. The PRC conducts an active policy aimed at ensuring uninterrupted energy supplies for the national economy. In this regard, scientists confidently write that "participation in the development of the richest reserves of the natural resources of the Arctic will contribute to the maintenance of China's energy security and is our strategic choice."
"The development of energy resources of the Arctic is of strategic importance for China," researchers believe. "Since most of the natural resources you are interested in are located in Russia, strengthening the Chinese-Russian energy cooperation in the Arctic will allow the" energy supply "of China, to reduce economic risks, to promote the strategic correction of the country's energy structure and provide our energy security." By specifying which the Arctic resources are strategic importance for China, the authors turn to the fact that in the development of the world's largest Shtokman field of natural gas, Russia has a lack of technologies and finances. Therefore, "Joint participation in the development of the Shtokman deposit can be the basis for the development of bilateral energy cooperation in the Arctic."
Gas Shtokman was supposed to be produced in more than 500 km from the coast at a depth of 300-400 meters in the conditions of the Polar region, delivered along the pipe to the mainland, to recycle in LNG in the village of Teriberka on the coast of the Kola Peninsula, and then sell to different markets, the main of which are US . Chinese participation in the Shtokman scientists see, first of all, in providing a huge PRC market for gas sales from the Arctic and financial support for this project in two forms: or by purchasing shares, or in the form of loans. Giving Russia the opportunity to still own 51% of shares in the Shtokman field, they argue that China can smooth out the share of French Total - 25% and Norwegian Statoil - 24%. "The gradual involvement of Chinese companies in the development of the resources of the Arctic will allow us to avoid the energy crisis and strengthen business contacts between China and the countries of Northern Europe," he is written by Hemin and Zhao Yusyue.
At the same time, the consecutive authors do or really know that in the summer of 2012, the shareholder agreement on the Shtokman Development consortium created in 2008 with the participation of Gazprom, Total and Statoil, and the consortium actually collapsed. As is known, Shtokman has lost the North American LNG markets due to the start of shale gas production in the United States, which was originally oriented. And I could not reorient the supply to Europe and the APR Gazprom, despite the promise of unprecedented preferences (zero NPPI rate, reduced export duties and property tax, as well as benefits to import equipment).
Therefore, the considerations of Chinese scientists about the possibility of importing to the PRC market, at first glance, it is more than appropriate and in a timely manner. At the same time, the Chinese even calculated that "in the near future, the production of 30 billion cubic meters of gas per year is possible, of which 10 billion cubic meters of Russia can send to China, and 20 billion cubic meters to Europe." "Given that in the Arctic Region today there is a significant demand for Chinese investments," He is written by Imin and Zhao Yuisue, "the joint participation in the development of the Shtokman deposit can be the basis for the development of bilateral energy cooperation in the Arctic." Scientists even lead some calculations and conclude that the financial participation of the PRC in the implementation of the Shtokman deposit will allow to guarantee the accounting of Russia of Chinese national interests in solving the problem of energy deficiency. "Predicted," Chinese scientists write, "that in the next ten years Russia will be the largest exporter of natural gas to China. Therefore, the development of a constructive dialogue between China and Russia in the energy sector and the gradual involvement of Chinese companies in the development of the Arctic resources will allow us to avoid the energy crisis and strengthen business contacts between China and the countries of Northern Europe. "
In the world, several energy centers, such as African, Middle Eastern, who are currently in a state of serious instability, was noted by Boris Nikolaevich. - The Arctic is also an energy center, and we should not allow the stress to come here. The developed partnership strategy of eight Arctic states, where Russia will play a key role - an option that will avoid a negative situation.
Among key factors that restrain the development of deposits, the expert called the high cost of extraction of arctic hydrocarbons, in the area of \u200b\u200b500-700 dollars per ton of oil equivalent. For comparison in developed areas of the Persian Gulf, it is equal to 30-50 dollars. We add that the market for which the Hydrocarbons of the Arctic Shelf originally was directed to the American shale gas, the price of which is on average 100 dollars. The United States ranks second in the world in the reserves of this type of gas.
At the moment, Russia has no experience in the production of oil in polar latitudes, so it is extremely important to develop cooperation with foreign companies and to interimalize education.
In order for the oil and gas development of the Arctic to be economically attractive, it is necessary to develop a constant passage of ships through the northern seaside so that it worked for the flow, to invest in mass preparation of high-class specialists, to create conditions for attracting Russian and foreign companies, to modernize Russian Arctic ports and adopt the state program Development of the Arctic shelf. In these measures, there is a successful perspective of the development of the Russian Arctic.
All these measures should lead to the gradual development of Arctic fields. Throughout the lecture, Anatoly Zolotukhin repeated that priority attention should be drawn to compliance with all environmental standards, since any accident will be fraught with a fragile Arctic ecosystem.
CHAPTER 2. PROSPECTS OF RUSSIA in the global energy market
2.1 Economic and Energy Interests of Russia in the Arctic
The Arctic for Russia is one of the most important and promising regions, on the development and study of which there is a considerable amount of funds from the federal budget. It is necessary to emphasize that Russia's interests in the Arctic region are diverse. In 2008, Russian President Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev approved the foundations of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic for the period up to 2020 and the future perspective. According to this document, the priority areas and the main national interests of Russia in the Arctic region are:
a) comprehensive socio-economic development of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation;
b) the development of science and technology;
c) the creation of a modern information and telecommunications infrastructure;
d) ensuring environmental safety;
e) international cooperation in the Arctic;
(e) Ensuring military security, protection and protection of the state border of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.
To date, the world community, the Arctic is considered primarily as an energy and hydrocarbon base. However, according to the forecasts of many scientists, the fate of the Arctic region will go beyond the scope of energy borders, and the Arctic will become one of the most important economic centers. It is necessary to focus not only on the study, development and mining of minerals (in particular the main hydrocarbons - oil and gas), but also on the development of infrastructure, restoration of transport routes, fisheries and international cooperation.
For Russia, the Arctic has not only energy, but also economic and strategic importance. For the development of the Economic Sector, a system of measures of state support was developed, which stimulates economic entities, whose activities occur in the Arctic region, in particular - the development of water biological resources, the use of modern and innovative technologies, the development of transport and energy infrastructure, modern information and telecommunication infrastructure, and also Improving customs tariff and tax regulation.
The economic benefits of the development of the Arctic and the need for an annual increase in financing are not originally obvious. However, the regional financing is more an investment project, the return on which is predicted in the medium and long term, rather than the short-term plan.
The priority directions of Russia in the economic sphere are:
A) fisheries development
B) increasing shipping
C) international cooperation for improving infrastructure and transport paths
D) hydrocarbon production
According to the deserved economist of Russia, the head of the economy of maritime activities in the Arctic Vasilyeva A. M., today in the northern part of Russia there is a need to develop fishery and fish processing on the basis of the experience of the United States of America in the territory of Alaska. As Anatoly Mikhailovich notes: "Sea biological resources must first be operated in the interests of coastal communities, give them jobs and livelihoods ... The population living on the coast should have access to the extraction and processing of marine bioresources in the first place. This is evidenced by the organization of fisheries in the Nordic countries neighboring with the Russian Federation - in Norway, Denmark, Iceland and others. However, for the development of fisheries and fish processing in places with underdeveloped infrastructure, in our opinion, the experience of the United States in Alaska is most suitable for the highest extent. "
Efficient fisheries development in the Arctic region must begin to improve legislative and regulatory acts, which not only do not contribute, and even to some extent are an obstacle.
The next stage is the construction of plants for fishing processing. It is at this stage that the methods of development of the northern regions are necessary to introduce, which are used in Alaska. The possibility of accelerated processing will contribute to an increase in the turnover of seafood, and modern fillets, freezing and storage of fish will be able to replenish the budget of the regions.
The final stage of the development of the region is international cooperation with other countries: reducing seafood imports to the minimum value and export of bioresources to neighboring countries.
Expansion of the fishing industry in the Arctic region will facilitate:
A) attract investors and additional financing
B) bioresourcing development efficiency
C) a significant reduction in unemployment
D) the ability to reduce the import of marine products from Asia
E) the construction of new, modern factories, as well as berths that can accelerately unload vessels and take a greater number of maritime transport.
According to research of the Russian Council on international affairs, interest in shipping is growing annually. Increasing traffic intensity in the Arctic is characterized by the development of international shipping in the Northern Sea Route.
However, there are a lot of problems, therefore the prospects for the use of the Arctic trails for regular maritime transportation are estimated to be carefully with a variety of risks:
A) High cost of ships equipped for swimming in the Arctic waters
B) the lack of modern transport infrastructure, which includes service of ships
C) weak ice environment monitoring and communication with the courts.
D) inaccuracy in the preparation of the chalp and possible paths
On the other hand, for Russia, shipping on the Northern Sea Route, through the inner waters of the Russian Federation has several advantages that should be emphasized:
A) For many decades, there was only one possible sea route from Europe to Asia - through the Suez Canal, which belongs to Egypt. Travel duration is about three weeks, which is a rather long period for many corporations due to the hot climatic conditions of the tropics, the need to maintain a moderate product storage temperature and perishable products.
The Northern Sea Path is an alternative option for transporting goods from Europe to Asia. The duration of traffic is reduced by a week, which is a significant factor in the economic sphere and business.
B) Unlike the sea route between the European market and the Pacific region through the Suez Canal, the northern seaway is safer in the field of piracy. At the banks of Somalia occasionally occasion of the attacks of sea "pirates" on the cargo vessel. Due to cold climatic conditions, as well as serious control and regulation, the North-Arctic Ocean is absolutely safe. (See Appendix 2)
To date, the main share of Arctic shipping accounts for fishing activities. It also discusses the possibility of increasing transit flights and volumes of transit traffic. Dynamics is obvious - over the past three years, the number of traffic has increased 4 times.
Over the past 20 years, the main focus of state policy has determined the development of natural resources. Energy interest in the Arctic region is growing every year, and not only from the Arctic countries. For Russia, the importance of mastering oil and gas fields is difficult to overestimate: despite the overweight costs in mining and difficulties in further transportation, development and research continue to be financed.
Figure 2. Distribution of hydrocarbon resources on marine waters,%
Currently, it is worth noting an increase in the duration of the navigation period, due to the reduction of the duration of the ice cover, which has a positive effect on the availability of minerals in the region. With the use of modern technologies, there is an active development of territorial water for the presence of hydrocarbons and their further mining in the Barents Sea, Kara and Chukchi. A detailed distribution of hydrocarbon resources can be seen in Figure 2.
It is especially worth emphasizing the importance and value of research on domestic geo-physicists according to the forecast and clarify the number of hydrocarbon reserves and other minerals. With enhanced support from the state, Russian science opens a completely new, which is still unknown by the entire Geological world of the Arctic.
Studies, development and mining are carried out not only by the state. In the Arctic region, there are also Russian oil and gas corporations, such as LUKOIL, Gazprom, Gazpromneft. To date, oil and gas producing companies create their own tanker fleets for transporting hydrocarbons to the continent. According to the magazine "The Energy of the Arctic": LUKOIL has already acquired his icebreaking fleet and continues to expand the power of the ice class tanker fleet. It is expected that until 2020, resource-producing companies will acquire approximately 60-90 courts.
Despite the fact that the Arctic is to a greater extent only a promising region, which can become economically - beneficial only in a few years, Russia pays a huge amount of funds to develop the Arctic. This region has not only political, but also economic and energy importance, as well as the possibility of establishing international relations between countries.
2.2 Energy Strategy of Russia
Russia has one of the first places in the global turnover of energy resources, it takes an active part in world trade, and actively cooperates in this area.
Especially significant positions of the country can be called positions in the hydrocarbon market.
Recently, Russia is leading in terms of the production of crude oil, it provides 12% of oil trade in the world. About 4/5 of the volume of oil Russia receives Europe, and Russia's share in European markets is about 30%. The main direction of export of oil products of Russia is Europe.
Russia is also leading on natural gas reserves (23%) and on its annual mining, while Russia providing 25% of world trade in natural gas, and leads not only in the European gas market, but also in the CIS. If you take the amount of gas consumption in foreign Europe (including Turkey there, but excluding the CIS country), then the Russian gas will have about 3%. Russia has a unique gas transmission system, which is improved annually. New pipelines are being built through neutral waters. It also helps to ensure the supply of Central Asian gas to Europe and the CIS countries.
Russia has a second place in the world in the world (19% of all reserves in the world), the fifth place is the annual production volumes (5%). Also, Russia provides about 12% of the entire trade in energy coal in the world, which is a rather significant indicator compared to the rest of the countries.
The Russian nuclear energy accounts for 5% of world atomic electrical generation, 15% of the total reactor construction, 45% of the uranium enrichment market, 15% of the exhaust fuel conversion. Russia is also 8% of all the extraction of natural uranium.
By these factors, if we take into account the foreign energy policy conducted by Russia, it will be in the future to be determined by its situation in the world energy markets.
Of course, Russia will always be one of the leaders in the hydrocarbon market, will actively develop carbon and electricity markets, and in world nuclear energy only will only strengthen its position.
In addition to the export of primary energy carriers, the development of exports of products with a deep degree of processing is deserved, as well as Russian fuel and energy companies, it is necessary to develop its production abroad. In particular, Russia in the future is interesting highly competitive global markets for oil and gas chemical products.
And although now Russia is practically no on the global energy market for renewable energy sources, it is interested in this promising direction. The potential of renewable energy sources, which is available in Russia and scientific and technological progress in this area, as well as international cooperation should be in stages to increase Russia in the development of this market.
Until 2030, energy exports remain an important aspect in the national economy of the country, but its influence on the economy will be reduced. This will affect the dynamics of exports, which will grow much slower, and, as experts expect, will become quite stable by the end of the specified period.
This trend complements the long-term economic policy of the state, which is trying to diversify the economy and reduce the dependence of the state from the export of energy resources.
The Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation provides for diversification of the commodity structure of energy exports, since exports will increase the share of energy products that have high added value (petroleum products, liquefied natural gas, gas engine fuels, gas and petrochemistry products, electricity).
Consequently, Russia will not only maintain its position in the global energy market as the largest energy supplier, but will also qualitatively change the nature of its presence on it, diversifying the commodity structure and the directions of energy exports of Russia, actively developing new forms of international energy business and expanding the presence of Rubeye Russian companies. It is assumed that the risk of monode dependence of energy of Russia from energy exports to Europe will decrease, and the income will increase and become more efficient international activities of Russian fuel and energy companies, without increasing largely the exports of primary energy carriers.
To date, Russia's energy strategy is one of the most important areas in the modern policy of the state. The purpose of this strategy is the most efficient use of natural energy energy resources and the potential of the energy sector for sustainable growth of the economy. The main vectors of this policy are:
A) transition to innovative, energy efficient and modern development
B) an increase in the scale of energy production
C) creating a competitive environment
D) integration into the global energy system
However, this strategy also has a number of problematic issues of energy development. First of all, this is the need to reduce the dependence of the budget of Russia from the export of fuel and energy resources. Secondly, the possibility of mining in difficult areas, such as the Arctic.
An innovative policy that aims to develop the fuel and energy complex provides for the creation of conditions for the formation of scientific and technical, technological and economic and organizational processes.
Currently, difficult regional challenges arise in front of the oil and gas industry. The European market strengthens the frequency competition through the search for new suppliers of energy resources. In particular, for Gazprom, these negative solutions adversely affect gas supply and profit.
The energy strategy of Russia is built in view of the fact that Western partners are primarily European countries, develop their own strategy of relations with Russia and other CIS countries, taking into account that to begin, ensure reliability and increase energy supplies, keep the status of a reliable supplier and become new The leading state is the exporter of oil and gas, pushing the Arabic oil and gas, while achieving favorable conditions and appropriate guarantees for their consumers and investors.
The American Energy Strategy implies a decline in energy imports to a minimum and the beginning of exports to Europe. Moreover, one of the components of this strategy is to reduce the dependence of many countries, including Asian, from Russian energy resources.
To date, the fuel and energy complex from an economic point of view is the most efficient industry in Russia. According to research on the auditor of the Accounts Chamber of Sergey Nikolayevich Ryabukhin - the development of the energy complex at the state level is necessary, since all the leading Russian industries are consumers of the oil and gas sector and will not be able to effectively develop.
Most of the projects developed by this strategy are already implemented in practice. The development of projects occurs within the framework of the trends provided for in the strategy until 2020, despite the substantial deviations of the economic indicators and the destabilization of international political and economic relations.
The strategy 2020 in the field of energy involves overcoming not only internal obstacles, which arise as a result of the depletion of oil and gas fields, transportation to various regions and processing, but also external associated with the instability of world energy markets, political situations in various countries and worldwide volatility prices.
The domestic demand for energy resources in Russia is determined by the dynamics of the development of the economy, its stabilization. The main task of this strategy at the state level is to reduce the specific energy intensity of the economy. To solve this problem, due to the increase in energy prices, the development of low-energy industrial production industries, which produce high-tech and high-tech products, are envisaged. At the same time, the energy complex will develop extremely technologically, i.e. Without expanding and without increasing production, thereby reducing the proportion of the country's GDP.
As for the position of Russia in the world energy markets, it takes one of the leading positions, actively participates in trade and cooperates with many countries. Russian economic policy today is directed almost only to the European market, the satisfaction of the energy needs of the eurozone countries. The "Northern Stream" pipeline was built, the construction of the "Southern Flood" is coming to an end.
The economic strategy until 2030 implies a decrease in dependence on the European imports of hydrocarbons and reorientation to the East: to China, Japan, the Republic of Korea and the countries of the Pacific region.
According to the energy strategy of Russia for the period up to 2030, there are several stages for its implementation.
The first stage is to quickly overcome crisis phenomena and the formation of a basis for a new economy. During this period, it will be necessary to update the main production facilities in the infrastructure of the energy sector. In connection with the need to overcome the crisis, significantly increase the presence of the state in the industry, which should compensate for the instability of the post-crisis situation, which is characterized by instability and unpredictability of financial world markets.
The second stage is the transition to an innovative economy, its creation and implementation. However, at this stage there are certain risks: primarily this is a significant lag of the Russian energy industry from advanced states. Secondly - the lack of conditions for the transition to the innovative energy of the future. But despite all these risks, state participation will weaken, since the industry will develop, and therefore attract new investors not only from Russia, but also from abroad.
The third stage, the final, is characterized by the development of an innovative economy. Secured by investment support and modern, new technologies, the energy sector will make it possible to form a sustainable institutional environment in which the functioning of the economy and the development of all its industries stabilizes.
At the end of the third stage in 2030, the possibilities of the energy sector, in connection with the implementation of the Energy Strategy of Russia, will significantly increase and will acquire a completely new character. This jump will allow Russia not only to extract oil and export it to countries, but also to recycle and supply high-quality oil products to the Russian market and foreign. The gas industry will continue to develop an accelerated pace, which will allow our state to increase revenues to the state budget and develop the economy, the social sector in the territory of the whole state.
Conclusion
For Russia in energy policy, the goal is the most efficient use of natural resources and the possibilities of the energy system for the growth of economic indicators, improving the quality of life of the country's population, strengthening foreign economic positions.
The main energy problem in the external economy lies in the need to overcome the threats related to the instability of world energy markets and the volatility of world prices for energy resources, as well as ensuring the contribution of the country's energy sector in improving the efficiency of its foreign economic activity and the strengthening of Russia's position in the world economic system.
The future development of global energy markets is associated with the processes of their restructuring, which increasing the role of developing countries, exacerbating competition and the desire of countries to become owners of energy sources.
The global politicization of energy problems, as well as the objective importance of the Russian fuel and energy complex in the global economy, determine the important role of the country's foreign energy policy. Many experts come to the conclusion that when joining the global community during the period of serious energy, sellers will have more privileged positions than buyers.
Russia is now becoming the most important country exporter of Eneenergores, and with the development of Arctic fields, the role of Russia in the foreign market can radically change towards an increase in exports. But for a significant jerk forward to export, Russia needs not only to explore new deposits, develop them, but also to modernize technical equipment, building pipelines, ensure the transit of resources to buyers. And, the same - access to new consumers of energy resources.
Unique as geopolitical and the geographical position of Russia creates all the necessary conditions in order for the transit of hydrocarbons to ensure the reliability of its supply to fuel and energy resources, their effective export and receiving income from transit functions.
The strategic interests of the Russian Federation dictate the need to create a unified energy and energy transport infrastructure in the European and Asian regions, the development of international energy transport systems and ensuring the transit of energy carriers. To this end, the state will develop the participation of Russian joint-stock companies and companies in the development and implementation of large-scale international gas transport projects, oil and electricity both in the Western and Eastern Directions.
For many states in the world, the development of the most important sectors of the economy, such as: Metallurgy, Light Industry, Agriculture, fully depends on the establishment of partnerships with energy-exporters.
Studying the structure of the global energy market, in particular, the oil and gas market can be concluded: this sector will not lose its relevance over two to three decades. Despite all sorts of searches for alternative energy, hydrocarbons remain the cheapest energy resources in the world.
The economic importance of energy in Russia is very difficult to overestimate. Within decades, the energy industry was one of the priorities for the Russian Federation and over the years I was improved: new hydrocarbon deposits were opened, the system of mining and processing was improved, oil and gas pipelines were built. Moreover, the energy has become not only an economic, but also a political resource, which is used to establish international relations, as well as international cooperation between countries.
Summing up this work, I would like to emphasize the items that, in my opinion, are key in this work:
A) the formation of new and serious modernization of old world energy markets in the global energy system;
B) economic influences in particular - the 2008 crisis, on the structure of the global energy market as a whole;
C) the strategic importance of countries - energy exporters on the formation of international economic and political relations;
D) prospects for the Arctic region as a new energy goal of many states;
E) the strategic importance of the Arctic in the modern economy of the Russian Federation.
During the work, all the tasks set at the beginning of work were achieved:
- The first chapter addressed the features and structure of the modern energy market. Exploring this task was allocated main organizations that regulate international relations: MEA, IAEA. Also marked their main functions, goals and objectives.
- Considering the role of leading energy-exporter countries, I have studied a number of states that have a direct impact on the formation of the global energy market. The possibilities of these countries make it possible to increase hydrocarbon production and form global, transcontinental energy markets.
- According to data, in the Arctic there is about 20% of undiscovered oil and gas fields. Every year, geologists open new deposits that increase the attractiveness of this region. According to the results of many predictions, in the medium and long term, the Arctic will actively develop in the field of mining and transportation of energy resources. The role of the Arctic will increase not only in the economy and policies of the priorctic states, but also among countries that have the possibility of energy mining.
- For Russia, in the short and mid-term perspective, the main focus remains the European market: the transit of hydrocarbons through the neutral waters of the Baltic Sea to the northern part of Europe and through the Black Sea and the Mediterranean in South. In the long term, this is the implementation of projects in the Arctic for the extraction of hydrocarbons, the construction of pipelines in Asia to strengthen international relations primarily with China.
Having studied all these items, on the basis of read literature and the material under study, I made the following conclusion: Despite all possible difficulties that arise in the framework of the implementation of projects, the global crisis, geopolitical problems and international relations on the political arena, Russia strives to solve the most important task for it - Reduce the specific energy intensity of the economy, which will continue to accelerate growth rates.
To solve this problem, the state increases its influence in this industry in order to reduce the risks and increase control over budget financing of the energy sector. Russia annually increases the production of hydrocarbons, opens and explores new deposits containing oil and gas, increases importance in the global market for energy resources, concludes long-term contracts for the supply of essential hydrocarbons.
The Arctic becomes a promising region of oil and gas production. The research provides a considerable amount of budgetary funds, which, in the future, on forecasts of Russian scientists will pay off.
First of all, the Arctic is a strategically important territory, which in the future will serve not only by the field saturated with oil and gas, but also the region, which, unlike the "hot" points (Libya, Syria, Ukraine) of partnership and compromise among all countries interested in the Arctic.
Russia is one of the world's largest exporter, producer and consumer of energy resources. In order to ensure fair prices for hydrocarbons, it will actively conduct a dialogue with countries producing and consuming energy resources. Russia will continue to participate in the work of international energy conferences, cooperate with industrialized countries based on the Declaration on Cooperation with the International Energy Agency and within the G8, as well as interacting with leading oil exporters - both independent and members of OPEC.
Important for effective policies on external fuel and energy markets will have its legislative support. Laws and amendments to current laws in terms of regulation of capital exportation from Russia and investments of Russian companies abroad, support of domestic companies in the struggle for resources and markets for energy markets, the development of joint ventures and attracting foreign investment in the production (production) of energy resources in the country, Including electricity generation.
