Apolinarian Vasnetsov. Red Square in the second half of the XVII century (1918)
The territory of Russia by the end of the XVII century. significantly increased by the accession of the Left Bank of Ukraine and Eastern Siberia. However, a huge country was weakly populated, especially Siberia, where on the verge of the XVII-XVIII centuries. There are only 61 thousand Russian people lived.
The total population of Russia for 1678 - 11.2 million peopleFrom which there were 180 thousand from which the townspeople accounted for. This testified to the low level of division of labor, and consequently, the development of the economy. The bulk of the population was the peasants, among which landlords prevailed (52%), then walked peasants who belonged to the clergy (16%) and the royal surname (9.2%). Unlocked peasants numbered 900 thousand. All this population was feudal-dependent on landowners, clergy, royal surname and state. The privileged estates treated the noblemen (70 thousand) and the clergy (140 thousand). The most populated areas were considered an unborn-earth center, as well as the Western and North-West regions, that is, the territories with the least fertile lands.
Cathedral Code of 1649 and legal registration of serfdom
By virtue of extremely primitive tools for the development of the economy and the regular need of the state in cash (mainly on the maintenance of the state apparatus and maintaining wars) by the middle of the XVII century. The state elected the path to further reassurance of peasants, and the Cathedral Code of 1649 became its legal framework.
According to the cessation of 1649, a permanent suction of the runaway peasants was established, which indicates the transformation of them into the hereditary property of the landowner, palace departments and spiritual owners. Articles XI Chapter "Court of Peasants" provided for the size of a fine (10 rubles per year) for the reception and holding of a runaway, the procedure for transferring them to legal owners, the fate of the attached in the races of children, as well as property, was instructed, how to act in cases where a runaway peasant, To check the traces, changed the name, etc.
Changed the status and suburban population, Dotola considered free. Thus, the head of the XIX distributed a serfdom to the Posad population - she forever attached a Posal man to Posada, determined the criteria for enrolling the population into it. One of the main norms of the chapter is the elimination of white Slobod, as a rule, belonged to large secular and spiritual feudals. The estate privilege of the Posh population is a monopoly on the occupation of trading and fisheries. The chapter defined the procedure for the acquisition of Posad by trading and fishing population. Symptoms, for which those who left Posad were forcibly returned to him, there were three: "According to Starin", that is, those who were previously nosed in it; by kinship, that is, all relatives of the Posal man were enrolled in Posad; Finally, by the family of classes. The main subsitude of landing people consisted of a mandatory classes of trading and fisheries - both was the source of financial revenues in the treasury.
Serfdom
The confusion of the beginning of the XVII century. accompanied by the destruction of productive forces and a decrease in population. It also caused the launch: on the extensive territory, especially in the center, the sources in many cases noted the presence of arable land, the "forest of the crust" thickness in the hand. But the troubled, besides, undermined the century-old living conditions: instead of Sokh and Sickle in the hands of the peasant, there was a chain - the detachments rushed along the country, which robbed the local population. The protracted nature of the economic recovery, which took three decades - the 20-50s. The XVII century, also explained by the low fertility of the soil of non-black earth and the weak resistance of the peasant economy with natural conditions: early frosts, as well as abundant rains, caused cropping crops, attracted tenants. The scourge of animals were contagious animal diseases, who deprived the peasant family of both the tight livestock and milk and meat. Pashnya was processed by traditional weapons, remaining over the centuries unchanged: Dish, Broeon, Sherp, less often oblique and plow. The prevailing agriculture system was Three Piece , that is, the alternation of winter and yarre crops with steam. In the northern regions preserved foreign - The most time-consuming agriculture system, when the landpaste should dump the forest, burn it, braid the earth and then fall. True, the exhausting work of the peasant was rewarded with higher harvests in those several years when the ash feather the soil. The abundance of land allowed to use fRACK. - exhausted soil threw out for several years, during which she restored fertility, then again launched into the economic turnover.
The low level of agricultural culture was explained not only to the unfavorable soil-climatic conditions, but also generated by the lack of interest among the peasant interest in increasing the results of labor - landlords, monasteries and the administration of the royal victuchin were often overwhelmed in their favor not only surplus, but also the necessary product. From here, the use of routine equipment and routine systems of agriculture, which were consistent with the consistently low yields - for themselves-two or three, that is, from each sown grain, the landpasses received two or three new ones. The main shift in agriculture consisted in some elimination of its natural closetness and gradually retracting into market relations. This long process proceeded extremely slowly and in the XVII century. He affected only a minor layer of landowners, first of all those who had large farms. The main mass of both peasant and landlords retained a natural character: the peasants were content with what they themselves produced, and the landowners were the fact that they delivered the same peasants in the form of a natural exchange: bird, meat, fat, eggs, ham, coarse cloth , canvas, wooden and clay dishes, etc.
Sources of the XVII century. Save for us descriptions of two types of farms ( smallopomy and krupomnoye ) And two trends in their development. An example of one type was the economy of the largest landowner of Morozov. Boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov , "Uncle" (educator) Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, married to the sister of the sister of the king, was distinguished, as he believed, excessive greed and compliance. About Boyarin contemporaries said that he was "the same thirst for gold, like an ordinary thirst for drinking." The accumulation in this childless family absorbed a lot of energy of his chapter, and he significantly increased his possessions: in the 20s. It was listed 151 yard, populated by 233 male souls, and after his death, 9100 yards were left with 27,400 serfs. The originality of the farm Morozov gave the presence of various fishers in it. Along with agriculture in his rewards located in 19 countries of the country, engaged in the production of potash - fertilizer from ash, not only used in their farm, but also exported abroad. Located in the Volga Persons of the Willow, which was produced by Potash, brought a grandiose the grandiose for those times the profit - 180 thousand rubles. Morozov's farm was diversified - it contained a distillery and a ferrous plant in the Zvenigorodsky county.
The estate of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich also related to the similar type, however, the difference is that it, being also diversified, was not focused on the market: in the royal records, metallurgical, glass and brick plants operated, but the products produced on them were intended for the needs of extensive Households king. Alexey Mikhailovich walked with an excitemental owner and briefly delve into all the little things of the life of Votchin. He, for example, purchased abroad of thoroughbred cows, including Dutch, introduced five-foot crop rotation, demanded a mandatory fertilizer by manure fields. But in the shopping plans, the king was and a lot of ephemeral: he, for example, tried to grow melons, watermelons, grapes and citrus fruits, from brusons of a weak concentration to digest salt in Khamovniki, on the girl's field, near Kolomna. Some monasteries also organized crafts in their patches (they arose in the XVI century). Solovetsky, Pysussky, Kirillo-Belozersky And other monasteries whose possessions were located in Pomorie, rich brine containing a lot of salt, brought salt in their patries. Salt went for sale. Other large feudals were supported with the market: Miloslavsky, Odoyevskiy.
Other type of farming was formed at the Middle Hand Room Reason. It does not detect traces of intensification in the form of crafts and market connections. Unsurers did not like the service, resorted to the tricks to evade her, and preferred to spend time in the village for household worries either in Moscow, from where he watched the activities of 15 clerks. If Morozov was led by all complex farms in Moscow by the primary administration, on behalf of Boyarin, raising the commandments to Claudists, then the disorders personally led Claudists. Even more primitive was the economy in small landlords and monasteries. The peasants belonged to them were barely provided by the vital resources of Barin and monastic brethren. Similar feudalists, both secular and spiritual, and there were an overwhelming majority, a simple natural economy.
Appearance of Manufactory
The main innovation in the economic development of the country consisted in the appearance of manuff. In the countries of Western Europe, most of which the serfdom has long disappeared, the emergence of manufactory led to the occurrence of the era of capitalism. In Russia, in all spheres of life, serfs were dominated. From here there is a not enough high level of small crafts, of which the manufactory could grow, the lack of a market of wage labor, the necessary capital for the creation of manufactories, the construction and operation of which required considerable costs. It is not by chance that the owners of the first railway plants in Russia were not domestic, but foreign merchants who attracted foreign masters to work on them. But the appearance of manufactory in Russia was marked by the activities of the Dutch merchant Andrei Vinniusa which brought a questionnaire production to Russia. The story leaves in the 1630s, when under Tula found the deposits of iron ore. Since Andrei Winnius often drove into those places, he quickly rejected the profitability of his idea. Andrei Winnius not only sacrificed money for the extraction of iron, but also having received the mercy of the sovereign Mikhail Fedorovich in 1632 founded the first - ferrous manufactory. So we stopped importing iron from the Europeans, and the benefits of manufactory had already been manifested during the Smolensk War.
At the first stage of the development of manufactory production in Russia, two features should be noted: transferred to the fortified soil, it acquired the features of a vague farm associated with the market; The second feature consists in the active care of the state of large-scale production. Since guns and kernels were cast at the metallurgical plants, in the presence of the state was interested, it was interested in a manufacturaist benefits: the state attached peasants to the first metallurgical plants, obliging them to fulfill the most laborious work that did not require high professional skills - to produce ore and manufacture charcoal. Among scientists are argued about the number of manufactories in Russia XVII century. Some of them brought into the list of enterprises manufactory, in which there was no one of the main signs of manuffs - the division of labor. The work of masters and apprentices were used on distillery, salt crowns, leather enterprises. Such enterprises are customary to call cooperation. The lack of division of labor is distinguished from manufactory. Therefore, there is every reason to consider the presence in Russia the late XVII century. Only 10-12 manufactories, all of them functioned in metallurgy. For the emergence of metallurgical manufactory, three-way conditions were required: the presence of ore deposits, forests for the production of charcoal and a small river, a permitted dam, for year-round use of water energy, which brought membranes in the domain furnaces and hammers with iron forging. Thus, uncomplicated mechanisms were used in the most laborious processes. The first domain and molotovy plants arose in the Tula-Kashirsky district, then in the Lipetsk district, as well as in Karelia, where the first cop smelter plant appeared. All the plants of European Russia enjoyed marsh ores, of which fragile cast iron and low-grade iron were obtained. Therefore, high quality iron Russia continued to buy in Sweden. The famous ore of Ural deposits began to use only from the beginning of the next century.
Folding the Unified All-Russian Market and the emergence of fairs in Russia
Despite the low purchasing power of the population, due to the natural nature of the economy, well-known successes are traced in the development of internal trade. They were caused by the specialization of some areas in the production of any kind of products:
- Yaroslavl and Kazan were famous for the stretching of the skin;
- Tula - the manufacture of iron and products from it,
- Novgorod and Pskov - canvas.
Wholesale trade concentrated in the hands of the richest merchants enrolled by the state in preferred corporations of guests and shopping people living room and cloth hundreds. The main privilege of the guests was to travel abroad for trade transactions. Small trade was engaged in both producers of goods and dealers, as well as agents of rich merchants. Daily trade was carried out only in large cities. Fair purchased great importance in the internal exchange. The largest of them, such as Makarevskaya near Nizhny Novgorod Irbitan in the Urals, Svenskaya Under Bryansk I. Arkhangelskaya In the north, had all-Russian importance and attracted merchants, mainly wholesalers, from the whole country. In addition to them, there were fairs of regional and urban. They differed both modest sizes and less diverse assortment of goods.
More notable shifts are traced in foreign trade, which one can be judged by the number of ships arriving in Arkhangelsk - the only seaport that connected Russia with the countries of Western Europe: in 1600 they sailed 21, and at the end of the century, about 70 ships arrived per year. The main article of Russian exports was the "soft rhocked" Siberia, as the least called the fur. Following it, the raw materials and semi-finished products were marching: flax, hemp, resin, forest, tar, sweat. The mast forest, Len and hemp used the wide demand of sea powers that used them for equipping ships. To semi-finished products made by artisans, the skin treated, especially the yuft, which represents its highest grade, as well as the cloth. In exports, large landowners (Morozov, Odoevsky, Romodanovsky, etc.) were participating, as well as rich monasteries. I did not consider to participate in foreign trade and Tsar Alexey Mikhailovich. The subject of imports were predominantly products of Western European manufactory (cloth, mirrors, iron, copper, etc.), as well as luxury items used by the courtyard and aristocracy: wines, expensive fabrics, spices, ornaments. If Arkhangelsk was in the north of the window to Europe, then in the south, the same role fell out to Astrakhan, who became a transit point in trade with Iran, India and Central Asia. Astrakhan, in addition, served as a transit point for Western European merchants who traded with the eastern countries. Throughout the XVII century. Two interrelated factors were influenced by the economic development of Russia: the backwardness caused the fortress right, which, in turn, aggravated the lag. Nevertheless, progress is noticeable, reflected in the emergence of manufactories, the revival of domestic trade, in establishing closer economic ties with the countries of Western Europe and the East.
Russia lasted from the most developed countries of Western Europe. Due to the lack of access to non-freezing seas, it was hampered by the expansion of ties with these countries. Thundered Trade Development and Domestic Customs Barriers, preserved since fragmentation . IN 1653was accepted Customs statute, eliminating small customs duties, and Novotorchka Charter 1667 Even more limited the rights of foreign merchants: now they could sell their products in bulk only in border cities. Further in Russia, Russian merchants were supposed to be engaged in Russia. Higher taxes were introduced on imported goods. However, Russian merchants did not possess the skills and energy that was inherent in foreign competitors. As a result, we defended the economic space, but it is by the end of the XVII century. It turned out almost empty due to the rutinized production, the backwardness of technologies in agriculture and on manufactory. Russia still had to make their economic jerk, which was due to the serious needs of Peter I in the costs of great war.
The basis of the Russian economy in the second half of the XVII in remained serfdom. However, along with him, new phenomena are found in the economic life of the country. The most important of them was the folding of the All-Russian market. In Russia, this time develops small commodity production and money circulation, manufactory appears. The economic separation of individual regions of Russia begins to go to the past. The formation of the All-Russian market was one of the prerequisites for the development of Russian nationality in a nation ( See V. I. Lenin, what is "friends of the people" and how are they fighting against Social Democrats? Op., Vol. 1, p. 137-138.).
In the XVII century There was a further process of forming a feudal-absolutist (autocratic) monarchy. Zemstvo Cathedrals, who have repeatedly gathered in the first half of the century, by the end of the century finally ceased their activities. The value of Moscow orders as central institutions with their bureaucracy in the face of Dyakov and the attaincam is increased. In his internal policy, autocracy relied on the nobility, which becomes a closed estate. There is a further strengthening of the rights of the nobility to land, landfill land in new districts apply. "Cathedral Code" of 1649 legally issued serfdom.
The strengthening of the fierce oppression met the fierce resistance of the peasants and the bottom of the urban population, which was primarily in powerful peasant in city uprisings (1648,1650,1662, 1670-1671). The class struggle was reflected in the largest religious movement in Russia XVII century. - split the Orthodox Russian Church.
The rapid economic growth of Russia in the XVII century promoted the further development of extensive spaces of Eastern Europe and Siberia. In the XVII century There is a promotion of Russian people on the little-sized territories of the Nizhny Don, the North Caucasus, the Middle and Lower Volga region and Siberia.
The event of a huge historical significance was the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654. Related Russian and Ukrainian peoples united in a single state, which contributed to the development of the productive forces and the cultural rise of both peoples, as well as the political strengthening of Russia.
Russia XVII century. It acts in international relations as a great power extending from the Dnieper in the West to the Pacific Ocean in the East.
Serfdom
In the second half of the XVII century. The main occupation of the Russian population remained agriculture, based on the operation of the feudal dependent peasantry. In agriculture continued to be applied in the preceding time methods of soil processing. Most of all was distributed three-rolled, but in the forest areas of the North, it was an important place for the scene, and in the steppe strip of the South and the Middle Volga region - a flog. This characteristic of feudalism methods for the processing of the Earth corresponded to primitive productions of production (Socha and Harbor) and low yields.
The land was owned by secular and spiritual feudalists, palace departments and the state. Boyars and nobles by 1678 focused 67% of peasant yards in their hands. It was achieved by respect from the government and the direct seizures of palace and protein (state) lands, as well as the possessions of small seruners. The nobles created serfs in the non-hedied southern countries of the state. In the unflipped state by this time there was only a tenth of the burner (i.e. paid taxes) of the population of Russia (possessing people and the proteinous peasants).
The overwhelming part of secular feudal belongs to the number of medium and small landowners. What was the household of the nobleman of the middle hand, can be seen from the correspondence of A. I. Rezodekov. He did not bent with any means, if it was possible to round her possessions. Like many other landowners, he vigorously captured and scooped fertile lands, unsuccessfully driven by serving small melts, and moved to the south of his peasants from less fertile central counties.
Second place after the nobles in the size of land ownership occupied spiritual feudalities. In the second half of the XVII century. Bishops, monasteries and churches belonged over 13% of the burdens. The Trinity Sergius monastery was especially highlighted. In his possessions scattered throughout the European territory of Russia, about 17 thousand yards were listed. Prickly monasteries led their farm with the same serfs as secular feudalles.
In a few better conditions compared to the landlord and monastic peasants were the Black-sized peasants who lived in Pomorie, where the landowner was almost absent landlord and land was considered state. But they were burdened by various kinds of mantles in favor of the treasury, suffered from oppression and abuse of royal governors.
The center of the estate or victobs was the village, or Selo, next to which the Lord's manor was standing with the house and the surplus buildings. A typical Barsky courtyard in the middle lane of Russia consisted of a hill, put on the semisillary floor. With it, there were Seni - a spacious reception room. Next to the hill were shopping buildings - cellar, barn, sauna. The yard was fenced with a fence, there was a garden nearby. The rich nobility of the estate was more extensive and lush than small landowners.
The village, or Selo, was the center for the villages adjacent to him. In the middle size village, more than 15-30 yards were rarely numbered, there were usually 2-3 yard in the villages. Peasant yards consisted of warm huts, cold hay and surplus buildings.
The landowner kept in the hills estate. They worked on the garden, livestock yard, in the stable. The Delician economy was headed by a clerk, a trustee of the landowner. However, the farm, which was conducted with the help of yard people, only partially satisfied landlord requests. The main income of the landowners brought a borehole or workers' subsidy of serfs. The peasants were treated with land in the land, cleaned the harvest, mowed a meadow, drove firewood from the forest, cleaned the ponds, built and repaired the Barski choirs. In addition to the barbecue, they were obliged to deliver the "table reserves" gentlemen - a certain amount of meat, eggs, dry berries, mushrooms, etc. In some villages, Boyarov B. I. Morozova, for example, was supposed to be given a pork carcass in each peasant yard Barana, goose with losses, 4 pigs, 4 chicken, 40 eggs, some cow oil and cheese.
An increase in domestic demand for agricultural products, as well as partly the removal of some of them abroad encouraged the landowners to expand the boring spare and raise the lifts. In this regard, the peasant barbecue continuously increased in the Black Earth Strip, and in the areas of non-sinnamine, the predominant of the central (except for Votchin's near Moscow, of which supplies were delivered to the capital), where the barbecue was less common, the proportion of workers' concerns increased. The landowner is expanded at the expense of the best peasant lands, which were led by the Lord's fields. In areas where the lifts prevailed, slowly, but steadily increased the value of the money rent. This phenomenon reflected the development of commodity-money relations in the country, in which peasant farms were gradually involved. However, in its pure form, money marks met very rarely; As a rule, it was combined with Renta products or with a barbecue obligations.
A new phenomenon, closely related to the development of commodity-monetary relations in Russia, was the creation in large landlords of various kinds of fishing enterprises. The largest marker of the middle of the XVII century. Boyar Morozov organized a potash production on average, built in the village of Pavlovsky's village in the village of Pavlovsky, he had a lot of blinked. This chaser, according to contemporaries, there was such greed to gold, "like an ordinary thirst for drinking."
For example, Morozova followed some other major boyars - Miloslavsky, Odoyevskiy, etc. At their industrial enterprises, the most burdensome work on woodworking or ore was pinned on the peasants, obliged to operate in turn on their own horses, leaving her arable to be asked in the hottest time of field work. . Thus, the passion for large feudal industrial production has not changed the serfdom of the organization of their farm.
Large faeodals introduced some innovations in their homes, where new varieties of fruit trees, fruits, vegetables appeared, and so on, greenhouses were built for growing southern plants.
The occurrence of manufactory and the development of small commercial production
An important phenomenon in the Russian economy was the founding of manuff. In addition to metallurgical enterprises, leather, glass, stationery and other manufactories arose. Dutch merchant A. Vinius, who switched to Russian citizenship, built the first Water Ruinee Plant in Russia. In 1632, he received a royal complicated diploma on the device near Tula plants for the production of cast iron and iron, molding of cannons, Kotlsv, etc. Vinius did not cope with his own means with the construction of plants and several years later entered the company with two other Dutch merchants. Large ironing plants were somewhat later created in Kashira, in the Olonets Territory, near Voronezh and near Moscow. At these factories were made cannon and rifle trunks, strip iron, boilers, frying pan, etc. in the XVII century. The first sophisticated plants in Russia have arisen. Copper Ore was found near Sali Kamak, where the treasury built a Pyskorsky plant. Subsequently, at the base of Pysdor Rud, the Playlist Playlists was acted by the Tumashevy brothers.
Work on manufactory was carried out in the main manual; However, some processes were mechanized using water engines. Therefore, manufactory was usually built on robes, damned dams. Labor and cheap paid works (earthworks, cutting and car drives, etc.) were made in the main attribute peasants or their own serfs, as it was, for example, at the Tsar-Tsar-Testa Raising Plant I. D. Miloslavsky. Two palace volosts were attributed to the Tula and Kashir plants soon after their foundation.
The decisive role in providing the population by industrial products belonged, however, not to manufactities, the number of which even by the end of the XVII century. It did not reach three dozen, and peasant homemade fields, urban craft and small commodity production. In connection with the growth of market ties in the country intensified small commodity production. Serpukhov, Tula and Tikhviny blacksmiths, Pomeranian carpenters, Yaroslavl weaves and leather workers, Moscow speeds and Suknales worked not so much to order as to the market. Some commodity producers used the hired workforce, however, in small sizes.
Large development also received the seizure of the fishery, especially in the non-black-earth areas near Moscow and north of it. The growth of the owner and state duties forced the peasants to go to work, hiring for construction work, on excavar and other fisheries as utility workers. A large number of peasants were occupied on river transport, where burlates were required, pulling ships upstream of the river, as well as movers and ship workers. Transport and slipping were serviced by the benefit of hired labor. Among the burlacs and ship workers there were many "walking people", as documents called people who are not related to a certain place of residence. In the XVII century, the number of villages and villages inhabited by "unpaired peasants", "non-aparticles" are continuously increasing.
Economic regions of Russia
Separate parts of the enormous Russian state that occupied extensive spaces in Europe and in Asia, naturally, were inhomogeneous and in natural conditions, and in terms of socio-economic development. The most populated developed was the central area, the so-called stingy cities with surrounding villages. The villages and villages overturned the capital from all sides. Moscow was the largest city in Eastern Europe and consisted of up to 200 thousand inhabitants. She was the most important center for trade, craft and small commodity production. In it and its surroundings, first of all arose enterprises of a manufactory type.
In the central district of Russia, a variety of peasant crafts and urban craft received a large development. There were also the largest Russian cities - Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaluga. A straight land road tied Moscow through Yaroslavl with Vologda, where the waterway began to Arkhangelsk.
The extensive edge, adjacent to the White Sea, known as Pomegrania, was populated at that time relatively weakly. Russians, Karelia, Komi, etc. lived here. In the northern regions of this region, due to climatic conditions, the population was more engaged in fisheries (salt, fisheries, etc.) than agriculture. Particularly great was the role of Pomina in the supply of Salt country. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe largest center of Solevaria - Salt Kama, there were over 200 varnaries that delivered up to 7 million pounds of salt annually. The most important cities of the North were Vologda and Arkhangelsk, who were the extreme points of the Sukhonian Dvinsky River Way. Through the Arkhangelsk port held trade with abroad. In Vologda and holmers were cable workshops. Regarding fertile soils in the Vologda region, the Great Ustyug and in Vyatka Territory favored the successful development of agriculture. Vologda and Ustyug, and in the second half of the XVII century. Vyatka region were large bread markets.
In the West of Russia there were lands "from the German and Lithuanian Ukraine" (outskirts). These were areas that took place in other areas and abroad Len and Hemp. The largest cities and shopping centers were Smolensk and Pskov, whereas Novgorod shook and lost its former importance.
In the XVII century, the rapid settlement of southern regions took place. Furious peasants from the central counties were continuously directed here. Trade and fisheries of this area were insignificant, and there were no major cities here, but in rich chernozem, grain economy successfully developed here.
Russian peasants fled also in the middle Volga region. Next to Mordovskaya, Tatar, Chuvash and Mari villages, Russian villages arose. Earth south of Samara remained still unclosed. The largest cities of the Volga region were Kazan and Astrakhan. In Astrakhan lived a motley population: Russians, Tatars, Armenians, people from Bukhara, etc. In this city, lively trade in the countries of Central Asia, Iran and Transcaucasus was conducted.
In the south of Eastern European Plain, Russia was part of Russia in the XVII century. Part of the North Caucasus, as well as the area of \u200b\u200bthe Don and Yaitsky Cossack troops. The rich industrialist Guryev founded the city of Guriev with a stone fortress in the mouth of the Yaika (Urals).
After 1654, the left-bank Ukraine was reunited with Russia together with Kiev, which had self-government and elected hetman.
In terms of its territory, Russia already in the XVII century was the largest in the world, the state.
Siberia
Extensive area of \u200b\u200bRussia XVII century. There was Siberia. She was inhabited by peoples standing at different stages of social development. The most numerous ones were the Yakuts who occupied a huge territory in the Lena basin and her tributaries. The basis of their farm was cattle breeding, hunting and fisheries were secondary importance. In winter, Yakuta lived in wooden heated yurts, and in the summer went to pastures. The head of the Yakut tribes stood elders - Tayona, holders of large pastures. Among the peoples of Baikalia in numbers, Buryats occupied the first place. Most Buryat was engaged in livestock, led the nomadic lifestyle, but among them there were agricultural tribes. Buryats experienced the period of becoming feudal relations, they had even strong patriarchal-generic remnants.
On the huge spaces from Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean, Evenks (Tungusi) were engaged in hunting and fishing. Chukchi, Koryaks and Iliants (Kamchadals) inhabited the northeastern regions of Siberia with Kamchatka Peninsula. These tribes were shill then by the generic system, they did not know the use of iron yet.
The expansion of Russian possessions in Siberia was carried out mainly by the local administration and industrial people, who were looking for new "land", rich in the fur beast. Russian industrial people penetrated Siberia on multi-water Siberian rivers, whose tributaries are close to each other. Military detachments were walked by their traces, which made the fortified custody, which was made by the centers of the colonial exploitation of the peoples of Siberia. The path from Western Siberia to the East went on the influx of Ob, the Keta River. On Yenisei, the city of Yeniseisk appeared (initially Yenisei Ostrog, 1619). Somewhat later, another Siberian city was founded in the upper course of Yenisei. According to the hangar or the upper Tunguska, the river path led Lena to the upheavals. It was built on it Lensky Ostrog (1632, later Yakutsk), which became the center of Eastern Siberia.
In 1648, Semen Dejnev opened the "edge and end of the Siberian land." The expedition of the clerk of Ustyug's trading people, Ushina Fedot Alekseeva (Popov), as part of the six courts came out into the sea from the mouth of Kolyma. On one of the courts were dezhnev. The storm was hosted by the expedition trial, some of them died or were thrown ashore, and the vessel Dezhnev warned the extreme northeastern tip of Asia. Thus, Dejnev first made a sea trip through Bering Strait and found that Asia was separated from America with water.
By the middle of the XVII century. Russian detachments penetrated Dauria (Transbaikalia and Amur region). Expedition Vasily Poyarkova for the rivers Zee and Amuru reached the sea. The polarks on the sea sailed to the river Uli (district of Okhotsk), climbed on it up and Io River Ramas Lena returned to Yakutsk. A new expedition to Amur made Cossacks under the superiors of Yerofi Khabarova, built the town on Amur. After the government recalled Khabarov from the town, the Cossacks held in it for another while, but due to the lack of food were forced to leave him.
The penetration of the Amur pool led Russia to the conflict with China. Military actions ended with the conclusion of the Nerchinsky Treaty (1689). The contract determined the Russian-Chinese border and contributed to the development of trade between the two states.
Following industrial and servants, peasants-migrants were sent to Siberia. The tide of "free people" in Western Siberia began immediately after the construction of Russian towns and especially intensified in the second half of the XVII century, when the "many number" of peasants moved here, mainly from the northern and neighboring Narral counties. The fattened peasant population collapsed mainly in Western Siberia, which became the main focus of the agricultural economy of this extensive edge.
The peasants were settled on the empty lands or captured the lands belonging to local "yasant people." The size of pasta sites belonging to the peasants in the XVII century was not limited. In addition to pasty land, it turned into it by the roads, and sometimes commercial land. Russian peasants brought with them a skill of higher agricultural culture compared to the one that was in the Siberian peoples. The main agricultural crops of Siberia were made by rye, oats and barley. Along with them, technical crops appear, primarily hemp. Widespread development received animal husbandry. Already by the end of the XVII century. Siberian agriculture satisfied the population needs of Siberian cities in agricultural products and, thus, freed the government from expensive bread delivery from European Russia.
The conquest of Siberia was accompanied by the design of the conquered population by Yasak - Dania. Yasaka's payment was usually made by furs, the most valuable goods that enriched the royal treasury. The "chanting" of the Siberian peoples by servilative people was accompanied by induluble violence. Official documents were recognized that Russian merchants sometimes invited "people to trade and their wives and children, and the stomachs and cattle robbed, and the violence they revealed many."
The huge territory of Siberia was in the management of the Siberian order. The intensity of the robbery of the peoples of Siberia Tsarism is indicated by the fact that the incomes of the Siberian order in 1680 were more than 12% of the total budget of Russia. The peoples of Siberia, in addition, were exposed to Russian merchants whose wealth was created by exchanging craft products and cheap decorations on beautiful fur, which made an important article of Russian exports. Merchants of Usov, Pankratyev, Fuelyevy, etc., accumulating major capital on Siberian trade, became the owners of manufactory on Welding Salt in Pomorie, without stopping at the same time their trading activities. G. Nikitin, a leaving of the Black-sized peasants, one time was pretended as a clerk E. Flavueva and in a short time he nominated in the ranks of Moscow merchant nobility. In 1679, Nikitin was enlisted in the living room, and in two years he was awarded to the title of a guest. By the end of the XVII century. Capital Nikitina exceeded 20 thousand rubles. (about 350 thousand rubles. for money starts XX century.). Nikitin, as well as his former chuck Fiteyev, rich in predatory trade of furs in Siberia. He was one of the first Russian merchants who organized trade with China.
By the end of the XVII century. Significant spaces of Western and partly eastern Siberia were already populated by Russian peasants who have mastered many earlier desert areas. Most of Siberia became Russian in their population, especially the Black Earth areas of Western Siberia. Communication with the Russian people, despite the colonial policy of tsarism, had enormous importance for the development of economic and cultural life of all peoples of Siberia. Under the immediate influence of Russian farming, the arable land of Yakuts and nomads-Buryats began to cultivate. Siberia's accession to Russia created conditions for the further economic and cultural development of this extensive country.
Folding the All-Russian Market
New, exceptional in its meaning was the formation of the All-Russian market, the center of which Moscow becomes. On the movement of goods to Moscow, it is possible to judge the degree of public and territorial division of labor, on the basis of which the All-Russian market was developed: the Moscow region was supplied by meat and vegetables; Cow oil was taken from the middle Volga region; The fish was brought from Pomerania, Rostov County, Lower Volga region and Prioksky places; Vegetables also received from Belie, Borovsk and Rostov district. Iron of Moscow provided Tula, Galich, Ustyuzhna Izopropol and Tikhvin; The skin was brought mainly from the Yaroslavl-Kostroma and Suzdal districts; Wooden dishes supplied the Volga region; Salt - Pomerania cities; Moscow was the largest market for Siberian furs.
Based on the production specialization of individual districts, markets were made up with the predominant value of any goods. So, Yaroslavl was famous for the sale of leather, soap, sala, meat and textile products; Veliky Ustyug and especially the Salt Coinched were the largest futured markets - the fur received from Siberia were delivered from here or to Arkhangelsk for exports or to Moscow for sale within the country. In Smolensk and Pskov, Flax and Hemp came from nearby areas, then arrived at the abroad market.
Some local markets tie intensive trade relations with the cities far away from them. Tikhvin Posad with his annual fair supported trade with 45 cities of Russia. Purchaising from local Kuznetsov products products of iron fishery, the buyers resell them to be more large merchants, and the latter dispersed significant parties of goods in Ustyuzhna Iron-Polish, as well as to Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov and other cities.
A huge role in the country's trade turnover was played by the Fair of All-Russian importance, such as Makarevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Svnaskaya (near Bryansk), Arkhangelsk and others, which lasted for several weeks.
In connection with the folding of the All-Russian market, the role of merchants in the economic and political life of the country increased. In the XVII century, from the total mass of trading people, the top of the merchant world is still noticeable, representatives of which received the title of guests from the government. These largest merchants also performed the role of financial agents of the government - on his instruction, they led foreign trade in the fur, sweat, rhubarb, etc., carried out contracts for construction work, purchased food for the needs of the army, collected taxes, customs duties, kabatsky money, etc. . Guests attracted smaller merchants to perform contractual and spupid operations, sharing huge baryrs from the sale of wine and salt. Spipe and contracts were an important source of capital accumulation.
In the hands of individual merchant families sometimes accumulated major capital. N. Svetshnikov belonged to rich salt fishery. Stoyanov in Novgorod and F. Emelyanov in Pskov were the first people in their cities; With their opinion, not only the governor, but also the royal government was considered. To the guests, as well as close to them on the position of commercial people from the living room and cloth hundred (associations), adjoined the top of the citizens, called the "best", "large" landed people.
Trading people begin to advocate the government in defense of their interests. In jobs, they asked to ban English merchants to trade in Moscow and in other cities, with the exception of Arkhangelsk. Chelobiti was satisfied with the Tsarist Government in 1649. This measure was motivated by political considerations - the fact that the British executed their king Charles I.
Large changes in the economy of the country were reflected in the Customs Charter of 1653 and in the Novotor Charter of 1667, the head of the Embassy Order of A. L. Ordin-Nachokin took part in the creation of the latter. According to the mercantalistic views of that time, the new trade charter was noted the special importance of trade for Russia, since "in all states of surrounding in the first state-owned free and profitable trading to collect duties and for nationwide eradicates of worldly with all sorts of gently saved." The customs charter of 1653 canceled many small trading fees, which remained on the time of feudal fragmentation, and instead they were introduced one so-called ruble duty - 10 kopecks. From the ruble for selling salt, 5 kopecks. From the ruble from all other goods. In addition, an increased duty was introduced for foreign merchants who sold goods within Russia. In the interests of the Russian merchants, the Novotogo Charter of 1667 increased even more increased customs fees from foreign traders.
2. The beginning of the formation of the feudal-absolutist monarchy
King and boyars
Large shifts in the economic and public life of the Russian people were accompanied by changes in the political stroke of Russia. In the XVII century There is a folding of the feudal-absolutist (autocratic) state in Russia. A characteristic of the estate-representative monarchy is existence next to the royal power. Boyarskaya Duma and Zemsky Cathedrals no longer complied with the trends towards strengthening the domination of the nobility in the conditions of further aggravation of the class struggle. The military and economic expansion of neighboring states also demanded a more advanced political organization of the domination of the nobles. The transition to absolutism, which has not yet completed by the end of the XVII century, was accompanied by the dying of the Zemsky Cathedrals and all the great subordination of the spiritual power of secular.
Since 1613, the Romanov Dynasty reigned in Russia, who considered themselves the heirs of the former Moscow kings on the female line. Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), his son Alexey Mikhailovich (1645-1676), Sons Alexei Mikhailovich - Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682), Ivan and Peter Alekseevichi (after 1682).
All public affairs in the XVII century. Named from the royal name. In the "Cathedral Code" of 1649, a special chapter was introduced "On the state of honor and how his state health to protect", threatening the death penalty for the performance against the king, the governor and ordered people "Skop and plot", under which all massive folk speeches were understood. Now and the nearest royal relatives began to be considered as the sovereign "Holopes" - subjects. In the prospects to the king, even noble boyars were called themselves with dimensional names (Ivashko, Petrushko, etc.). In appeals to the king, the estate differences were strictly observed: the seruners called themselves "hills", the peasants and Posad people are "orphans", and the spiritual "mantiles". The appearance of the king on the squares and streets of Moscow was furnished with a magnificent solemnity and a complex ceremonial, emphasized the power and inaccessibility of the royal power.
The state affairs of the Boyar Duma, who was going and in the absence of the king. The most important cases dealt with the royal proposal to "thorough" about a particular issue; The decision began formula: "The king pointed out and the boyars sentenced." In the Duma, as to the highest legislative and judicial institution, the most influential and rich feudals of Russia were members of the born princely surnames and the nearest relatives of the king. But along with them in the Duma, the representatives of irregular surnames penetrated in the Duma - Duma Nobles and Duma Decius, nominated for high posts in the state due to their personal merit. Along with some bureaucration of the Duma, there was a gradual limitation of its political influence. Next to the Duma, in the meetings of which all the twisted ranks took part, there was a secret, or the near Duma, who consisted of the king's proxies, who often did not relate to the twisted ranks.
Zemsky cathedrals
The government has long relied on support for such a source and representative institution, such as Zemstvo Cathedrals, resorting to the help of elected people from the nobility and the tops of the Puntion Society, mainly in difficult years of combating external enemies and in the internal difficulties associated with the collection of money for emergency needs. Zemstvo Cathedrals acted almost continuously during the first 10 years of the reign of Mikhail Romanova, having received the importance of a permanent establishment under government for a while. The Cathedral, who chose to the kingdom of Mikhail (1613), began almost three years. The following cathedrals were convened in 1616, 1619 and 1621.
After 1623, a long break was occurring in the activities of cathedrals related to the strengthening of the royal power. The new cathedral was convened in connection with the need to establish emergency cash fees from the population, as preparation for war with Poland was prepared. This cathedral did not diverge for three years. In the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, Zemsky cathedrals were collected several times.
The Zemstvo Cathedrals were the establishment of a class character and consisted of three "ranks": 1) of the highest clergy led by the Patriarch - "Sangered Cathedral", 2) of the Boyar Duma and 3) elected from the nobles and from Posaly people. The criminal coat peasants may have participated only in the cathedral of 1613, and the landlords were completely removed from political affairs. Elections of representatives from the nobles and from the Poshesky people were always separately produced. The election protocol, "elected list," appeared to Moscow. Voters have provided "elected people" of the ordinances in which they stated their needs. The cathedral was opened by the royal speech, which said about the reasons for his convocation and set questions for elected. The discussion of the issues was made by individual class groups of the Cathedral, but the general cathedral decision was to be taken unanimously.
The political authority of the Zemsky Cathedrals, which was high in the first half of the XVII century, was not durable. The government further reluctantly resorted to the convening of Zemstvo Cathedrals, in which elected people sometimes acted as criticizing government events. The last Zemsky Cathedral was gathered in 1653 to decide on the reunification of Ukraine. After that, the government convened only the meetings of certain class groups (serve people, trading people, guests, etc.). However, the approval of the "whole Earth" was recognized as necessary for the election of the sovereign. Therefore, the collection of Moscow ranks in 1682 twice replaced the Zemsky Cathedral - at the beginning, when elected to the throne of Peter, and then, when electing two kings of Peter and Ivan, who should have rule together.
Zemstvo Cathedrals as the authorities of the Clarification were abolished by stringing absolutism, just as it took place in Western Europe.
Order system. Voevod
The country's management focused in numerous orders who made individual branches of public administration (the Embassy, \u200b\u200bthe Bonquicient, the Subject, the order of a large treasury) or regions (order of the Kazan Palace, Siberian Order). The XVII century was the heyday of the order system: the number of orders in other years reached 50. However, in the second half of the XVII century. In a fragmented and bulky order, a well-known centralization is carried out. Orders related to the circle orders either united into one or several orders, although they preserved their independent existence, put on the general administration of one boyar, most often the trustee of the king. The intersections of the first type include, for example, the connected orders of the palace department: the Grand Palace, the palace vessel, the stone delivered stables. An example of the second type of associations can be the order of Boyarian F. A. Golovin to manage the Embassy, \u200b\u200bYamsky and Military maritime orders, as well as the wards of weapons, gold and silver affairs. An important innovation in the ordinary strict was the organization of the order of secret cases, a new institution, where the "boyars and spiritual people do not enter and do not know, except the king himself." This order for other orders performed control functions. The order of secret cases was arranged in order for the "royal thought and affairs to be fulfilled by all of his (royal) want."
The heads of most orders were a boyar or nobles, but the office work was held at the Permanent State of Dyakov and their assistants - the attain. Well met by administrative experience transmitted from generation to generation, these people fired all the orders. At the head of such important orders, as a discharge, the author's and the embassy, \u200b\u200bthere were spiritual devils, that is, the devils who had the right to sit in the Boyar Duma. The bureaucratic element was becoming increasingly important in the system of the folding absolutist state.
The huge territory of the state in the XVII century, as in the preceding time, shared on the counties. New in the organization of the government in the field was to reduce the importance of the Zemsky government. Everywhere the government focused in the hands of the governor sent from Moscow. Assistants of the governor were appointed to the large cities - "Comrades". Development of devils and funerals. Having granted the hut, where the governor was sitting, was the center of control of the county.
The service of the governor, like antique feeding, was considered "mercenary", that is, that brought income. Voivode used every reason to "feed" at the expense of the population. The arrival of the governor to the territory of the subordinate county was accompanied by the receipt of the "entry of the feed", on holidays to him were an offer, a special remuneration to the governor was brought during the feeding. The arbitrariness in the local administration especially felt social bases.
By 1678, the courtyards were completed. After that, the government replaced the existing strategic attachment (Soka - a unit of taxation, which included from 750 to 1800 tents of the land of the land in three fields) of the residential. This reform has increased the number of taxpayers, taxes are now charged with such layers of the population as "business people" (slaves who worked in the landlords), bobly (impoverished peasants), rural artisans, etc., who lived in their courtyards and previously not paid taxes . The reform aroused an increase in the population in the courtyards by landowners by combining them.
Armed forces
New phenomena take place in the organization of the Armed Forces of the state. The local nobility army was completed as a militia from the nobles and children of Boyar. Military service was still mandatory for all nobles. Noblemen and Boyars' children gathered in their districts for review according to the lists, where all the nobles were made, suitable for the service, hence the name "serviced people." Against the "Netchikov" (not to serve) taken measures taken. In the summer, the noble cavalry was usually stood at the foul cities. In the south, the gathering place was Belgorod.
Mobilization of local troops occurred extremely slowly, the army accompanied the huge summons and a large number of landlord servants.
Higher efficiency than the noble cavalry, the Sagittarius was distinguished - hiking warriors armed with firearms. However, the Streetsky army to the second half of the XVII century. It clearly did not meet the need to have a fairly maneuverable and combat armion. In peacetime, Sagittarius combined military service with small trade and crafts, as there was an insufficient bread and money salary. They were closely connected with the Posted Population and took part in the urban unrest of the XVII century.
The need to reorganize the military forces of Russia at the new basis was sharply felt in the first half of the XVII century. Preparing for the war for Smolensk, the government purchased a weapon in Sweden and Holland, hired foreign routine people and began to form the Russian regiments of the "new (ingenic) building" - soldier's "Ratar and Dragunsky. The training of these regiments was made on the basis of the original military art of the then time. The shelves were completed first from "free hoes", and then from among the "datic people", recruited from a certain number of peasant and Posherty. Lifetime service of dacket people, the introduction of uniform weapons in the form of lighter than they pegged, muskets and carbines with a flint castle gave the shelves of a new building some features of the regular army.
Due to the increase in cash revenues, the costs of the army maintenance were steadily increased.
Strengthening nobility
Changes in the state severe occurred in close connection with the change in the structure of the dominant class of feudalists, which was based on autocracy. The top of this class was a boyars aristocracy, replenishing the court ranks (under the word "rank" was not yet official position, but belonging to a certain group of the population). The highest were twisted ranks, then the ranks of Moscow, behind them - the ranks of the city. They were all included in the category of serunel people "in the Fatherland", unlike the servicant people "on the instrument" (Sagittarov, Pushkje, soldiers, etc.). Serday people in Fatherland, or nobles, began to develop into a closed group with special privileges transmitted by inheritance. From the middle of the XVII century. The transition of instrument serve people in the rows of nobles was closed.
Of great importance in eliminating the differences between separate layers of the dominant class had the abolition of locality. The locality is adversely reflected on the combat capability of the Russian army. Sometimes before the fight, the warrior instead of decisive actions against the enemy joined the disputes about which of them above the "place". Therefore, according to the decree on the cancellation of locality, in the past years, "in many of their states, and in the embassy, \u200b\u200bin all kinds of deposits, they were reinforced from those cases of great dirtiffs and tricks and destruction and enemies of joy, and between them - God the opposite business - dislike and great , prolonged hostility. " Cancellation of the settlement (1682) strengthened the significance of the nobility in the state apparatus and the army, since the locality obstructed the nomination of the nobles to prominent military and administrative posts.
3. Folk uprisings
The position of the peasants and urban lower
The serfdom of all their severity lay down on the wide masses, on the peasants and the Posad population.
The position of the peasants was severe not only in the economic, but IW of legal terms. The landowners and their cuzzers beat the peasants with the scales, they were sharpened in the shackles for any provinity. The spontaneous manifestation of the struggle against the oppressors was the frequent killings of landowners and peasant shoots. The peasants left the spaced places, hidden in remote and minorized areas in the Volga region and in the south of Russia, especially on Don.
In the city, property and social differences among the Posad people were emphasized by the government themselves who divided the landing people on prosperity on "good" (or "best"), "heart" and "young". Most landing people belonged to young people. The best people numbered units, but they belonged to them the largest number of shopping shops and fishing establishments (Salotopni, Zakobini, Dzerkini, etc.). They abandoned debt obligations and often ruined young people. The contradictions between the best and young landed people were invariably manifested in the election of the Zemsky Starright, who made the layout of the filings and doubues in the suburban community. Attempts of young people to hold their candidates to the Zemsky's heads of their candidates, which accused them of the mound against the royal government. Young Posad People, "Thinking Truths" and "From all evil deliverances and from the rule of violence," Zhuge hated urban "Mirohedov" and took part in all the uprisings of the XVII century.
The serfstone strongly suppressed any attempt to protest disadvantaged folk masses. The jams immediately reported to the warlords and the orders for "non-giving speeches on the sovereign." The arrested were tortured, which was produced three times. Recognized their guilt was punished with a whip on the square and link to distant cities, and sometimes the death penalty. The preserved three-time torture was released normally crippled for life. "Elvev" (denunciation) on political affairs was legalized in Russia the XVII century as one of the means of reprisals with popular discontent.
Urban uprisings
Contemporaries called the XVII century "rebellious" time. And indeed, in the preceding history of feudal-serfdom Russia, there was no such number of anti-refortion performances, as in the XVII century.
The largest of them in the middle and the second half of this century were urban uprisings 1648-1650, "Copper Bun" 1662, the peasant war under the leadership of Stepan Razin 1670-1671. A special place is "split". It began as a religious movement, found a later response in the folk masses.
Urban uprisings 1648-1650. Were directed against the boyars and government administration, as well as against the top of the landing people. Public discontent increased by the extreme sale of the state apparatus. Posad people were forced to give to the voivifiers and orders of bribes, "Posil". Craftsmen in cities forced to work for free and devils for free.
The main driving forces of these uprisings were young Posads and Sagittarius. The uprisings were urban, but in some areas covered the village.
Unrest in the cities began in the last years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, but they resulted in the form of the uprising in his son and successor Alexei Mikhailovic. In the first years of his reign, the actual ruler of the state was the royal educator ("Uncle") - Boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov. In its financial policy, Morozov relied on merchants, with whom it was closely related to the general trading operations, as its extensive defenders supplied Potash, resin and other products for exporting abroad. In search of new funds to replenish the royal treasury, the government on the advice of the spirit of Duma Decia N. Pure in 1646 replaced direct taxes with a tax on salt, which took up the visibility immediately almost three times. It is known that such a tax (Gabel) and in France caused in the same XVII century. Large folk unrest.
The hated salt tax was canceled in December 1647, but instead of income who came to the treasury from the sale of salt, the government resumed the collection of direct taxes - Streetsky and Yam's money, demanding payment for two years.
The excitements began in Moscow in the first days of June 1648. During the procession, a large crowd of landing people surrounded the king and tried to convey to him to job, with a complaint about the violence of Boyar and ordinary people. Guardian dispersed the jubiors. But the next day, Sagittariov and other target people joined the Posad people. The rebels broke into the Kremlin, in addition, they defeated the courtyards of some boyars, the Streethesky chiefs, merchants and orders. Duma deque clean was killed in his home. The rebels forced the government to issue L. Pleneyev, who made the Moscow city administration, and Plescheev was alveternly executed on the square as a criminal. The rebels demanded issuance and Morozov, but the king secretly sent him to an honorary reference to one of the northern monasteries. "Posad People, I am Moscow," supported by the Archers and Halls, forced the king to enter the square in front of the Kremlin Palace and give an oath promise to fulfill their requirements.
The Moscow uprising has found a wide response in other cities. There were rumors that in Moscow "strongly bother with a layer and a stone." The uprisings covered a number of northern and southern cities - Great Ustyug, Cherdin, Kozlov, Kursk, Voronezh, and others. In southern cities, where the Poshessic population was a few, the uprisings were led by Sagittsev. They sometimes joined the peasants of nearby villages. In the north, the main role belonged to the possession of people and the black-made peasants. Thus, the urban uprisings of 1648 were closely connected with the movement of the peasants. This is also indicated by the jobs of the landing people, submitted to the king Alexey during the Moscow Uprising: "All the people in the whole Moscow state and in its millions from such a false ride comes, as a result of which a large storm is rising in your royal capital of Moscow and in other many many Places, in cities and counties. "
The reference to the uprising in the commodity places suggests that the rebels may have been aware of the successes of the liberation movement in Ukraine under the leadership of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, which began in spring the same. 1648
"Code" 1649
Armed performance of the city's bases and the Archers, which caused the confusion of the ruling circles, took advantage of the noblemen and the top of the merchants to present their current requirements to the government. In numerous jobs, nobles demanded the issuance of a salary and abolition of the "urgent years" for the check of runaway peasants, guests and commercial people sought the introduction of restrictions for foreigners trading, as well as the confiscation of privileged urban settlements, which were owned by large secular and spiritual feudals. The government was forced to give to the harassment of the nobles and the tops of the Posad and convened the Zemsky Cathedral to develop a new judiciary (deposition).
On the Zemsky Cathedral, convened on September 1, 1648 in Moscow, profits from 121 cities and counties. In the first place in the number of elected plates were provincial nobles (153 people) and Posal people (94 people). "Cathedral", or a new set of laws, was drawn up by a special commission, discussed by the Zemsky Cathedral and printed in 1649. Extremely large in the same time in circulation in 2 thousand copies.
The "Code" was compiled on the basis of a number of sources, including the "judicial judicial" 1550, Tsarist Decrees and the Lithuanian Statute. It consisted of 25 chapters divided into articles. The introductory chapter to "deposits" was established to "people of all sorts of ranks from a large and to a smaller order, the court and the rules were in all sorts of Delek All Roven." But this phrase had a purely declarative character, as in reality the "CHEP" claimed the estate privileges of the nobles and the tops of the Poshesky world. "Code" confirmed the right of the owners to transfer the estate to the estate, provided that the new landowner will bear military service. In the interests of the noble, it forbade a further increase in church land tenure. The peasants were finally fixed behind the landowners, and the "urgent summer" for the search for runaway peasants canceled. Nobles have now had the right to seek runaway peasants during an unlimited time. This meant a further strengthening of the fortress dependence of the peasants from the landowners.
"Clause" forbade the Boyars and the clergy to arrange their so-called white settlements in the cities, where their dependent people engaged in trade and craft lived; All people who fled from the Posad Trech should have come back to the landing community. These articles "Cutting" satisfy the requirements of the Poskiy population, who watched the prohibition of white Slobod, whose population, engaged in bargaining and crafts, was not burdened by landing and therefore successfully competed with black Slobod. The elimination of private-owner Slobod was directed against the remnants of feudal fragmentation and strengthened the city.
The "Cathedral Code" was more than 180 years old became the main legislative code of Russia, although many of his articles were canceled by further legislative acts.
Uprisings in Pskov and Novgorod
"Code" not only did not satisfy the wide ranges of landing people and peasants, but even more deepened class contradictions. The new uprisings of 1650 in Pskov and Novgorod were deployed in the situation of the struggle of young landing people and Sagittarov against the nobles and major trading people.
The reason for the uprising was the speculation of bread, which was conducted on the direct prescription of the authorities. The government was advantageous to inflate the prices of bread, since the payroll at this time with the Swedes for the reinforcements to Russia from the territories, who went to Sweden in the Stolban World of 1617, was partially not done with money, but in local market prices.
The main part in the Pskov uprising, which began on February 28, 1650, adopted landing people and Sagittarius. They took into custody of the Voyage and organized their own government in the Zeba led by Khlebnik Gavrila Demidov. On March 15, the uprising broke out in Novgorod, and thus, two large cities refused to obey the Tsarist government.
Novgorod lasted no more than a month and submitted to the royal governor Prince I. Khovansky, who immediately put in the prison of many participants of the uprising. Pskov continued to fight and successfully beat the attacks of the tsarist troops approached his walls.
The Government of the Rest of Pskovichi, led by Gavrila Demidov, held events that improved the position of urban bases. Zemskaya Izba took pressure on the food reserves that belonged to the nobles and merchants; At the head of the military forces, defeated the city, young Posads and Sagittarius were delivered; Some out of the noblemen are executed, who are shown in intercourse with the royal troops. Particular attention was paid to the raising peasants and landing people in the suburbs. Most suburbs (gdov, island, etc.) joined Pskov. A wide movement has begun in the village that swept the enormous territory from Pskov to Novgorod. The detachments of the peasants burned landlord estates, attacked small noble detachments, worried the rear of the Army of Khovansky. In Moscow and other cities, it was restless. The population discussed rumors about Pskov events and expressed their sympathy for the rebel Pskov. The government was forced to convene the Zemsky Cathedral, which decided to send a delegation of elected people to Pskov. The delegation persuaded Pskov's folding weapons, promising an amnesty to the rebel. However, this promise soon was broken, and the government sent Demidov together with other leaders of the uprising in the distant link. The Pskov Uprising lasted almost six months (March - August 1650), and the peasant movement in the Pskov Earth did not stop several years.
"Copper Riot"
The new urban uprising, called the "copper rebellion", occurred in Moscow in 1662. It was deployed in the conditions of economic difficulties caused by the long and ruin war of Russia with the responding speech (1654-1667), as well as the war with Sweden. Due to the lack of sulfue money, the government decided to produce a copper coin equalized by the cost of silver money. Initially, the copper money was eagerly taken (they began to be released from 1654), but copper cost 20 times cheaper than silver, and copper money was produced in excessive quantities. In addition, the "thieves", fake money appeared. They were minted by the cash masters themselves, who were under the auspices of the royal father-in-law Boyari Mi-Loslavsky, mixed in this matter.
Copper money gradually began to fall in price; For one silver money began to give 4, and then 15 copper money. The government itself contributed to the fall of the course of copper money, demanding that taxes in the treasury were paid by silver coins, while the complaint of the steady people were issued with copper. Silver began to disappear from the appeal, and this led to a further drop in the value of copper money.
From the introduction of copper money most suffered as landline people and serviced people in the device: Sagittarius, Pushkari, and others. Posad people were obliged to pay cash contributions to the treasury by silver money, and they paid copper with them. "For copper money, they do not sell, silver nowhere to take," said "acceptable letters" distributed among the population. The peasants refused to sell bread and other edible supplies on impaired copper money. Bread prices rose with incredible speed, despite good crops.
Dissatisfaction of the landing people turned into a big uprising. In the summer of 1662, landing people defeated some boyars and merchant courtyards in Moscow. A large crowd went from the city to the village of Kolomenskoye village in the near Moscow, where the Tsar Alexey lived at this time to demand a decrease in taxes and cancels of copper money. The "silent" king, as Alexey Churchmen called hypocritically called, promised to investigate the case of copper money, but immediately treacherously violated his promise. The troops caused to them were learned by the cruel violence with the rebels. The man 100 drowned in the Moscow River during the flight, killed, wounded, or in prison was more than 7 thousand. Causes and torture followed the first massacre.
Peasant War under the leadership of Stepan Razin
The most powerful folk uprising of the XVII century. There was a peasant war of 1670-1671. Under the leadership of Stepan Razin. It was the direct result of the exacerbation of class contradictions in Russia in the second half of the XVII century. The heavy position of the peasants led to the strengthening of escapes to the outskirts. The peasants went to remote places on the Don and in the Volga region, where they hoped to hide from the opposite operation. Don Cossacks were not socially uniform. "Domoviti" Cossacks most accommodated in driving places at the bottom stream of Don with its rich fish facilities. It reluctantly took into his composition of new aliens, the poor ("Golkutva") Cossacks. "Golyutba" accumulated mainly on the lands on the top flow of Don and his tributaries, but also here the position of the runaway peasants and the holders was usually difficult, since the domain Cossacks prohibited them to steal the land, and there were no new fishing sites for the aliens. Gauntled Cossacks were especially suffering from lack of bread on Don.
A large number of runaway peasants also seduced in the areas of Tambov, Penza, Simbirsk. Here, the peasants founded new villages and villages, swallowed empty land. But after them immediately went landlords. They received sick diplomas from the king to allegedly empty lands; The peasants who were settled on these lands, again fell into a serf dependence on landowners. In the cities, the walking people were concentrated, who mined metage by random earnings.
The heavy colonial oppression was tested by the peoples of the Volga region - Mordva, Chuvashi, Mari, Tatars. Russian landowners captured their lands, fishing and hunting grounds. At the same time, state taxes and duties increased.
On Don and in the Volga region a large number of people who hostile to serfs have accumulated. Among them were a lot of settlers exiled to the distant Volga cities for participating in the uprisings and various sorts of performances against the government and the governor. Razin slogans found a hot response among Russian peasants and oppressed peoples of the Volga region.
The beginning of the peasant war was put on Don. Gauntled Cossacks made a campaign to the shores of the Crimea and Turkey. But the domain Cossacks prevented them to break through to the sea, afraid of a military collision with the Turks. The Cossacks led by Ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razini moved to the Volga and nearby Tsaritsyn captured the caravan of ships, which went to Astrakhan. Having freely sailing past Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, the Cossacks entered the Caspian Sea and headed towards the mouth of the Yaika River (Urals). Razin took the Yaitsky town (1667), many Yaik Cossacks joined his army. The next year, the detachment of Razin on 24 courts went to the shores of Iran. Righting the Caspian coast from Derbent to Baku, the Cossacks reached my decision. During negotiations, Persians suddenly attacked them and killed 400 people. In response, the Cossacks defeated the city of Ferahabad. On the way back in the pork island, near the mouth of the Kura, the Iranian fleet attacked the Cossack trial, but suffered a full defeat. Cossacks returned to Astrakhan and sold captured prey here.
A good sea campaign on Yaik and to the shores of Iran sharply increased the authority of razin among the population of Don and the Volga region. Fucked peasants and slaves, walking people, oppressed peoples of the Volga region only and waited for the signal in order to raise an open uprising against their oppressors. In the spring of 1670, Razin reappeared again on the Volga with a 5-thousand Cossack army. Astrakhan opened his gate; Sagittarius and landing people went to the side of the Cossacks everywhere. At this stage, the movement of the difference has grown the framework of the campaign 1667-1669. and resulted in a powerful peasant war.
Razin with major forces went up the Volga. Saratov and Samara met the rebels with a bell ringing, bread and salt. But under the fortified symbirsk army was held for a long time. To the north and west of this city, the peasant war was raised. The big squad of rebels under the team Mikhail Kharitonov took Korsun, Saransk, mastered the penza. Unite with the detachment of Vasily Fedorov, he headed towards the ball. Russian peasants, Mordva, Chuvashi, Tatars rose to war almost shortly, not even waiting for the arrival of Razin detachments. The peasant war approached Moscow and closer. Cossack Atamans were traded by Alatar, Dameman, Kurdysham. Kozmodemyansk and fishing village Lyskovo on the Volga joined the uprising. Cossacks and Lyskovtsy occupied the fortified Makaryev Monastery in the immediate vicinity of Nizhny Novgorod.
At the upper course of Don, the military actions of the rebels were led by the brother of Stepan Razin Frol. The uprising spread to the Earth to the south of Belgorod, inhabited by Ukrainians and wearing the name of Slobodskoy Ukraine. Everywhere "men", as the peasants called the royal documents, rose with weapons in their hands and together with the oppressed peoples of the Volga region fiercely fought against serfs. The city of Tsivilsk in Chuvashia was besieged "Russian people and Chyuzha".
The nobles of Shatsky County complained that they could not go to the royal gravifers "from the rolling of men-maudists." In the district of Kadoma, the same "man-made men" arranged to this place in order to delay the royal troops.
Peasant War 1670-1671 covered the large territory. Razin's slogans and his associates raised the oppressed layers of society on the struggle, compiled by the differences "Adorable" diplomas called all the "boal and optocrium" to end with worldly bloodsuckers, join the razin's army. According to the story of an eyewitness of the uprising, Razin spoke to the peasants and landing people in Astrakhan: "For business, brothers. Now revenge Tiranes, which still kept you in captivity worse than Turks or pagans. I came to give you freedom and deliverance. "
Don and Zaporizhia Cossacks, peasants and slaves, young Posads, seruners in the device, Mordva, Chuvash, Mari, Tatars were poured into the ranks. All of them united the common goal - the struggle against the serfs of the oppression. In the cities who switched to the side of Razin, the Voivodskaya power was destroyed and the management of the city turned into the hands of elected. However, struggling against the feudal blowing, the rebels remained the rearrs. They stood for a "good king" and spread the rumor that Tsarevich Alexey was going with them, who at this time in reality was no longer alive.
The peasant war forced the royal government to mobilize all his strength to suppress her. Under Moscow, within 8 days, there was a review of the 60th-thousand noble troops. In Moscow itself, a strict police regime was installed, since the excitements were afraid among the urban bases.
A decisive collision between the rebel and royal troops occurred under Symbirsk. In the detachments, great reinforcements from the Tatar, Chuvish and Mordvoy flinch, but the siege of the city was dragged for a whole month, and this allowed the royal grades to collect great strength. Under the Symbirian troops, Razin suffered from the regiments of an ingenic system (October 1670). Holding to gain a new army, Razin went to the Don, but there was a treacherously captured by Domotiti Cossacks and taken to Moscow, where he was subjected in June 1671 to the painful execution - quarters. But the uprising continued after his death. Astrakhan held longer than everyone. She surrendered to the tsarist troops at the end of 1671.
Split
The fierce class struggle, unfolding in Russia in the second half of the XVII century, was reflected in such a public movement, which was the split of the Orthodox Church. Bourgeois historians emphasized only his church side in the split and therefore they paid the main attention to the ritual disagreements between the Old Believers and the dominant church. In fact, the split reflected both class contradictions in Russian society. It was not only religious, but also by the public movement, which entended the religious shell class interests and requirements.
The reason for the split of the Russian Church was disagreements on the correction of church rites and books. Transfers of church books into Russian were made from Greek original at different times, and the scripts themselves were not absolutely the same, and the bookcards additionally contributed changes and distortions. In addition, rites not known in the Greek and South Slavic lands were established in Russian church practice.
The question of the correction of church books and rituals received special sharpness after delivery to Nikon's Patriarchast. The new Patriarch, the son of the peasant from the surroundings of Nizhny Novgorod, who murdered to the monks under the name of Nikon, quickly advanced in church circles. Established to the Patriarchs (1652), he took the position of the first person in the state after the king. The king called Nikon with his "sobernoy friend."
Nikon has energetically started the correction of liturgical books and rites, seeking to bring Russian church practice in line with Greek. The government supported these beginnings of Nikon, since the introduction of uniformity of the church service and the strengthening of the centralization of the church management corresponded to the interests of absolutism. But the fastened absolutism was contrary to theocratic ideas of Nikon, who compared the power of the Patriarch with the Sun, and the power of the king with the Moon, only reflecting the sunlight. Over the course of several years, Nikon has mastered secular affairs. These contradictions led to the quarrel of the king with Nikon, which ended the lowest in the ambitious patriarch. Cathedral of 1666 deprived Nikon Patriarch Sana, but at the same time approved his innovations and betrayed Anathema those who refused to accept them.
From this cathedral, the division of the Russian Church on the Orthodox dominant and Orthodox Old Believers, i.e., rejecting church reforms of Nikon begins. And the one and the other church equally considered themselves the only Orthodox; The official church was called the Old Believers "Raskolniki", the Old Believers called Orthodox "Nikonians". Raskolnikov's movement was headed by Protopop Avvakum Petrovich, too, nizhegorodets, a person with the same indomitable and powerful nature, as well as Nikon himself. "We see, Yako Winter Horce Knight; The heart of Overablo and legs shoved, "wrote later about the correction of the church books Avvakum.
After the cathedral of 1666, the persecution supporters collapsed. However, it was not easy to deal with the split, as he found support among peasants and landing people. Theological disputes were few available for them, but the old one was their usual, and the newly imposed forcibly seruating state and supporting his church.
Open resistance to the royal troops provided the Solovki monastery. Located on the Islands of the White Sea, this richest of northern monasteries was at the same time a strong fortress, was protected by stone walls, had a considerable amount of guns and food reserves for many years. The monks that have stood for an agreement with the royal government were removed from the management of the monastery; The power took the Archers, exiled to the north difference and chapels. Under the influence of the peasant war under the leadership of the peasant war under the leadership of Razin Solovkaya uprising, arising on the basis of the split, turned into an open antifeodal movement. The siege of the Solovetsky Monastery lasted eight years (1668-1676). The monastery was taken only as a result of treason.
The strengthened opposition of a serfstone led to the further development of the split, despite the most severe government prosecution. The Avvakum Protopop after a volatile stay in the earthen prison was burned in 1682 in the emptyersk at the fire and his death even more strengthened the "old faith". Old Believers fled to the outskirts of the state, in the deaf forests and swamps. However, the religious ideology gave this movement to the reaction. Among his participants, the rattles of the close end of the world and the need for self-immolation began to avoid the "antichrist" power. At the end of the XVII century. The self-immolation was made with a frequent phenomenon in the north of Russia.
4. International Regulation of Russia
Russia was severely weakened by a long-term Polish-Swedish intervention and lost large and economically important areas in the West. Particularly severe was the loss of Smolensk and the coast of the Gulf of Finland, as a direct access to the Baltic Sea. The return of these original Russian territories that had enormous importance for the entire economic life of the country remained the immediate task of Russia's foreign policy in the XVII century. An equally important task was to fight for the reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands within the framework of a single Russian state, as well as in the defense of the southern borders from the raids of the Crimeans and the conquest campaigns of the Turks.
"Azov Seat". Zemsky Cathedral 1642
The unsuccessful outcome of the Smolensk War complicated the international situation of Russia. An especially anxious was the situation on the southern outskirts of the country, which the robber raids of the Crimean Tatars were constantly devastated. Only in the first half of the XVII century. The Crimean Tatars who were in vassal dependence on Turkey took up to 200 thousand Russian people. To protect the southern borders, the Russian government in the 1930s of the XVII century. It began to repair and build new defensive structures - the so-called die-cast damns, consisting of intercourse, pvv, shafts and fortified towns, narrow chain stretching along the southern frontiers. Defensive lines made it difficult for the Crimeans to the inner counties of Russia, but their construction was worth the Russian people of tremendous effort.
Two Turkish fortresses stood at the mouth of the largest southern rivers: Ochakov - when the Dnieper and Buga are shifted in the sea, Azov - when there is no dona in the Azov Sea. And though in the Don pool there were no Turkish settlements, the Turks kept the Azov as the basis of their possessions in the Black Sea and Azov .
Meanwhile in the first half of the XVTI century. Russian settlements on Don reached almost to Azov. Don Cossacks grew into greater military strength and usually acted in Union with Zaporozhets against the Turkish troops and the Crimean Tatars. Often, light Cossack vessels, deceiving the Turkish custody under the azov, broke through with the Don Sleeves in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov. Hence, the Cossack fleet was sent to the shores of the Crimea and Malaya Asia, making raids on the Crimean and Turkish cities. For the Turks, Cossack trips on Cafa (the current Feodosia) and Sinop (in Malaya Asia) were especially memorable, when these largest Black Sea cities were ruin. Wanting to prevent the Cossack fleet to penetrate the Azov Sea, the Turkish government kept the military squadron at the mouth, but the Cossack sea stops with a team of 40- 50 people still successfully broke through through Turkish barriers to the Black Sea.
In 1637, using the internal and external difficulties of the Ottoman Empire, the Cossacks approached the Azov and took it after an eight-week siege. It was not a sudden raid, but a real regular siege using artillery and the organization of earthworks. According to the Cossacks, they "towers Many and the walls of the IS of guns poured. And they swallowed ... beside the whole hail, and the subpople was let down. "
The loss of Azov was extremely sensitive for Turkey, which thus lost its most important fortress in the Azov. However, the main Turkish forces were distracted by the war with Iran, and the Turkish expedition against Azov could take place only in 1641. The Turkish army directed for the siege of Azov, many times the Cossack garrison was many times in the city, had a siege artillery and was supported by a powerful fleet. The precipitated Cossacks beat fiercely. They reflected 24 Turkish attacks, caused a huge damage to Turks and forced them to remove the siege. Nevertheless, the question of Azov was not allowed, because Turkey did not want to abandon this important fortress on the bank of Don. Since some Cossacks could not defend the Azov against the overwhelming Turkish forces, then before the Russian government there was a question whether it was necessary to lead the war for the Azov or refuse him.
To solve the issue of Azov in Moscow, the Zemsky Cathedral was convened in 1642. The elected people unanimously offered to leave Azov for Russia, but at the same time complained about their difficult position. The noblemen accused of ordinary people in extortion with the distribution of places and money, Poshesky people complained about heavy duties and cash payments. In the province there were rumors about the ambulance "smoothie" in Moscow and the universal uprising against the boyars. The position within the state was so disturbing that it was impossible to think about a new heavy, long war. The government refused to further protect Azov and offered to the Don Cossacks to leave the city. Cossacks left the fortress, raving it to the ground. The defense of Azov was for a long time in folk songs, prosaic and poetic poses. One of these stories ends with words, as if attending the heroic struggle for Azov: "There was the Cossacks of the Glory of Eternal, and the Turks of the Eternal Warrennis."
War with Poland for Ukraine and Belarus
The largest foreign policy event of the XVII century, in which Russia was attended, there was a long war of 1654-1667. This war, which began as a war of Russia with a response to Ukraine and Belarus, soon turned into the largest international conflict, which was attended by Sweden, the Ottoman Empire and its vassal states - Moldova and the Crimean Khanate. According to your value for Eastern Europe, the war is 1654-1667. It can be put on a par with a thirty-year war.
Military actions opened in the spring of 1654. Part of the Russian troops was aimed at Ukraine for joint actions with the Army of Bogdan Khmelnitsky against the Crimean Tatars and Poland. The main forces of the Russian command focused on the Belarusian theater, where they were supposed to apply decisive blows on the troops of the Shankhetsky Poland. The beginning of the war was marked by the great successes of Russian troops. Less than two years (1654-1655) Russian troops were traded by Smolensky and important cities of Belarus and Lithuania: Mogilev, Vitebsk, Minsk, Vilnius (Vilnius), Kovno (Kaunas) and Grodno. Everywhere, Russian troops found the support of Russian and Belarusian peasants and the urban population. Even the official Polish sources recognized that, wherever the Russians came, everywhere "Many people gather crowds". In the cities, artisans and merchants refused to oppose Russian troops. The peasant detachments throat the Pansky estates. Military successes in Belarus were achieved with the support of the detachments of the Ukrainian Cossacks.
Significant success was also achieved by Russian troops and squads of Khmelnitsky, acting in Ukraine. In the summer of 1655, they moved to the West and during the fall freed from the Polish-shine oppression of Western Ukrainian lands up to Lviv.
Russian war with Sweden
The relaxation of the Commonwealth prompted the Swedish king Charles X Gustav to declare to her under an insignificant war. Meeting the weak resistance, the Swedish troops occupied almost all Poland along with her capital Warsaw, as well as part of Lithuania and Belarus, where the Swedes supported the largest Lithuanian magnate Janus Radzivill. Sweden intervention has dramatically changed the balance of power in Eastern Europe. Easy victories in Poland significantly strengthened the position of Sweden, established on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Considering that the Polish army has long lost its combat capability, the Russian government has concluded a truce with Poland to Vilno and the beginning of the war against Sweden (1656-1658).
In this war, the issue of obtaining Russia's access to the Baltic Sea was important. Russian troops took Koknes (Cockuxezen) in Western Dvina and began the siege of Riga. At the same time, another Russian detachment took Nienshanz on the Neva and besieged Noteburg (nut).
Russia's war with Sweden distracted the main forces of both states from the Commonwealth, where the widespread popular movement against the Swedish invaders began, which led to the purification of the territory of Poland from the Swedish troops. The government of the Polish king Yana Kazimir, not wanting to put up with the loss of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, resumed the struggle against Russia. The price of territorial concessions addressed in 1660 with Sweden Olivsky world, which made it possible to throw all the armed forces against Russian troops. This prompted the Moscow Government to conclude a truce at the beginning, and then the world with Sweden (Cardisian world of 1661). Russia was forced to abandon all his acquisitions received in the Baltic States during the Russian-Swedish War.
Andrusovsky truce 1667
Military actions resumed in 1659 developed unfavorable for Russian troops left Minsk, Borisov and Mogilev. In Ukraine, the Russian army suffered a defeat from the Polish-Crimean forces under wonderful. Soon, however, the promotion of the Poles was suspended. A prolonged war began, exhausting the strength of both parties.
Meanwhile, the voltage caused by the war exacerbated the domestic political situation both in Russia and in the commitory speech. In Russia, the "copper riot" broke out, the oppositional movement of the magnates and the gentry, dissatisfied with the politics of Yana Kazimir, arose in the Commonwealth. Exhausted opponents ended the long war in 1667 by Andrusovsky truce for a period of 13 and a half years.
Negotiations in Andrusov (near Smolensk) led an outstanding diplomat, head of the Embassy Order of Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nachokin, who received the title of "royal large press and state-owned Great Embassy of the Savings." According to the agreement reached, Russia kept Smolensk with its surrounding territory and Left Bank. The city of Kiev on the right bank of the Dnieper was transferred to the ownership of Russia for two years; Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine remained under the authority of the Commonwealth.
Andrusovsky truce 1667 did not allow complex issues faced by Russia. Ukraine turned out to be divided into two parts. The left bank of it, together with Kiev, reunited with Russia, has become an opportunity for economic and cultural development. Right-Bank Ukraine has experienced all the horrors of the Crimean Tatar invasions and remained under the rule of Polish Panov.
Sweden in the Cardis world retained in his possession of the Russian coast of the Finnish Bay, the only value of which for Sweden was only that Russia, the largest country of Europe, was deprived of direct access to the Baltic Sea. Thus, a constant threat of the emergence of a new military conflict between Russia and Sweden was created.
The question of Russia's relations with the Crimean Khanate and Turkey remains unresolved. Azov remained the Turkish fortress, and the Crimean Hordes continued to attack the southern outskirts of Russia.
Russian-Turkish War 1676-1681
At the end of 1666, Turkey's war began with a response speech, which lasted with little breaks over 30 years. Turks claimed not only to the right bank, but also to the left bank of bank. The threat of Turkish aggression, which hung over the largest Slavic states - Poland and Russia, contributed to the Russian-Polish rapprochement. Already in 1672, on the eve of one of the conciliatory trips to Turkey, compulcement, the Russian government warned Sultan about his willingness to assist the Polish king: "We teach the fishery to repair and our commandment will send the Don Atamans and Cossacks, so that they are on Don and the Black Sea Any military fishery had. " Acting this way, in Moscow, they were convinced that the Turks intend "not tokmo the Polish state to ruin and take possession, but also to all the surrounding Christian states to seize."
Turkey, nevertheless, two months after receiving this diplomas, moved his troops against Poland and took possession of Kamenz - the largest fortress of podolia. Russian diplomacy has developed energetic activities on the organization of anti-scienture coalition. In 1673, the English, French and Spanish governments were invited to joint military actions against the "General Christian Enemy - the Turkish Sultan and the Crimean Khan". However, Western European states, between which there were large contradictions and which were also interested in the preservation of their trade privileges in the Ottoman Empire, refused to take any actions against the Turks.
The Russian government was not afraid of the possible performance of the Turks against Russia. In 1676, Turkey concluded peace with Poland, and in the summer of 1677. The huge Turkish army of Ibrahim-Pasha and Crimean Khan Selim Girea moved to the Ukrainian fortress on the right bank of the Dnieper - Chigirin, intending to master in the future. The Turkish command was confident that the small garrison of the fortress, consisting of Russian detachments and Ukrainian Cossacks, will open the gate of the 100,000th Army of the Turks and the Crimeans. But the Russian-Ukrainian army under the command of Boyarina G. Romodanovsky and hetman I. Samoilovich, hurrying to help the garrison of the deposited Chigirin, in August 1677, in the battles for crossing the Dnieper, pirates were inflicted, forced them to relieve the siege of Chigirin and hastily retreat.
In the summer of the next 1678, the Turks again undertook a siege of Chigirin and although they seized the dilapidated fortress, but they could not hold it. Russian sources note that the Turks, meeting the "strong and courageous standing and in their troops the Great, August, against the 20th day, at midnight ... ran back." After long negotiations between Russia and Turkey in 1681, 20-year-old truce was concluded in Bakhchisara. Sultan recognized Russia's right to Kiev and promised to stop ragging the Crimeans on her land.
Crimean hiking 1687 and 1689.
Although Sultan swore "terrible and firm an oath ... The name of the Sky and Earth" did not violate the conditions of the Bakhchisarai truce enshrined next year by the Constantinople peace treaty, the Crimeans continued to ruin Ukrainian lands and southern regions of Russia. At the same time, Sultan was able to intensify his aggression against other European states by sending liberated armed forces against them. Under these conditions, an antiturketic coalition of European states arose, the participants of which (Austria, Poland and Venice) sought to involve both Russia and Russia. The Russian government of the princess Sophia (1682- 1689) put an indispensable condition for their participation in the Holy League Conclusion of the "Eternal World" with worn, confirming the conditions of the Androvsky truce. "The Eternal World" (1686) was a fracture in relations between Russia and Poland and contributed to the unification of the efforts of two states in the fight against Turkey.
By fulfilling its allied commitments to Poland and other members of the League, Russia organized two campaigns to the Crimea. Already during the preparations for the first campaign, the properties of the local cavity were negatively affected: in its ranks there was a discipline weak, the fees passed extremely slowly, and some of the disadvantaged nobility in the sign of disbelief in good luck of the hike arrived in mourning clothes and with black horses. Finally, in the spring of 1687, the 100,000th army (partly consisted of the regiments of a new building), accompanied by a huge route, moved to the Crimea. Moving along the scaled steppe tatars, severely suffering from lack of water and losing horse makeup, the Russian army did not reach the Crimea. She had to return to Russia, having lost a large number of people during the exhausting campaign.
To avoid hostilities in the conditions of summer heat, the government organized the second Crimean campaign (1689) in early spring, and already in May, the Russian army reached revealed. But this time Russian failed to succeed. Favorite printed Sophia Prince V. V. Golitsyn, who commanded the Russian army in both campaigns, was a good diplomat, but turned out to be a unlucky commander. In connection with the sluggish actions of Golitsyn, who abandoned the general battle and retreated from the perk, in Moscow, even walked the senses, which, however, were unreliable that the indecision of the prince was explained by the fact that the Turks were bribed.
Despite the unsuccessful results of the Crimean Hiking, Russia made a significant contribution to the struggle against the Turkish aggression, since these hikes distracted the basic forces of Tatars, and Sultan thus lost to support the numerous Crimean cavalry. This most favorable conditions were created for the successful actions of the Allies of Russia on the Antiturch Coalition on other theaters of the war.
International relations of Russia
Russia occupied a prominent place in the international relations of the XVII century. And exchanged embassies with the largest countries of Europe and Asia. Particularly lively intercourse with Sweden, the speech of compulcient, France, Spain, as well as with the Austrian emperor, "Cessera", as official Russian documents called it. Of great importance also had connections with Italy, primarily with Roman Kuria and Venice. Constant connections were maintained with Turkey and Iran, Central Asian Khunches and China. Relations with China, Iran and the Khanshes of Central Asia, as a rule, were peaceful.
The Embassy Order, who made intercourse with foreign states, was a very important institution, at the head of which they were in most cases not a boyars, but spiritual devils, that is, people of more thank birth, but well-aware in international affairs. The high meaning of the duma dequeble of the Embassive Order was emphasized by the fact that foreigners were called "Chancellor".
Russian embassies in the XVII century. They appeared in almost all major capitals of Western Europe, and Russian merchants led the lively trade with Sweden, the speech of compulcute and Nemny cities. A significant number of Russian merchants visited Stockholm, Riga and other cities.
In turn, trading cases attracted a large number of foreigners to Russia. Many of them took Russian citizenship and remain in Russia forever. Initially, they miley courtyards among the Russians, and from the middle of the XVII century. In Moscow outside the earthly city, on the "coch", a special German Sloboda emerged. It has no longer over 200 yards. Despite the name of German, the German actually lived in it, since the Germans were usually called not only the Germans, but also the Scots, the British, Dutch, etc. Almost three-quarters of the population of German Sloboda were the military service Foreigners were doctors, artisans, etc. Thus, the Sloboda was populated by the advantage of the wealthy people. In German Sloboda, they built houses on the Western European model, had the Protestant Church (Kirk). However, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inhabitants of the German Sloboda as people of a higher culture compared with the Russian population is greatly exaggerated.
The "German" customs had an inflated manner on the top of the Russian society. Some Russian Velmazby arranged their homely decoration on the overseas pattern, began to wear foreign clothes. Prince V. Golitsyn.
Strengthen in the XVII century. and cultural connections of Russia with Western Europe. By this time, the emergence of a number of translations in Russia in Russia in various branches of knowledge. The courtya was compiled at the courtyard, a peculiar newspaper with news of foreign events.
The long-standing ties of Russia with the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula continued to expand. Representatives of the Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek clergy received "alms" in Russia in the form of money gifts, part of the aliens remained forever in Russian monasteries and cities. Scientists of the Greeks were engaged in translations of books from Greek and Latin, served as editors ("Prinker") on the printed courtyard. They were often teachers in rich families, like Ukrainian monks, usually pets of the Kiev Great Academy. The influence of Kievans especially intensified by the end of the XVII century, when many of them occupied senior positions in the church hierarchy.
Especially significant was the impact of Russian culture on Bulgaria and Serbs, who were under Turkish ig. The visitors of Bulgarians and Serbs hired a large number of books printed in Moscow and Kiev to their homeland. The opening of the first typography in Iasas (Moldova) in 1640 occurred with the help of Kiev Metropolitan Peter Mogile. Communication with the Russian and Ukrainian peoples had enormous importance for the struggle of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula against the Turkish oppression.
In the XVII century, Russia's connections with the peoples of the Transcaucasia are enhanced. Georgian and Armenian colonies existed in Moscow and left a memory of themselves in the names of the streets (small and large Georgians, Armenian lane). Kakhetsky Tsar Teymraz personally came to Moscow and asked for support against Iranian Shah (1658). The numerous Armenian colony was located in Astrakhan, which was the center of Russian trade with the eastern countries. In 1667, a contract of the royal government was signed with the Armenian trading company to trade Iranian silk. The head of the Armenian Church, Catholicos, applied to the king Alexey with a request to protect Armenians from violence of the Iranian authorities. The peoples of Georgia and Armenia were more closely associated with Russia in their struggle against Iranian and Turkish enslares.
The lively trade relations existed in Russia and with the peoples of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. In Shemache, there was a Russian merchant colony. Information about the eastern regions of the Caucasus, especially the cities of Azerbaijan, are contained in the "walking" of Russian people of the XVII century, of which the notes of the merchant F. A. Kotova are particularly interesting.
Connected links and from distant India. In Astrakhan there were settlements of the Indian merchants who traded with Russia. Tsarist Government during the XVII century. Several times sent their embassies to India.
5. Russian culture of the XVII century.
Education
In the XVII century In different regions of Russian culture there were large shifts.
"New period" in the history of Russia powerfully broke with the traditions of the past in science, art and literature. It affected the sharp increase in printed products, in the emergence of the first higher educational institution, in the emergence of the theater and newspapers (handwritten "Kurats"). Civil motifs conquer an increasing place in literature and painting, and even in such traditional arts, as an iconist and church paintings, there is a desire for realistic images, which far from the stylized manner of the Russian artists of the preceding centuries.
Huge and fruitful consequences for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples had the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. The origin of the theater, the spread of parties singing (church choral singing), the development of sillybic poems, new elements in architecture were common cultural phenomena for Russia, Ukraine and Belarus of the XVII century.
Literacy was made by the heritage of significantly wider circles of the population than before. A large number of trading people and artisans in cities, as they show numerous signatures of landing people on jobs and other acts, skillfully read and write. Literacy was also applied among the peasant population, mainly among the black-made peasants, which can be judged by recordings on the manuscripts of the XVII century., Made by their owners - peasants. In the noble and merchant circles, literacy was already ordinary.
In the XVII century, enhanced attempts to create permanent educational institutions in Russia. However, only at the end of the century, these attempts lead to the creation of the first higher education institution. At first, the government opened in Moscow School (1687), in which the Greeks scientists brothers taught not only church, but also some secular sciences (arithmetic, rhetoric, etc.). On the basis of this school, the Slavological Greco-Latin Academy arose, which was playing a prominent role in Russian education. She was placed in the building of the Saconoscope Monastery in Moscow (some of these buildings were preserved to our time). The Academy mainly prepared for educated persons to replace spiritual positions, but gave a lot of people engaged in various civilian professions. In it, as you know, a great Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov studied.
Further development received typography. Its main center was a printed courtyard in Moscow, the stone building of which exists and is currently. The printed yard mostly published church books. For the first half of the XVII century. About 200 separate publications were issued. The first book of the civil content printed in Moscow was the textbook of Patriarchard Dejak Vasily Burtseva - "The Language of Slaven's Language, siren the beginning of the teachings of children", first published in 1634 in the second half of the XVII century. The number of secular books manufactured by the printed courtyard increases dramatically. They belonged to "the doctrine and trick of the integrity of infantry people", "Cathedral Code", the Customs Charter, etc.
In Ukraine, Kiev and Chernigov were the most important centers of typography. In the printing house of Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, the first textbook on Russian history was printed - "Synopsis or a short assembly from different chroniclers about the start of the Slavic-Russian people."
Literature. Theatre
New phenomena in the Russian economy of the XVII century. Found reflection in the literature. In the landing environment, a household tale is born.
"Tale of Mount and Zlophatia" describes the gloomy history of a young man who failed in a life path. "I know I know and I know that I don't put a scarlet without a master," the hero exclaims, leading an example from the life of artisans and merchants familiar with the use of Scarlant (velvet). A number of satirical works are devoted to rising the negative sides of the Russian life of the XVII century. In the story of Yersh, the wrong ordinaries are ridiculed. Yersh know and eat only "brahniks and kabatsky goals", who are not for what to buy good fish. The main wines of Yersch in the fact that he "Skop and plot" mastered the Rostov Lake, "the article" Cathedral Plug "on the speeches against the government parodes the story. There is also a caustic satire for church orders. "Kalyazinskaya petty" rizuats the hypocrisy of the monks.
Archimandrite drives us to the church, the monks complain, and at that time "the circle of buckets (with beer) without a port in some scrolls in the cells sit ... Do not hide us ... and the worst with a bucket bucket." In the "festival of Kabatsky Yaryzhek" we find a parody of church service: "Speedback, Lord, this evening without beating to drunk, drink us."
In the literature of the second half of the XVII century. Folk elements are increasingly more affected: in the agendas about Azov, in the Talk of the Beginning of Moscow, etc. People's singing sound in the poetic story about Azov, in the cry of the Cossacks: "Forgive us, the woods are dark and dublava Green. Forgive us, the fields are clean and quiet creek. Forgive us, the sea is blue and the fast river. " In the XVII century, a new type of literary work is approved - notes that will receive special development in the next century. A simple and clear language is written a remarkable product of the founder of the split - "Life" of the Avvakum Protopopa, telling about his long-suffering life.
Illustrations of Comedy "Proverbs about the Prodigal Son" 1685
Teacher Princess Sophia Alekseevna Simeon Polotsk launched wide literary activities as the author of numerous verses (poems), dramatic works, as well as textbooks, sermons and theological treatises. For the printing of new books, a special court printing house was created at the "sovereign on top".
A large cultural event was the emergence of theatrical productions in Russia. The Russian Theater appeared at the courtyard of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. For him, Simeon Polotsky wrote "the comedy of parables about the prodigal son." It depicted the history of the prodigal son, repent of the slituity life and back accepted by the Father. For the presentation in the Moscow Region Tsarskoye village, Preobrazhensky built a "comedy chramine". Here was played by the play "Artaxerks and Action" on the biblical plot. The play was extremely like Alexey Mikhailovich, and the royal confessor saved him from doubt about the sinfulness of the theater, pointing out the examples of the Byzantine pious kings who loved theatrical spectacles. The director of the court theater was Gregory, Pastor from German Sloboda. Soon his place was taken by S. Chizhinsky, the pupil of the Kiev Great Academy (1675). In the same year, a ballet and two new comedies were delivered in the court of the court: Adam and Eve, about Joseph. The troupe of the court theater has more than 70 people exclusively male composition, since women's roles were also performed by men; Among them were children - "inexperienced and disretened deprovers."
Architecture and painting
In the XVII century, stone construction was greatly developed. Stone churches appeared not only in cities, but became the usual phenomenon and in rural areas. In large centers, a considerable number of civilian civilian buildings was built. These were usually two-story buildings with windows decorated with platbands, and a richly trimmed porch. Samples of such houses are the "Table of Chambers" in Pskov, the house of Korobov in Kaluga, etc.
In the architecture of stone churches, five-chapted cathedrals and small temples with one or five chapters prevailed. The artists loved to decorate the outer walls of the churches with a stone pattern of cososhnikov, eaves, columns, window peelings sometimes multicolored tiles. Chapters put on high necks took an elongated bulbous form. Stone tantrop churches were built in the first half of the XVII century. Later, the tents of the temples remained the property of the Russian north with its wooden architecture.
At the end of the XVII century. A new style appears, which sometimes received the wrong name of the Russian Baroque. The temples had a cross-shaped form, and their chapters began to be located cross-shaped instead of the traditional arrangement in the corners. The style of such churches, unusually effective in their rich exterior scenery, was called "Naryshkinsky", because the best churches of such architecture were built in the manors of the boyar of Naryshkin. An excellent sample is the church in filiela, near Moscow. Buildings of this kind were erected not only in Russia, but also in Ukraine. Unusually slim and at the same time richly decorated with speakers, platbands, parapets of the building of this style admire with their beauty. This style in its distribution could be called Ukrainian-Russian.
The best master painter of that era Simon Ushakov sought to write not distracted, but realistic images. The icons and painting of such a "Fryazhny letter" show the desire of Russian artists to get closer to life, leaving the abstract schemes. New trends in art caused a deep outrage of the zeal workers. Thus, Avvakum's protopop spoke to new icons, saying that "saved merciful" was depicted like a drunken ingen with a blush on his cheeks.
High levels reached applied art: art embroidery, decorative wood carving, etc. The wonderful samples of jewelry art were created in the Armory, where the best masters worked, who performed orders of the royal yard.
In all areas of the cultural life of Russia, new trends were felt caused by deep economic and public shifts. These shifts, as well as a fierce class struggle and powerful peasant uprisings, shaking feudal-serfs, were reflected in folk poetry. Around the majestic figure of Stepan Razin there was a cycle of epic songs. "Try, guys, to a steep barbell, we will spread the wall, and we will deal on a stone on a stone," the folk song chas the feats of razin and his associates, calls to the fight against landowners, serfdom, social oppression.
War with Sweden ended by signing in 1617 by the Stolbovsky Peace agreement under the conditions of which Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but the town of Novgorod, Porch, the old Russ, Ladoga and Gdov were returned to her. Russia turned out to be cut from the Baltic Sea
- History of Russian Goverment. Pillars world.
1618 - a deuly truce. The term of the truce was set at 14 years and 6 months from December 25, 1618 (January 4, 1619) to June 25 (July 5) 1633 . Russia was inferior to the Commonwealth of the following cities: Smolensk, Roslav, Putivl, Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov (Total 29 cities, except Vyatka)
- History of Russian Goverment. Devnie negotiations and truce.
2. New phenomena in the economy: the beginning of the folding of the All-Russian market, the formation of manufactories.
- with a new dynasty after troubled time
- with new borders of the state
- with the advent of a new government class (nobility),
- with new features in the national economy (the peasants fall into a fortified dependence, and the industrial development of the country begins on the fortress basis).
After the Troubles and the Polish-Swedish intervention, the country was in a state of complete disorder. Many Russian cities and villages were devastated. The center, south, west of the Moscow state was most affected. Troubled time led to a deep economic decline. In many counties of the historic center of the state the size of the pashnya decreased 20 times, And the number of peasants 4 times . In Western counties (Rzhevsky, Mozhaisk, etc.) the treated land was from 0.05 to 4.8%. The lands in the possessions of the Josepho-Volokolamsky monastery were "all before the foundation are broken and peasants with wives and children are lined up, and those who were raised in full ... and the peasants of tens of five or six after Lithuanian ruin were patched and they still do not know how to utter a loaf. In a number of areas, and by 20-40 years of the XVII century, the population was still lower than the level of the XVI century. And in the middle of the XVII century, the "Living Pashnya" in the Savoric Territory was not more than half of all lands taken by pesting books.
A huge country was weakly populated, especially Siberia, where on the verge of 17-18 centuries. 61 thousand Russian people lived. The total population of Russia as of 1678, it was 11.2 million people, from koi to share the townspeople accounted for 180 tes. The bulk of the population was the peasants, among which they prevailed landlocities (52%), then walked peasants belonging clergy (16%) and royal surname (9.2%). Locked peasants numbered 900 thousand . All this population was feudal-dependent on landowners, clergy, royal surname and state. The preferred estates treated nobles (70 thousand) and clergy (140 thousand)
But gradually Russia began to get out of economic rules. By the end of the 20s - the beginning of the 1930s, the peasants began to return to their native places. The launched and sealing lands were mastered, the city was revived. They increased the number of craft and commercial landing people.
Agriculture:
- Widespread domination three Podpoly
- Learning new lands (Siberia, South, Volga region)
- Height commodity Production Agrarian Products In individual regions (trade bread of the black earth regions)
Craft:
- Crafts corrugation B. small-friendly production (from the order to the market)
- Appearance manufactory - the form of manual production that uses the division of labor and market-oriented:
- It is not based on a busy one (as in Western Europe), but on serf labor.
- most often created by the state and carried out his orders,
- Weak interest of their owners in improving the technique because of the cheapness of the labor force and the lack of competition.
The first manufactories appeared in ferrous metallurgy (Vinius Manufactory, 1637)Then, in the salvation (Prikamye), leather production.
- The emergence of commercial villages (Ivanovo, Murashkino, Pavlovo, etc.), most of the inhabitants of which earn a living by the same craft, delivering products to the market.
A significant scale has acquired trade:
- Appearance all-Russian Fair. (Makarevskaya, Irbitan, Svenskaya et al.) - periodically organized in a certain place of trading.
- Formation merchants (Nikitnikov, Turekins, Shustov, Shorina, etc._ - class engaged in trading
- Folding the All-Russian Market - common economic ties and exchange of goods between different parts of the country
- Fencing by the Government of Russian merchants from competition from foreigners:
— 1653 - trade charter - determined 5% of the duty on imported goods;
— 1667 - Novotorgovy Charter (Developed A.L. Ordin-Nachichokin_ - foreigners allowed only wholesale in border areas, within the country - for special permits and double duty;
- 10% import duty (import) was introduced
The lack of comfortable sea routes prevented the development of foreign trade. The only sea port freezing in winter was Arkhangelsk. Russian cities grow based on trade and commercial production. Urban pans are a source of income for the treasury. The population of Posada in the state land is included in the case, i.e. Carries the Meetiness to the state.
- History of Russian Goverment. Siberian earth detectors of the XVII century.
In the XVI century The process of separation of labor is deepened, the number of specialties on metal processing increases. More complex cheese mines began to appear to smell iron from marsh ores, tools for deep drilling of hydrochloric wells, firearms and ammunition. An example of a high technical and artistic skill is the "Tsar gun" (Master Andrey Chokhov, 1586). Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma and others become major craft centers.
In the XVI century The scale of trade has increased. Large turnover had foreign trade, the most important direction of which was the Eastern. From 1553, the sea route was opened in England across the White Sea.
Throughout the XVII century. The home industry was widespread: the peasants produced canvases, semietary cloth, ropes and ropes, honeycomb, and leather shoes, various clothes and dishes, lapties, urine and roogle, tar and resin, etc. Gradually, the peasant industry turned into commodity production. Products of the fields were associated with the natural economic economy and partially went to the market.
For the XVII century. These groups of artisans were characteristic: Practical (performed private orders); Palace artisans (served the royal courtyard); Kazenny (worked on orders of treasury); Protential (made everything you need for landowners and wilts).
Based on the development of commercial economy, the exchange between the regions of the country intensified. In many areas of Russia, they did to manage and Selitra. Treatment of wood was spread in Pomorie, where sea and river ships were built. In different regions of the country developed resin fishery. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda, Yaroslavl and other cities produced products from hemp, flax, canvas. Glass and paper enterprises appeared. High level reached construction equipment.
Moscow, Tula, Ustyuzhna, Ustyug Great, etc. became the largest metalworking centers.
In the XVII century The technical level of the craft has increased, manifested in the production of weapons. In 1615, the first gun with screw cutting was made.
Several major shopping centers were formed, including Moscow.
Russia existed in Russia essential Trade Centers:
- Bread sold in the north of Russia, in Vologda and Ustyuh great;
- Flax and hemp sold mainly in Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk;
- leather, meat, fat - in Kazan, Vologda, Yaroslavl;
- Sol came from Solikamsk;
- Major fur trading took place on Makarev and Irbit fairs.
The first industrial institutions in Russia appeared at the end of the XV early XVI century. These were state-owned military enterprises - a gun yard, a gun chamber for the production of firearms and cold weapons, the Tula weapon manufactory, etc., on which, together with Russian masters, worked English and German specialists. All major construction work was carried out under the leadership of the order of stone affairs.
By the end of the XVI century. One of the most famous manufactories was a Hammnaya courtyard (weaving enterprise) in Moscow. In the XVII century Manufactory of this type appeared in Vladimir, Vologda and Yaroslavl counties and had a private ownership.
By the beginning of the XVII century. The main source of labor force of the manufactory industry was a fortress village, which was the most important cause of the slow pace of its development.
Transformation of crafts into small-handed production, the development of specialization of individual territories and the growth of trade turnover, the emergence of manuffs in the XVII century. contributed to the formation of the Unified All-Russian market.
Fortress economy in the XVII century. Agriculture was slowly recovered. The reasons were the weakness of peasant farms, low yields, natural disasters, bales, etc. From the middle of the century, the growth of agricultural production began, which was associated with the development of fertile lands of Central Russia and the Lower Volga region. The main path for which agriculture developed was extensive.
The peasant, as well as the landowner, the farm mainly maintained a natural character: the peasants were content with what they produced themselves, and the landowners were that they delivered the same peasants in the form of a natural exchange: bird, meat, oil, eggs, fat, and such Products of crafts, as a canvas, coarse cloth, wooden and clay dishes, etc.
In the XVII century The expansion of frostal land tenure was due to the rewards of the nobles (landlords) with black and palace lands, which was accompanied by an increase in the number of fixed population. The main trend of the socio-economic development of Russia was the further strengthening of serfdom. The country's rural population was divided into two main categories: owned and proteinous peasants.
The serfdom was reflected on the fate of the Khopov, the position of which was reduced to the position of serfs.
The "Cathedral Code" of 1649 limited the sources of replenishment of the hills that only free people could become. The economic basis of serfdom was the feudal ownership of Earth in all its forms - the local, voted, state.
Stages of improving the peasants
I National restriction of peasant freedom
1481 - the first mention in the documents on "bible" people - transition to the slaughterhouse for debts.
1497 - Establishment of the rule of Yuryeva Day: Peasants can move to another landowner in a limited period - a week before and week after November 26. At the same time, the fee for the "elderly" ("judiciary" Ivan III).
1550 - the abolition of slavery for debts, confirmation of the Yuryev day, but at the same time an "elderly" fee increased. Attachment to the Posal People ("Oblney" Ivan IV).
1581 - the first decree on "reserved years" prohibiting the transition of peasants due to emergency circumstances (Ivan IV decree).
1597 - Establishment of a five-year term of lawsuits about runaway peasants and lifelong services in the Kabalas ("Caming" of Tsar Fyodor Johnovich).
1601 - Prohibition of the transition of peasants recorded in the screening books 1592-1593. (Decree Boris Godunova).
1642 - The statute of limitations of claims for submissions exported to 15 years, and runaway - up to 10 years (Decree Mikhail Romanov).
1646 - the statute of limitations on the claims on fluent and exported peasants canceled (Decree Alexei Mikhailovich).
II legal registration of serfdom
1649 - Full prohibition of the transition of peasants, including Yuriev Day. Attaching the owner's personality, and not to the Earth, the consolidation of the hereditary fortress state and the landowner rights to dispose of the property of the serf, prohibiting the exit from the urban estate. Final legal registration of serfdom ("Cathedral Code" Alexei Mikhailovich).
III. Strengthening and further development of serfdom
Mid XVII-XVIII century. - an increase in the size of peasant duties, strengthening of serfdom, the transition of land and peasants to the full ownership of the landowner. The serfdom acquired the roughest and heavy forms: with the growth of the barbecues and long-term law enshrines the regime of unlimited landlord arbitrariness.
The historical concepts of the process of fixing the Russian peasantry
a) N. M. Karamzin, S. M. Soloviev, N. I. Kostomarov, B. D. Greek, R. G. Skrynnikov - "Declaring of peasants": serfdom introduced on the initiative of state power on the basis of the country's defenses And to ensure a serving class.
b) V. O. Klyuchevsky, M. P. Pogodin, M. A. Diakonov: "Bezuless fastening of peasants" - the serfdom is a consequence of the real living conditions of the country, decorated by the state only legally.
