1. The totality of interacting national economies of all countries of the world and international economic relations is ...
£ world production
World economy
£ world market
2. The number of independent states recognized by the world community at present:
3. The number of the most economically powerful developed countries with market economies:
4. Modern world economic relations are based on:
The total predominance of market relations
£ limited spread of market relations
£ dominated by political agreements
£ to strengthen the role of anti-terrorist agreements
5. "Open economy" presupposes:
Availability of the domestic market for attracting foreign capital
£ elimination of national borders
£ complete abolition of customs duties and restrictions
6. The system-forming factor of the modern world economy:
£ offer
Capital
7. Uneven economic development of countries means:
£ differences in the standard of living of the population
Difference in the level of industrial development and technical equipment of labor
£ varying degrees of openness of the national economy
8. Indicators expressing the openness of the national economy:
£ volume of foreign investment
Import quotas
£ number of employees in export production
9. Groups of countries in the world economy in accordance with the UN typology:
Developed market economies
£ industrialized countries
Countries with economies in transition
£ newly industrialized countries
Developing countries and territories with market economies
10. Criteria for assigning a country to a particular group:
The type of her economy
Socio-economic development level
£ level and quality of life of the population
£ development of the military-industrial complex
£ gross domestic product
The value of GDP per capita
11. Countries in the "group 7":
£ Brazil
France
12.Countries of the "New Industrial Countries" group:
£ Nigeria
£ Uruguay
Taiwan
£ Vietnam
Singapore
13.Countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development:
Netherlands
Norway
Ireland
14.Characteristic trends inherent in the modern stage of development of the world economy:
Deeper international division of labor
£ autarkism
Globalization
Aggravated competition
15. Newly industrialized countries of the "first wave":
Taiwan
£ Indonesia
The Republic of Korea
Hong Kong
Singapore
£ Vietnam
16. Key changes in the traditional scheme of equilibrium of the world economy "North-South" after the 70s. XX century. occurred due to ...
£ collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
The emergence of NIS
£ CMEA decay
17. Key changes in the traditional scheme of the balance of the world economy "West-East" after the 70s. XX century. occurred due to ...
The collapse of the administrative-command system of the former socialist countries
£ the emergence of NIS
The collapse of the CMEA
£ formation of new markets for the sale of goods
£ collapse of the colonial system
18. In the technogenic model of world development, the "periphery" took
Dependent and subordinate position
£ dominant position
19.In the technogenic model of world development, the "periphery" specializes in supplying the world market
Mineral raw materials
Energy carriers
Agricultural products
£ high technology products
20. Protectionism of foreign trade policy of the countries of the world economy is based on
Import substitution
£ export promotion
State or international regulation
£ market freedom
21. The liberalization of foreign trade policy of the world economy is based on
£ import substitution
Export promotion
£ national or international regulation
Free market
22.The main features of the manifestation of the uneven development of the world economy are considered
£ the gap in development levels between CPs and developing countries has narrowed
The differentiation of developing countries by the level of economic development is growing
Leading countries are changing
In the context of the globalization of the world economy, the newly industrialized countries have approached the group of leading exporters
Development gap between CPs and developing countries widened
23. Countries with market economies are considered
OPEC countries
£ CIS countries
24. Countries with economies in transition are considered
£ OPEC countries
CIS countries
25 The emerging global world economy includes national economies
Industrialized countries
New industrial countries
Developing countries
£ countries supplying raw materials
Countries with economies in transition
£ countries with command and control system of control
26.The main results of international cooperation are considered
£ strengthening friendship between countries
Increased output of manufactured goods
£ obtaining free licenses and patents
£ deepening MRI
27. Motives for the participation of countries in the international division of labor
£ gaining access to new technologies
£ redistribution of spheres of influence between countries
Obtaining economic benefits
£ access to sources of raw materials and energy
28. Economic benefits of the country from participation in the international division of labor:
£ getting information about competitors
Saving national costs due to the refusal of domestic production of goods and services due to their cheaper imports
£ receiving land rent
29. Reasons for the development of the international division of labor:
Differences in natural and climatic conditions
£ geopolitical features of the country's position
£ implementation of the import substitution policy
30. The form of participation of the country in the international division of labor, subject to the production of products in excess of domestic needs:
£ international division of labor
£ international cooperation
£ sectoral division of labor
International production specialization
31. The form of combining labor at various stages of production and sale of goods and services is called:
£ international division of labor
£ productive collaboration
International cooperation
£ import substitution
£ international specialization
32. The increase in the export quota reflects:
Increasing the level of competitiveness of export-oriented products
£ increase in labor productivity
£ favorable conjuncture of world commodity markets
33. The main forms of the international division of labor:
International specialization
International cooperation
£ regional integration
£ internationalization of production
£ globalization of the world economy
34. The intellectualization of the international division of labor is expressed in:
£ increase in the export quota
Form of scientific and technical cooperation
Form of technological cooperation
£ strengthening the role of TNCs
35. The classical theoretical principles of the development of the international division of labor are considered ...
£ supply and demand theory
Relative advantage theory (D. Ricardo)
The theory of absolute advantages (A. Smith)
£ mercantilist theories
36. The main functions of international cooperation:
Increase in labor productivity
£ deepening the international division of labor
Increased production of goods and services
£ receiving gratuitous aid
37. The export quota indicator indicates:
£ level of cooperation of production
Degrees of orientation of individual sectors of the national economy to foreign markets
£ the nature of foreign economic relations
Industry level international specialization
38. Quantitative indicators of the openness of the economies of the world economy are
Export quota
£ export quotas
Import quota
£ import quotas
Foreign trade quota
39. The most dynamically developing areas of the international division of labor at the present time:
£ production
£ transport
Information Services
£ investment
40.The specific specialization of countries in the production of certain goods and services depends on ...
Natural and geographical conditions
Scientific and technical cooperation of countries
Industrial cooperation
£ using international regulations and rules
41. Correspondence between the subjects of the world economy and the specific forms of their manifestation
42.The essence of the international division of labor is manifested in:
Dismemberment of the production process
Combining the production process
£ diversifying sources of raw materials and labor
43. The main types of international specialization are considered ...
Subject
£ unit
Detailed
Technological
£ private
44. The main areas of international specialization:
Manufacturing
£ scientific
£ technological
Territorial
Cross-sectoral
Intraindustry
45. The main actors of the global world economy:
Globalizing capital - TNK, TNB, MFC
£ United Nations (UN)
46. The solution to the contradictions of the globalization process comes down to ...:
£ Strengthening aid to least developed countries
Giving the globalization process a social focus
To channel the process of globalization for the benefit of the least developed countries of the world economy
£ tackling corruption problems in the developing world
47. Problems associated with the relationship "man-nature":
Using the resources of the oceans
£ development of culture, education, health care
£ providing employment for the economically active population
£ international terrorism
48. Problems associated with the relationship "person-society":
Development of culture, education, health care
£ peaceful space exploration
£ disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ preserving and restoring ecological balance
49.The main areas of activity of ECOSOC, as one of the main divisions of the UN
£ politics
£ science and culture
Economy
50. The development of education, science and culture in the UN system is dealt with by
51. The main activities of UNCTAD:
international trade
£ cultural environment
£ art
£ international STP
52. In the process of globalization, contradictions arise between ...
Countries with market economies and countries with economies in transition
Advanced and least developed countries of the MX
£ leading countries of the world
53. The main reasons for the emergence of the "anti-globalization" movement:
Globalization is for the benefit of the "club of selected countries"
Globalization is realized on the basis of taking into account the cultural values of the "West"
All countries are enjoying the fruits of globalization
54. Global demographic problems are
World population growth
£ population migration
Population aging
£ illegal migration
55. Global problems in the political sphere:
Rogue countries
International terrorism
£ religion
56. Global problems in the economic field:
£ economic wars
Growing Lagging Developing Countries
International debt problem
£ confrontation between interstate blocs
£ conflict between TNCs and national companies
57. Global social problems:
Income inequality
Unemployment
£ drop in real wages
£ urbanization
58. Global environmental problems:
£ limited resources
Waste and pollution problem
Climate warming
£ agricultural land problem
59. Characteristic features of the globalization of the world economy:
Liberalization of foreign trade
Strengthening the role of TNCs in the world economy
£ unresolved external debt problem
£ increased international terrorism
Enhancing the regulatory role of international economic organizations
60. Reasons for the acceleration of the globalization process at the beginning of the XXI century:
Information Technology
New financial technologies
Growth of the international capital market
£ financial crises
£ uneven economic development of the countries of the world economy
61. The area of the most dynamic development of the globalization process:
Economy
£ technique
Information
£ culture
£ politics
Finance
62. Global socio-political problems:
Disarmament and prevention of a new world war
£ energy problem
Providing employment for the economically active population
International terrorism
£ natural disasters
63. The global problems of "natural and economic" nature include
Economic problems
Energy supply
£ demographic problems
£ health problems
£ problems of interethnic relations
Food and raw materials problem
64. The main activity of the specialized organization of the United Nations - FAO is considered
£ development of international cooperation in the field of education, science, culture
Collection, synthesis and analysis of information on nutrition, nature management, fishing
65. The most common mineral:
£ iron ore
66. Of the fuel and energy fossil resources, the largest reserves are:
£ biofuel
67. A peculiar geographical phenomenon of the last decades of the 21st century, which has received the name "expansion" of the resource frontiers of the world economy in scientific literature, is associated with:
£ involvement in industrial exploration and development in almost all countries of the world
The beginning of the development of new sources of minerals in the conditions of hard-to-reach territories and shelf waters
£ discovery of fundamentally new types of minerals
68. Countries that almost completely satisfy their needs for fuel and energy resources from their own sources:
£ Mongolia
Norway
69. The biosphere's ability to cope with the consequences of human activity is based on the concept of the development of modern civilization ...
£ concept "limits of economic growth"
£ the concept of a "new quality" of economic growth
The concept of "sustainable development"
70. The natural resources that create the conditions for human existence, first of all, include:
71.The absolute scarcity of mineral resources is associated with (note):
£ involving new types of resources in the economic turnover
£ cardinal shifts in the production basis
The general limited scale of our planet and all types of resources
72. Renewable (reproducible) types of natural resources:
Solar energy
Geothermal energy
73. The relative scarcity of mineral resources is associated with:
£ general limited scale of our planet and all types of resources
Cardinal shifts in the production base
Involvement of new types of resources in the economic circulation
74. Five countries, in the depths of which 100 billion tons of oil are concentrated (or 2/3 of all proven reserves):
£ Venezuela
Saudi Arabia
£ Norway
75. Seven countries, in the depths of which 60% of the proven reserves of natural gas are concentrated:
£ Ethiopia
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
£ Ukraine
Saudi Arabia
76. The main oil exporters are currently:
Mexico
£ Ethiopia
Norway
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela
77. Major importers of oil:
EU countries
£ Mexico
78. Top five places in the global demand for primary energy resources:
Hydropower
Natural gas
Atomic Energy
£ wind energy
£ solar energy
79. The main factors that, according to P. Samulsson, will provide both individual countries and the world economy as a whole with "crisis-free development":
Natural resources
Population
Capital
Technical innovations
£ democracy
£ culture
£ ecological cleanliness
£ humanity
80. "Six" of the leading countries in gold mining:
Australia
81.Science, which, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, investigates the processes occurring in the structure, dynamics, movement and distribution of the population is called:
£ globalistics
£ sociology
£ political science
Demography
£ world economy
82. The population of the Earth is predicted to be:
£ gradually decrease
£ slow down
Grow more and more slowly
£ grow at an ever faster pace
83. The movement of the rural population to the cities inevitably leads to:
£ marginalized
Urbanization
£ democratization
£ demopulation
84. The movement of people across the borders of certain territories with a change of place of residence permanently or for a sufficiently long period is:
£ diversification of the population
£ marginalization of the population
Population migration
£ geopolitization
£ urbanization
85. Workers - frontaliers are:
£ officially registered migrant workers
£ illegal immigrants
Workers crossing the border daily
£ family members of migrants
86. The increase in the proportion of highly qualified specialists among migrants leads to:
£ significant losses
£ increased economic crime
£ political instability
Significant economic impact for host countries
87. Population groups united by national, ethnic or religious grounds and living in a new region (country) for themselves are called:
£ nationality
Diaspora
88. The current demographic situation in Russia is characterized by:
£ an increase in the number of births
£ reduction in mortality among the population
Depopulations
Decreased life expectancy
£ increased life expectancy
89. A long-term trend of population aging is characteristic of the following countries:
£ developing countries
Industrialized countries
£ countries in transition
90. The occupational structure of the population reflects:
£ the country's political activity in the international arena
The degree of development of society as a whole
£ age and sex composition of the population
The achieved structure of the economies of the countries
£ unemployment rate in the country
General trends in the distribution of the labor force by sector of employment
91. Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAN in industrialized countries:
£ growth of EAN in agriculture
Decrease and stabilization of EAN in agriculture
Employment growth in the service sector
92. Typical trends in the distribution of employment in developing countries:
£ growth of employed in agriculture
Industrial employment growth
High employment in agriculture
Employment growth in the service sector
93. Characteristic trends in the distribution of EAP in countries with economies in transition:
Consistently high employment in agriculture
Growth of employed in the service sector
£ growth in employment in industry and construction
Decrease in employment in industry and construction
94. Reasons for international migration:
Economic
Demographic
Military-political
Environmental
£ terrorism
95. The characteristic features of the notion "Population explosion" are
Decreasing mortality
£ low mortality
High fertility
Sharp increase in population growth rates
£ declining fertility
£ stable or growing population at minimum dynamics
£ low fertility
96. The characteristic features of the concept of "demographic maturity" are
£ declining mortality
Low mortality
£ high fertility
£ declining fertility
Low fertility
Stable or minimally growing population
97.Demographic crisis is characterized by
£ high fertility
High mortality
Vital movement rate with a minus sign (-)
Depopulation
Mortality exceeds birth rate
98. Countries and regions of the world with high population growth rates include
Countries of Southeast Asia
Bangladesh
£ Israel
99. Correspondence between countries (regions of the world), and characteristic trends
100. Areas of activity that belong to the category of "high" technologies:
Nanotechnology
Information Technology
Biotechnology
£ continuous casting technology
Technologies based on the use of new materials
101. Indicators characterizing the scientific and technical potential of the world economy:
The number of specialists employed in science and scientific services
£ number of EAN in industry
Share of R&D expenditures in VMP
Share of high technology products in VMP
The share of products of high technology industries in the world market
102. Cycles of scientific and technical development of the countries of the world economy according to the theory of cyclical development of N. Kondratyev come to the end:
Change of technological structures
A technical revolution
£ political crises
103. The sequence of stages of the formulation of the world information space:
1: the emergence of writing
2: invention of the printing press (typography)
3: creating a telegraph, radio, telephone, TV
4: the emergence of computer technology
5: the emergence of Internet technologies
104. The reasons for the sustainable growth of the knowledge intensity of the world economy:
Reducing the life cycle of knowledge-intensive goods (frequent change of generations of computers, household appliances, etc.)
The rise in the cost of research and development itself
Large expenditures on scientific and basic research
Transnationalization of production
£ globalization MX
105. Quantitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
£ R&D management organization system
Availability of research personnel
Material and technical support of R&D
£ main directions of scientific research
£ provision of scientific and technical information
106. Qualitative characteristics of the scientific and technical potential of the countries of the world economy
R&D management system
£ availability of research personnel
£ logistics R&D
Main directions of scientific research
Provision of scientific and technical information
107. International scientific and technological exchange can be carried out
on a non-commercial basis by ...
License agreements for the rights to use inventions, etc.
Scientific and technical publications
Scientific conferences
£ migration of scientists and specialists
108. The decline in the efficiency of the applied technique leads to:
£ energy crises
Search for new scientific ideas and technical solutions
Innovation boom
Massive renewal of generations of machines
£ mass migration of the population
109. Number of least developed countries (LDCs) (UN list):
110. Estimated population in least developed countries ...
111. The least developed countries are predominantly located in:
£ Latin America
£ South Asia
Tropical Africa
£ Eastern Europe
112.Differentiation by the level of economic development between developed and developing countries in the twentieth century:
Has increased
£ remained constant
£ decreased
113. Unevenness and contradictory development of countries in the modern world:
£ decreased
£ increased
Stopped
114. "Periphery" has taken a place in the technogenic model of world development - ...
£ equal position with "center"
Dependent position
£ independent position and specializes in supplying the global market
High technology products
£ minerals
Agricultural products
115. The main features inherent in the modern world economy:
£ transition to a postindustrial development model
£ a socially oriented model of a market economy emerged
The market economy has become universal
Increasing interdependence of countries and regions
The gap between the center and the periphery of the world economy has widened
£ developing countries catch up with developed countries in terms of economic development
116. Features of the catch-up development model:
Protectionism
£ liberalization of foreign economic activity
£ national currency convertibility
Strengthening state regulation of the economy
£ strengthening of integration processes
117. The highest level of differentiation in income distribution in ..
£ developed countries
Developing states
£ newly industrialized countries
£ OPEC countries
Countries in transition
118. The share of developing countries in world GDP is
£ less than 5%
£ about 10%
Over 30%
119. The share of countries with economies in transition in world GDP is ...
£ more than 20%
£ about 50%
£ about 10%
120. The main resources in an industrial society are
£ natural resources
Capital
£ information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ manpower
121. The main resources in a post-industrial society are
£ natural resources
£ capital
Information and knowledge
£ economic freedom
£ manpower
122. The dominant sector in the economy of developed countries is
£ primary
£ secondary
Tertiary
£ quaternary
123. The dominant sector in the economies of the least developed countries is
Primary
£ secondary
£ tertiary
£ quaternary.
124. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) in China at the end of the twentieth century was
Up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
£ less than 2% per year
125. The dynamics of economic growth (GDP growth) in Germany at the end of the twentieth century was
£ up to 10% of GDP per year
£ approximately 3-5% of GDP per year
£ approximately 1-3% of GDP per year
Less than 2% per year.
126. The Marshall Plan was associated with
£ the implementation of international control over key branches of the military industry of the EU countries
£ transfer of the leadership of the coal mining of France and Germany to a supranational authority
£ the creation of the European Atomic Energy Community
US economic aid to Western European countries.
127. The period of implementation of the "Marshall Plan" falls on
1948 - 1951
128. The Treaty on European Union came into force with
£ 01.01.1991
£ 31.12.1995
129. The document of the commencement of the functioning of the Treaty on European Union is considered
£ White Paper
Single European Act
£ Maastricht Agreement
£ NATO Treaty
130.The high level of technical equipment of Japanese production was achieved due to
High level of development of fundamental research
Borrowing scientific and technological achievements from abroad
Active purchase of foreign licenses
£ joint development with partners for scientific and technical cooperation
131. The main EU institutions are
European Parliament
£ Single European Act
£ EURATOM
132. Candidates for EU membership are
Slovakia
£ Belarus
Hungary
Estonia
133.The United States meets its mineral needs through
£ 100% import
About 50% of imports
£ 25% imports
Own resources
134. For Japan, a "vital import" is
£ food
Fuel and raw materials
£ labor
£ semiconductors and home appliances
£ foreign currency
135. For Japan, a "vital export" is
£ foreign currency
£ food
£ fuel and raw materials
£ labor
Semiconductors and home appliances
136. NAFTA is a free trade agreement between:
£ US and Canada
£ US, Canada and EU
USA, Canada and Mexico
£ USA, Russia, Canada
137. Approximate Amount (Percentage of World) Mineral Resources Possessed by Russia
More than 20%
138 Approximate Amount (Percentage of World) Mineral Resources Possessed by the United States ...
£ more than 20%
139. The three economic centers of power in the world economy are considered ...
140. USA, EU and Japan share in world GDP ...%
£ less than 40
£ about 30
141.Participation and role of the state in the economies of most developing countries
£ small
Quite active
£ is absent at all, since the main engine of economic development is foreign capital
142. The economic reforms in China at the present stage, which caused an economic upturn in the country, began in ...
143. Most of China's population lives
£ in cities
In the countryside
£ abroad ("huaqiao")
144. Financing of the development of priority industries in China is made at the expense of
£ state budget funds
£ off-budget funds
Foreign investment
£ private investors
145. The common features of most developing countries are
Deep socio-economic backwardness
Diversified economy with various forms of ownership
Influence of traditional institutions in society
High population growth rates
£ specialization in MRI primarily in power generation
£ fairly developed market relations
£ strong dependence on the inflow of resources from outside
146.The modern economic model of the development of the national economy of developing countries is characterized as
Import substitution industrialization
Export-oriented model
£ convergence
£ liberalization
£ free trading
147. Share of developing countries in world GDP
Is increasing
£ decreases
£ remains the same
148. The share of developing countries in the world GDP is ...%
£ over 50
£ less than 20
£ about 10
149. Japan used a model of economic development in relations with developing countries.
Flying geese
£ flying flock
£ adaptation effect
150. Differentiation within developing states
Increasing
£ remains the same
£ decreases
151. Differentiation within developing countries is due to
Developed countries' policies
NIS development
£ the rapid development of China
£ competition from Russia
152. OPEC countries export mainly
£ natural gas
£ electronics
153. Population growth in developing countries
Higher than developed
£ about the same level as developed countries
£ less than developed due to high mortality
154. The population of developing countries is predominantly living
£ in Latin America
£ in Africa
155. Relations between Russia and APEC:
Russia is a member of APEC;
£ Russia is not a member of APEC;
£ Russia plans to join APEC
156.The most developed integration group in the world is considered
157. As a result of the formation of the CIS, mutual economic ties between them
£ remained the same
Decreased
£ increased
158. The Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) was established within the framework of an integration association ...
159. The forms of integration, in accordance with the plans of the organizers of the EU, provided for the creation of
£ cooperation with Russia
Political union
Economic and Monetary Union
Single (common) market for goods, services, capital, labor
£ political-military alliance
£ integration with the USA
Customs Union
160. The main forms of international economic integration are considered
Common Market
Customs Union
£ syndicate
£ international association
Free trading zone
Economic and Monetary Union
161. The "Visegrad Four" integration group includes
£ Bulgaria
Slovakia
£ Romania
Hungary
162. EU candidates from the former USSR are
£ Ukraine
Estonia
£ Belarus
163. The OECD was founded in ...
164. Russia's relations with the OECD:
£ not bound by bilateral agreements
£ is a member of the OECD
Not a member of the OECD
Bound by a bilateral agreement
£ is in a hostile relationship
165. Unification stood at the origins of the EU
166. The ECSC included states
£ Spain
Benelux countries
France
Germany
167. The sequence of stages of formation of the economic and monetary union of the EU countries
1: Free Trade Zone
2: Customs Union
3: "Common Market"
4: Economic and Monetary Union
168. Russia's external debt is in the range of ... billion dollars
£ less than 50
169. The largest in the 90s. XX century was the fall of mutual economic ties of Russia with ...
£ industrialized countries
£ countries of Central and Eastern Europe
£ developing countries
Former republics of the USSR
170. The main component in Russian exports to Western European countries is currently
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Fuel and raw materials
£ machinery and equipment
£ agricultural products
171. The economic, scientific and technical relations between Russia and China are considered
£ little promising
Very promising
£ economically unprofitable
172.The main reasons for the sharp decline in economic relations between Russia and other CIS countries are
£ decrease in the degree of interdependence of most of the union republics
£ national dislike
£ non-fulfillment of deliveries under intergovernmental agreements
The desire to export their products for hard currency to the countries of the "far abroad"
Painful transition from a single centralized supply system within the USSR to market interaction mechanisms
173.The main components in Russian exports to developed countries are
£ machinery and equipment
£ electricity
£ industrial products
Semi-finished products
Fuel and raw materials
£ agricultural products
174. The main advantages of Russia in the world are
Natural resources
£ scientific and technical potential
High educational level of the population
Nuclear weapon
£ developed economy
£ developed market infrastructure
175. In the end of the 20th century, Russia's economic power stations were primarily focused on
OECD countries
£ CIS countries
Countries "far abroad"
£ CEE countries
£ developing countries
GDP per capita
Educational level of the population
£ military potential of the state
£ inflation
177. The place that Russia occupies in the world according to the Human Development Index (UN) at the beginning of the 21st century
Between 60 and 80
£ in the top ten states
£ between 10th and 20th place
£ between 20 and 40
£ between 40 and 60 seat
178. Industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century
£ decreased slightly
£ increased slightly
£ decreased by 10%
Decreased by more than 60%
179.The decline in industrial production in Russia during the 90s of the twentieth century was associated with ...
£ confrontation with the USA
The severance of economic ties with the former republics of the USSR
Transition to market reforms
£ increased military tensions
180. GDP per capita in Russia correlates with the world average:
Below the world average
£ above the world average
£ is approximately equal to
181. The main components of the problem of Russia's external debt are considered
Debt from developing countries to Russia itself
Russian debt to leading PRS, commercial banks and a number of Eastern European countries
Debts of the former USSR
£ servicing Russia's external debt
£ relationship with the London Club
182. The largest demographic decline in Russia was observed in:
£ 20s of XX century
£ 30s of the XX century.
£ years of so-called Stalinist repression
90s of XX century
The first years of the XXI century.
183. The largest decline in GDP (GNP) production took place in:
£ Soviet Union during the Great Patriotic War
£ the world economy during the Great Depression
£ USA in the 30s of the XX century.
£ countries of Western Europe in the 30s of the XX century.
Russia in 1992-1996
184. The international division of labor is based on the principle:
£ sectoral isolation
Territorial separation
£ technical and technological community
£ natural division of labor
Comparative advantages
185. Formation and development of the world market is associated with:
£ protectionist policy
Deepening and expanding the international division of labor
Development of industrialization
Development of transport and communication systems
£ autarchy of national economies
186. The internationalization of production is a process of economic relations between countries based on:
£ exchange of finished products
£ differences in natural and climatic conditions
Specialization and cooperation of production
£ overcoming economic dependence by countries
International movement of factors of production
187. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, countries specialize in the production of products based on the comparison:
£ production costs
Cost of factors of production
£ marginal utilities of the goods exchanged
£ labor costs
Abundance or shortage of certain factors of production
188 Leontief's paradox is that the United States should be seen as a country:
£ capital surplus
Labor surplus
£ with limited natural resources
£ with limited manpower
£ with limited capital
189. Net exports are understood as :.
£ the difference between the proceeds from the export of products and the costs of its production
Foreign trade balance
£ share of exports in total production
£ share of imports in the total volume of consumed products within the country
The difference between the volume of exports and imports
190. Re-export means:
£ import into the country of products manufactured abroad with the help of national capital
£ export from the country of products manufactured with the help of foreign capital
Export of products that were previously imported
£ export of finished goods, which contains imported components
Export of products previously imported into the country
191. Foreign trade turnover is determined:
£ by subtracting the value of exports from GDP
£ added to GDP by the value of exports
Summing up the values of exports and imports
Current account for goods and services
£ by subtracting the value of imports from the volume of exports
192. At present, world trade is dominated by:
£ food items
Manufacturing products
£ patents and licenses
£ "experience and knowledge", engineering services
193. The degree of openness of the national economy is determined by:
£ country share in world trade
Export volume per capita
£ share of national production in world production
Share of exports in national production
£ share of national production in international exchange
194. The policy of protectionism is aimed at:
£ expansion of imports from abroad
Protection of domestic production from foreign competitors
£ reduction in domestic exports
£ restriction on the import of foreign capital
Creation of barriers to imports of goods and ensuring the inflow of foreign capital
195. The policy of foreign economic liberalism (free trade) is pursued by the countries:
The most successful in their development
£ low-industrialized economy
£ agro-industrial
£ politically independent
Not afraid of flooding the domestic market with imported goods
196. Transnational corporations are characterized by:
£ limitedness of their activities within the framework of the national economy
£ multinational
International business activities
Capital of national origin and the international nature of its activities
£ multinational capital and international nature of its activities
197. Multinational corporations are characterized by:
£ the national character of the origin of their capital
Multinational capital
£ the international nature of the business and the capital of national origin
£ restrictions in the field of international economic relations
International nature of business
198. The essence of the export of capital is:
£ export of value for the purpose of its realization and appropriation of profits in
Exporting value for the purpose of generating new value and profit
Overcoming protectionist barriers preventing the export of goods to the country
£ advancing the cost for the purpose of obtaining the rent
£ upfront cost to recover production costs
199. Foreign direct investments are those that provide their owner:
£ appropriation of profit
Establishing control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ receiving interest on the loan granted
£ obtaining a share of the capital of a foreign enterprise that does not provide control over the activities of the enterprise
Setting up your own business abroad
200. Portfolio foreign investment:
£ investment of capital ensuring the establishment of control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
Investment of capital that does not allow the establishment of control over the activities of a foreign enterprise
£ granting a loan to a native partner
Acquisition of an insignificant part of the shares of a foreign enterprise
£ buying up a controlling stake in a native enterprise
201. Loan form of capital export:
Assumes the return and payment of imported capital
£ secures majority ownership of the company
It involves the provision of a loan and receipt of interest on it
£ gives the right to own a certain share of the company's capital
£ is characterized by gratuitous capital transfer
202. On the eve of the First World War, in the export of capital, the first place was occupied by:
Great Britain
£ France
£ Belgium
£ Netherlands
203. In the middle of the XX century. the first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ UK
£ France
£ Germany
204. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. the first place in the export of capital is occupied by:
£ Germany
£ oil producing countries of the Middle East
£ UK
205. Until the middle of the XX century. the main importers of capital were:
£ developed capitalist countries
£ socialist countries
£ socialist countries of Europe
£ EEC countries
Developing countries
206. At the end of XX - beginning of XXI century. the main recipient countries of capital were:
£ developing countries
£ countries that have embarked on the path of industrial development
£ socialist countries
Developed capitalist countries
£ post-socialist countries
207. Reinvestment of foreign capital means:
£ export of part of the profit to the capital exporting country and its investment
Investing a certain share of the profit on foreign capital in a given country
£ using the profit to pay off the debt of a foreign investor
£ export of all profits earned on foreign capital
Recurrent investments from part of the income received on previously invested capital
208. International labor migration is influenced by:
Demographic situation in the country
High domestic unemployment
Differences in wage levels
£ excess capital within the country
£ low economic growth
209. The departure from Russia to the United States of more than 50 thousand scientists and specialists was caused by:
£ lack of democratic freedoms in Russia
£ unwillingness to live in our country
Easing U.S. immigration policy towards former socialist countries
Lack of funding in Russia for R&D and higher education, low wages
The policy of "human rights" and the openness of the economy
210. The $ 1 trillion "brain drain" from Russia to the United States means that:
Exhausted by "reforms" Russia acted as an intellectual donor
The wealthy US acted as an intellectual "vampire"
The flight of "human capital" from Russia has become the most profitable item for the United States in relations with our country.
£ Russia has received large revenues
£ Russia has strengthened its scientific and technological potential
211. The migration policy of Russia in the modern transformation period should proceed primarily from:
Ensuring scientific, technical and economic security
£ ensuring the openness of the economy
212. The migration policy of Russia in the modern transformation period should proceed primarily from:
Priority of national interests
£ Compliance with international human rights standards
£ the need for priority inclusion of the country in the globalization process
Preserving and increasing the potential of human capital
£ the need to increase emigration from Russia
213. Only economic integration is characterized by:
£ expansion of the international division of labor
£ growth of mutual trade
The presence of a single mechanism for regulating social and economic relations
£ internationalization of production
The closedness of the integration block
214. The final stage of economic integration is:
£ waiver of export and import quotas
£ waiver of licensing for export shipments
£ free movement of factors of production within one economic space
Creation of a political and economic union of countries
Formation of a currency union of countries
215. The softening of US immigration policy towards post-socialist countries was aimed at:
£ its humanization
£ Strengthening compliance with international human rights standards
Capitalizing on human capital inflows
£ improving the situation of workers in Russia
Building your own intellectual potential
216.Golden Parity:
Based on the gold content of the currency
£ represents a gold coin
£ expressed in paper currency
£ is the price scale
This is the ratio of national currencies based on their gold content
217. Currency parity expresses:
£ purchasing power of the currency
£ exchange rate of the national currency
£ is the weight of gold contained in a currency
Legislative ratio between national currencies
The ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content and is adequate to gold parity
218. The exchange rate is characterized by:
The ratio of national currencies, determined by their purchasing power
£ ratio of national currencies in accordance with their gold content
£ the ratio of national currencies established by a willful decision
The purchasing power of one currency relative to another
219. The cross-rate of the currency is determined on the basis of:
£ gold content of foreign currency
£ gold parity of the other two currencies
Exchange rates of two other countries
The purchasing power ratio of the currencies of the three countries
£ currency parity
220. Currency arbitration presupposes:
£ protection of the currency parity of the country's currency
£ protection of the exchange rate of the country's currency
Operations with the aim of making a profit as a result of different quotes of cross rates of the same currency
£ speculative transactions based on the forward rate
Speculative trades based on cross rates
221. A foreign exchange transaction is called a "spot" rate if:
£ a deal takes place under a forward contract
£ the deal is medium-term
The deal is carried out in accordance with the current rate
£ the transaction is carried out in accordance with the rate set for a certain date in the future
The operation is based on cash (cash) transactions
222. The forward rate provides for:
A deal made on the basis of a forward contract
Reconciliation of the rate for a certain date in the future
£ deal based on the current rate
£ spot rate
£ non-hedging or speculation transaction
The number of national currency units corresponding to the foreign currency
£ the number of foreign currency units corresponding to the national currency
£ by the ratio of the exchange rates of two other currencies
£ gold parity
£ currency parity
224. The reverse currency quotation is based on the expression:
£ amount of national currency in foreign currency
The number of monetary units of foreign currency in national currency
£ of one currency through the ratio of rates of two other currencies
£ gold content in foreign currency
£ currency parity
225. Demonetisation of gold was carried out by the decision:
£ Bretton Woods Conference
Kingston (Jamaican) Conference
£ Genoa Conference
By a decision of the United States in 1971
£ by decision of Russia in 1897
226.The real, and not only the counting international monetary unit is (was)
£ transferable ruble
227. To determine the "weight" of each national currency in the currency "basket", data on:
£ per capita income
£ national wealth
Share of countries in world exports
The value of GDP
Share of countries in world foreign exchange reserves
228. Trade balance:
Part of the balance of payments
Expresses the relationship between exports and imports of goods and services
£ includes balance of payments
£ not related to the balance of payments
£ does not include re-export
229. Balance of payments:
£ is an integral part of the trade balance
Includes trade balance
£ does not include income and expenses from foreign exchange transactions
£ is not associated with the interbank foreign exchange market
Provides a report on the entire set of international transactions
230. The weakening of the national currency and the depreciation of its exchange rate is caused by:
£ positive balance of payments
£ positive trade balance
Negative trade balance
£ lower taxation
Negative balance of payments
231. The strengthening of the national currency and its appreciation are associated with:
£ negative trade balance
Trade surplus
£ negative balance of payments
Positive balance of payments
£ increased taxes
But one such aspiration in order for the exchange to take place is not enough, there must be preconditions, or in other words, certain objective circumstances that will allow a person to realize this aspiration in practice. They are also mentioned in the above quote. So from the words of the author it follows that a person who makes bows and arrows faster than others, it is they who use them in exchange. Such a statement means that A. Smith believed that if a person makes these goods in the same way as everyone else, or more slowly than others, he will not be able to use them for exchange. Since in order to get more through exchange instead of less, he must offer something more, from the point of view of his partner in the transaction, because he also makes an exchange, and therefore benefits from the same plan. But this is possible only if the thing, alienated in the course of the exchange, each of the parties produces faster than its partner. ... Strictly speaking, what matters here is the relative, not the absolute, rate of production of a certain good. So in the above example, it was shown that the exchange can make sense for both parties involved in the transaction, even if one of them, in absolute terms, makes both products faster than the other. The difference in production abilities necessary for exchange (substitution) is manifested here in the relative rates of production of the exchanged products. By the way, this is precisely why less developed countries, lagging behind in terms of labor productivity, can participate in the international division of labor, supplying their products to countries where these products are manufactured with lower costs of all types of resources. We will talk about this in more detail later, but for now I have the right to talk only about how A. Smith saw the problem... The fact that the conclusion drawn from his words is true can be confirmed by another quote from his work. " Anyone proposing a deal of any kind to another is proposing to do just that. Give me what I need and you will get what you need - that is the meaning of any such proposal. It is in this way that we get from each other a much larger part of the services that we need. It is not from the benevolence of a butcher, brewer, or baker that we expect to receive our meal, but from their self-interest. We do not appeal to their humanity, but to their selfishness, and we never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits. " Adam Smith. "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations." BOOK 1. Chapter II "On the cause causing the division of labor." So A. Smith saw not only inequality, which is the essence of exchange, but also inequality, which is one of the prerequisites for its occurrence, which consists in the unequal abilities of people to produce various goods. It is striking that he did not discern the true meaning of either of them or the other. Since in what follows, speaking about the quantitative side of the exchange ratio, he proceeds not from the inequalities indicated by him, but from the equation, thereby showing inconsistency in judgments. " In a primitive and underdeveloped society, which preceded the accumulation of capital and the conversion of land into private ownership, the ratio between the quantities of labor required to acquire various objects was, apparently, the only basis that could serve as a guide for exchanging them for each other. So, for example, if the hunting people usually have to spend twice as much labor to kill a beaver than to kill a deer, one beaver will naturally be exchanged for two deer, or will have the value of two deer. It is quite natural that a product usually made in two days or two hours of labor will be twice as valuable as a product usually made in one day or one hour of labor. " . Further, with regard to the exchange ratio of labor for capital, he again returns to inequalities, since in this case it is simply impossible not to discern them. In particular, he notes " When a finished product is exchanged for money, for labor, or for other products, in addition to paying the price of materials and wages of workers, a certain amount must also be given for the profit of the entrepreneur who risks his capital in this matter. ... He would have no interest in hiring these workers if he could not expect to receive from the sale of the works made by them anything in excess of the amount sufficient only to reimburse his capital. " Adam Smith. "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations." BOOK 1. Chapter VI "On the constituent parts of the price of goods".
Topic 20. Population reproduction and labor market
20.1. Demographic processes. The inconsistency of the problem.
20.2. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of labor resources. Employment and its types.
20.3. Socio-economic factors. Reproduction of labor resources.
Demography is the science of population. For the first time this term was used by the French scientist A. Guillard in 1855 in his book "The Element of Population Statistics, or Comparative Demography". Demography is a social science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, causes and conditions, studies the patterns of processes occurring in the structure of distribution, movement and population dynamics. The study of demographic processes in a particular country cannot be considered in isolation from the demographic situation throughout the world, as well as taking into account the historical factor of this process.
Let's trace the population size in historically significant periods for our state:
world population - 275 million people.
of them in Europe - 42 million people.
Kievan Rus - 8 million people.
1200 BC- 348 million people
of them in Europe - 100 million people.
in Asia, Australia and Oceania - 203 million people.
1800 BC- 906 million people
of them in Europe - 187 million people.
1900 g.- 1608 million people
of them in Europe - 401 million people.
in Africa - 120 million people.
in America - 140 million people.
Currently, the world is home to more than 6 billion people, in Africa - 600 million people, and with the dominant role of the traditional economy, the needs of people have already exceeded the permissible load on local biological systems.
According to forecasts, the world population will reach 8 billion by 2025.
Demographic problems in our country began to be studied only from the 60s of the twentieth century, because it was previously believed that, having put an end to unemployment by the beginning of the 30s, having organized a system of personnel training, our country cannot have demographic problems.
Demographic problems in our country were complex and diverse, and in general they could be reduced to two main components:
1) two opposite types of population reproduction;
2) the demographic consequences of the war.
In the former USSR, there were 2 types of population reproduction (H: 1.1) based on low population-controlled fertility, low mortality and high migration intensity. This type of reproduction is typical for Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Georgia, i.e. for about 80% of the population of the former Soviet Union. This type is characterized by a system that does not provide simple reproduction of the population. According to the estimates of demographers, from the initial population of 1000 people. after 30 years 621 people remain, after 98 years - 386 people, after 50 years - 92 people, after 300 years - 8 people, or less than 1% of the initial population.
The type of reproduction based on high fertility, low mortality and low intensity of migration outside their republics gives a high percentage (from 2.5 to 3%) annually and is characteristic of the indigenous rural population of the republics of Central Asia. As a result, there is overpopulation, the lack of stable sources of income for the surplus labor resources, the growth of socio-economic instability and adverse economic consequences. If earlier, before the collapse of the USSR, it was possible to count on the migration of young people from Asia to Russia, now, in the conditions of the formation of the CIS, this option is practically ruled out.
The demographic consequences of the war are divided into direct and indirect. Direct - more than 20 million people. perished, and indirect - this is the unborn generation as a result of the war, the decline in the "quality" of the population: the level of education, health, etc.
Labor resources of the state represent labor potential, i.e. are an integral characteristic of quantity, quality and a measure of the total ability to work.
The modern labor market includes three main categories of persons:
1) "blue vortonichki" (workers engaged mainly in manual labor);
2) "gray collars" (ordinary workers - auxiliary personnel);
3) "white collars" (knowledge workers: employees, engineers, administrative and managerial personnel, etc.).
The development of scientific and technological progress and the transition to an information society caused a number of qualitative and quantitative shifts in the structure of the labor market:
There is a sharp decline in the proportion of manual workers;
The share of knowledge workers has increased significantly.
A characteristic feature of the qualitative evolution of the modern workforce is the growth of its educational level.
In terms of education and qualifications of the workforce, Russia is in one of the leading places in the world. Thus, at the beginning of 1998, more than 19% of all employed people had a higher education in the country, and about 69% had secondary education (general and special); about 46 thousand specialists graduated from universities, and in 1998 there were more than 3 million university students in Russia (207 students per 10 thousand population. The level of education of the workforce as a whole is one of the important comparative competitive advantages.
The accelerating processes of updating scientific and technical knowledge have increased the need for specialists who, on the basis of the achievements of informatics, are able to creatively use scientific and innovative approaches in improving technologies.
Modern conditions and the development of the information society require from employees perfect knowledge of computer science, possession of computer technology, a high level of oral and written speech is required. Ability to read books and literature reviews, scientific and technical journals, financial reports and legal documents.
The high level of dynamics of innovation processes in the economy has caused the need to create a system of continuous education of personnel at enterprises, organizations, institutions. Regular renewal and replenishment of the professional qualities of employees in universities, faculties and advanced training courses.
Employment is an essential characteristic of a nation's economy and well-being. This indicator is an assessment of the country's well-being, its economic and social stability. Employment is an integral part of socio-economic policy.
The Law "On Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation" defines the socio-economic structure of employment, where its main types are highlighted. These include:
Employees;
Entrepreneurs;
Temporarily absent due to disability, vacation, advanced training, etc.;
Self-supporting work;
Elected, appointed or approved for a paid position;
Serving in the ranks of the Russian army and other armed structures of the state;
Students in educational institutions.
From the variety of types of activity, 3 groups of employed can be distinguished:
1) employed in the economy in a paid activity;
2) employees of the Russian Army;
3) students with a break from work.
Employed in the economy by the nature of participation in economic processes can be divided into three subgroups:
1) employees;
2) employers;
3) self-employed.
The labor market, built on the laws of supply and demand and functioning according to certain principles and mechanisms, is a special kind of market and has a number of significant differences from other commodity markets. The functioning of the labor market is significantly influenced by economic factors, which can be considered:
The size of the working-age population, i.e. the number of people who can be involved in the production process;
The age structure of the population, showing what kind of labor resources the country has;
The level of employment and the professional structure of the employed, which determines the efficiency of using labor potential and ways to increase production;
The flow of labor resources from one production area to another and the processes of population migration;
The qualification level of the labor force and the level of production culture as factors that determine the quality of the labor force.
The Russian economy has significant labor resources. The total number in 1997 was 147,137,000, of which 84,337,000 were of working age, i.e. 57.3% of the population. Along with this, in recent years, there has been a number of negative trends associated with the reproduction of the labor force. These include the aging of the population, an increase in the population over the working age, and a decrease in the population under the working age due to a sharp decline in the birth rate. There is a natural decline in the population associated with a decrease in the birth rate and a decrease in average life expectancy, which may be reflected in a decrease in the size of the able-bodied population in 2005-2010.
Improving the efficiency of reproduction of labor resources can be achieved through the use of various market regulation instruments: increasing labor mobility, stimulating the free flow of employees between the spheres of production activity, introducing a differentiated system of social assistance to the unemployed.
Lecture plan: 1. The concept of bionomics and its sections. 2. Biology of economics (biology of a social organism). 3. Transfer of information as an object of bioeconomy. 4. Scientific and economic prerequisites for the emergence of bionomics. 5. The place of bionomics in modern science and economics. 6. Economic biology as a branch of bionomics. 7. Applied research areas in economic biology.
Bionomics is: a branch of biology that studies the relationship between living organisms and their external environment; the ergonomics section, which includes behavioral sciences, biomechanics, posture, stretching; "An evolutionary trend in economic science, which considers the economy as a self-organizing and self-developing system, which is inherent in all the qualities of living things" (RSIU dictionary); a new direction in economic theory, according to which biological models and methods are applied to economics.
While traditional economics is based on concepts borrowed from classical Newtonian physics, bionomics has emerged from modern evolutionary biology. Where the traditional view sees organizations as machines for producing food, bionomics sees organizations as intelligent social organisms.
This approach allows us to see the economy as a living self-regulating system, which in turn leads to the ability to determine its viability, to study economic diseases and methods of their treatment. Thus, new methods are introduced for studying economic systems and assessing their quality.
The founder of bionomics as a direction in economics is Michael Rothschild. In his book Bionomics: Economics as an Ecosystem (1990), he defined the essence of bionomics: drawing broad analogies between biological evolution and economics, and applying the idea of natural selection to economic processes. In this case, the properties allocated by evolution are inherited and accumulated.
Following the example of biology, bionomics prioritizes information transfer processes. “Genetic information ... is the foundation of all organic life. Technical information ... is the source of all economic life. ... genetic variability and natural selection - two phenomena similar to technical innovation and market competition - generate a pulsating rhythm of evolutionary change ”(M. Rothschild)
Various factors, including the informatization of the economy, the sharply increased cost of knowledge, the ease of movement of capital across state borders, a change in views on the nature of a stable and unstable relationship of order and chaos, and many others created the prerequisites for the emergence of bionomics.
To date, many scientific papers have been written on bionomics. For example, one of the schools of this discipline is represented by Igor Flor ("Bionomics: Analysis Based on Bioeconomic Analogies" (2005), "Biological Approach to the Management of Economic Systems" (2006)).
In the photo: The founders of modern bionomics, Michael Rothschild (USA) (left) and Igor Flor (Russia) (right), Moscow, 2007. In the photo: The founders of modern bionomics, Michael Rothschild (USA) (left) and Igor Flor (Russia) (right), Moscow, 2007.
Opportunities for the explosive development of this area of the economy have recently appeared, firstly, thanks to the unprecedented development of the biological sciences themselves; secondly, thanks to the development of information technology, nanotechnology and the so-called "green" chemistry. Together, bioinformation and nanotechnology are now forming the basis of a new civilization, the so-called sixth technological order.
The use of biotechnology gives humanity the opportunity to solve four main problems: food supply; quality of health care; environmental degradation; problems associated with depletion, depletion of energy, raw materials and other resources.
Bionomics is still in its infancy. Despite the huge difference that exists between traditional economics and bionomics, opposing them is incorrect and even dangerous, just as it is impossible to oppose biology to physics: these disciplines should not contradict, but mutually complement and enrich each other.
Biologists have proven that human anthropometry, including height, is more than 80% determined by genetic factors and only to a small extent depends on the quality of life, or the biological status of the individual. But since the genetic factor is practically unchanged, the variability of growth - individual or average in social groups, classes and entire populations - is determined solely by the quality of life.
The average height of a modern 20-year-old resident of St. Petersburg is 178 cm, a female resident is cm. If you create living conditions in St. Petersburg, as in Sweden or Norway, then the growth of men will gradually increase to cm, and women - up to cm.
The potential inherent in human genes is fully realized only in favorable conditions, and, conversely, with prolonged and severe deprivation, growth retardation occurs, which can be compensated for by a more rapid increase in body length during favorable periods. Hence it follows: tall people generally ate better, had better care, were less sick, etc., that is, they generally had a higher biological status than people of short stature.
Biological status is not synonymous with wealth or standard of living. But it is largely determined by income, which makes it possible to draw conclusions about the well-being of the people, the national income of the country by changing the average body length of its citizens. In underdeveloped countries, where maintaining biological status absorbs a large proportion of the population's income, the relationship between wealth and biological status is closer. On the contrary, in developed countries, where a smaller share of the population's income is spent on maintaining biological status, the relationship is weaker.
First, in relation to the overwhelming majority of countries until the middle of the 19th century. it is impossible to operate with traditional indicators of well-being due to the lack of reliable data. Slightly better is the situation with statistical sources in subsequent periods; Secondly, anthropometric data allow us to look at the position of people from a new perspective: to assess their biological status, the balance between energy consumption and expenditure; Thirdly, anthropometric information is universal and elementary, it is easier to compare them, even if they refer to different years, to different social groups or countries, they do not need adjustments for inflation and consumption patterns.
1. The world world economy, its essence
The modern world economy (world economy) is a naturally developing and increasingly complex system of interaction between national economies of different countries of the world, which manifests itself in various forms of their international economic relations on the basis of the international division of labor.
The world economy is a complex system that includes many interconnected, dependent and interacting elements. The basis of this system is formed by the international and limited by the framework of individual states, the national production of material and spiritual goods, their distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of these phases of the world reproduction process both on a global scale and within individual states, depending on their place and share, as a whole, affects the functioning of the entire world economic system.
Although the world economic system has long become a reality, there is still no single definition of the concept of "world economy" due to its complexity and diversity.
World economy, or world economy,- this is a set of national economies that are in constant dynamics, in motion, with growing international ties and, accordingly, the most complex mutual influence, obeying the objective laws of a market economy, as a result of which an extremely contradictory, but at the same time more or less integral, world economic system is formed.
The formation of the world economy took place gradually, as the corresponding prerequisites were created. At the final stage of the formation of the world capitalist economy, world market, which became one of the characteristic features of the development of the world economy in the second half of the 19th century, played an important role in the formation and development of the world economy.
The modern world economy is heterogeneous: the states included in it are distinguished by their social structure, political structure, the level of development of productive forces and relations of production, as well as the nature, scale and methods of international economic relations.
Leading position in the world economy occupy seven industrialized countries: USA, Japan, Canada, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy. They account for more than 80% of industrial production of the group of industrialized countries (IDS) and about 60% of all world industrial production; respectively 70 and 60% of electricity production, more than 60% of exports of goods and about 50% of services.
2. The main stages of the formation and development of the world economy
There are several periods in the development of the modern world economy and the involvement of national economies in it.
First period- 20-30s of the XX century, which were characterized by crisis phenomena in the development of the world economy. When Russia fell out of world economic ties in 1917, the economic blockade carried out by Western countries could not lead to the restoration of world economic ties on the previous basis. The deep socio-economic crisis of the world economy was accompanied by the general instability of economic ties caused by the First World War, the Great Depression of the late 1920s and 1930s in the development of the economies of the leading countries of the world.
Second period development of the world economy - this is the end of the 40s - 80s of the XX century - is characterized by an intensive growth in the export of entrepreneurial capital in the world capitalist economy. During this time, the growth of foreign production had a major impact on the organizational and economic parameters of the world economy. The main force in industrial relations was transnational corporations (TNCs), which formed international production complexes, including the creation of a product, its implementation, settlements, and lending.
Very important economic processes took place in the world economy during this period. Among them, the following should be noted.
The United States, which sharply increased in its economic power during the Second World War, helped in the economic revival of Western Europe. After finishing Marshall Plan (1951) As the colonial empires collapsed, aid programs were reoriented to developing countries in order to preserve them in the system of relations between Western countries. The liquidation of the colonial system in the mid-1960s brought a large group of developing countries to the forefront of international life, which still occupy a special place in the world economy.
In the 1950s and 1980s, the levels of development of the United States and other industrialized countries converged. The worldwide economic dominance of the United States began to degenerate into a multipolar system.
The crisis period in the world economy in the 1970s and 1980s was not accompanied by a trend towards economic autarchy, as it was in the 1920s and 1930s. On the contrary, foreign economic relations had a steady trend towards expansion and deepening.
The beginning of a new one third period in the development of the world economy can presumably be considered the last decade of the XX century. The processes of formation and creation of economic and political structures similar to those of Western states are taking place in Eastern European countries. The economic reforms carried out in Russia since the beginning of the 90s are aimed at transferring the country's economy to market conditions of management and its deeper integration into the world economy.
3. Subjects of the world economy
Purposeful economic activity in the world economy is carried out by subjects that determine the state and development of factors of production, as well as ways of combining them. The subjects of the world economy are economic units that are capable of organizing production activities on an international scale in terms of their financial and material capabilities and possessing certain international rights and obligations. These major economic entities include national states, TNCs, regional integration economic associations, and international economic organizations.
The main subject world economy is the state.
The role of the state in the economy is manifested primarily in the creation of guaranteed markets for companies inside the country and abroad, its participation in capital accumulation, regulation of internal and external economic relations in the national interests, directly in the production of gross domestic product (GDP).
In modern conditions of globalization of world economic relations, the state influence on other subjects of the world economy and on the system as a whole is commensurate with the economic potential of the state and the role of national economic entities in international markets.
In accordance with the International System of National Accounts (SNA), the subjects of world economic relations are private (natural) persons and organizations (legal entities), carrying out international economic transactions.
From the standpoint of belonging to the national economy, the subjects are divided into residents and non-residents.
Residents- these are economic entities permanently located in the territory of a given country, regardless of their national (state) affiliation.
Non-residents- these are economic entities permanently located on the territory of a foreign state, even if they are citizens of a given country, but permanently reside abroad, or branches of economic units of a given country located outside its borders.
In accordance with the SNA, all residents and non-residents, or business entities, qualify as institutional units. These are individuals and legal entities that own the factors of production and have the ability to produce products or sell services, to conclude transactions with others on their own behalf.
The SNA does not distinguish between the subjects of national and international economic activity, since in an open market economy, all legal entities and individuals that actually exist in the economy of any country, at the same time and in the same capacity, have the right to be subjects of the world economy, i.e. enter into legal economic relations with any subjects of other countries or participants in international economic unions.
4. System of national accounts and its indicators
To analyze economic events, complex economic relationships, a system of reliable, complementary indicators is needed. The modern SNA was approved by the UN in 1993, which slightly changed the names of the sectors of the economy, standard accounts and basic macroeconomic indicators.
Most widely in economic analysis, two important indicators are used: gross product and national income. The central indicator of the new SNA is gross domestic product (GDP); its second macroeconomic indicator is gross national product (GNP). Both of them reflect the results of activities in two spheres of the national economy - material production and services; both are defined as the cost of the total volume of final production of goods and services in the economy for one year (quarter, month). These indicators are calculated both in current (current) prices and in constant (prices of any base year).
The difference between GNP and GDP is as follows.
Gdp calculated on the so-called territorial basis. This is the total cost of products in the sphere of material production and the sphere of services, regardless of the nationality of enterprises located on the territory of a given country.
GNP Is the total value of the total volume of products and services in the national economy, regardless of the location of national enterprises (in their own country or abroad).
Thus, GNP differs from GDP in the amount of so-called factor income from the use of the resources of a given country abroad (profit transferred to the country from capital invested abroad, property held there, wages of citizens working abroad) minus similar income exported from the country foreigners.
Usually, to calculate GNP, the difference between the profits and incomes received by enterprises and individuals of a given country abroad, on the one hand, and profits and incomes received by foreign investors and foreign workers in a given country, on the other hand, are added to the GDP indicator. This difference is small - for the leading Western countries, no more than ± 1% of GDP.
In our country, the transition to new indicators of GDP and GNP is carried out by recalculating the gross social product (GP) and national income (NI), which are, respectively, the sums of gross output and net output of the branches of material production.
5. National income. PPP
National income Is the newly created value in a year, which characterizes what added the production of a given year to the welfare of society. Therefore, when calculating it, unlike GDP, it does not include depreciation, indirect taxes, and government subsidies.
This is the net "earned income" of society, and this determines the importance of ND as a macroeconomic indicator and its widespread use in comparative analysis.
In Russian practice the breakdown into two funds is still applied:
consumption fund - part of the ND, which ensures the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of people and the needs of society as a whole (for education, defense, etc.);
an accumulation fund is a part of the ND that ensures the development of production.
The SNA usually defines the rate of accumulation and the share of consumption, but as a percentage of GDP, and not of NI.
For international comparisons and other purposes, it is more convenient to have an integral indicator of the scale and level of economic development. This role is usually played by a monetary indicator, expressed in dollars - GDP or GNP.
For international comparisons, GDP is converted into one currency, usually US dollars. This raises a number of problems. First, it turns out that the relative performance of a particular country and its place in the world economy strongly depend on the current exchange rate, which can change dramatically.
By the 90s of the XX century. a solution to this problem was found: the concept of purchasing power parity - PPP (from the English. purchasing power party - PPP). Since 1992, the UN, within the framework of the international comparison program, as well as the OECD, the EU, the IMF and the IB, have begun to introduce calculations based on PPP.
PPP - the coefficient of converting national currencies into dollars, but not at the bank rate, but based on the ratio of the purchasing power of the two currencies in the countries where they are issued. For convenience, PPP $ 1 is taken as a unit.
For such calculations, they take a uniform "basket" of goods and services and calculate its cost by country. Here a new problem arises: the inadequacy of the standard basket to the structure of consumer spending, which are fundamentally different in different countries. This means that there is no standard “basket” that is uniform for all countries.
Price differences are not the only source of distortion in comparing GDP; in addition, the shadow economy and labor costs in the household are not taken into account.
6. The main features of integration in the late XIX - early XX century.
The integration of economic life in the world goes in many directions:
but) internationalization of productive forces through the exchange of means of production and technological knowledge, as well as international specialization and cooperation, linking economic units into integral production and consumer systems; through production cooperation, international movement of production resources; through the formation of a global material, information, organizational and economic infrastructure that ensures the implementation of international exchange;
b) manifestation of internationalization through MRI;
in) an increase in the scale and qualitative change in the nature of traditional international trade materialized goods. The main factor in the impact of international trade on national economies is not so much its outstripping growth, reflecting the process of deepening MRI, as its fundamental qualitative shifts. The very functions of international trade have changed- from short-term transactions "commodity - money" to the means of direct servicing of national production processes, linking them into a single production mechanism that does not know national borders. The emphasis in such service is shifting to the final stages of production (finishing, assembly operations);
d) international movement of financial and production resources, ensuring the intertwining and interdependence of economic activities in different countries. This movement takes the form of international credit or foreign investment;
e) an increasingly important area of international cooperation is becoming services sector, which develops faster than the sphere of material production;
f) rapidly growing international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge: no country alone is able to resolve all issues of scientific and technological progress, and even more so to be a leader in all its areas. All this leads to an intensive process of the formation of an international intellectual division of labor. International specialization of scientific and experimental design centers is taking place, the establishment of stable cooperation between them;
g) the scale of international labor migration is increasing, to which Russia and other states formed on the territory of the former USSR are beginning to connect as exporters;
h) simultaneously with the increasing internationalization, the impact of production and consumption on the natural environment is growing need in the international cooperation aimed at solving global problems of our time(protection of the natural environment, development of the oceans, outer space, assistance to the starving population of developing countries, etc.). The solution to the increasingly aggravating global problems that put humanity on the brink of survival requires the combined efforts of all countries of the world community.
7. International division of labor
The basis for the unification of national economies into a single world economy is international division of labor(MRI), i.e. specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products, which countries exchange with each other.
MRI is the basis of the world economy, allowing it to progress in its development, to create the prerequisites for a more complete manifestation of general (universal) economic laws.
The essence of MRI manifests itself in the dynamic unity of two production processes - its dismemberment and unification.
A single production process cannot but be divided into relatively independent, isolated from each other phases. At the same time, such a dismemberment is at the same time the unification of isolated industries and territorial production complexes, the establishment of interaction between the countries participating in the MRI system.
The need to increase labor productivity, which determines economic and social progress, is a driving force in deepening the division of labor, including international. MRI is performed in order to increasing production efficiency, serves as a means of rationalizing social productive forces.
The main driving force behind MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of their social and economic differences, is their the pursuit of economic benefits. In this case, the realization of the effect obtained by the MRI participants occurs as a result of the operation of the law of value, which is manifested in the differences between the national and international value of the goods.
MRI is the “integrator” that formed the world economic system - the world economy from separate elements.
Types of MRI.
1. Territorial: a) interregional - division of labor between regions of the same country; b) international - the division of labor between individual countries.
2. Functional: a) general - the division of labor between large spheres of material and non-material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.); b) private - the division of labor within large spheres by industries and subsectors (for example, such as heavy and light industry, animal husbandry and crop production, sea, air and land transport, as well as within them: mining industry, metallurgy, mechanical engineering within the framework of heavy industry ; machine tool and transport engineering in the framework of mechanical engineering; automobile, aircraft, shipbuilding in the framework of transport engineering, etc.); c) single - division of labor within the enterprise (in this case, the enterprise is interpreted broadly as a complete cycle of creating the final product).
8. Scientific and technological progress as a determining factor in the development of modern MRI
The scientific and technological revolution (STR) at the present stage is causing profound changes in the structure of productive forces, inter- and intra-sectoral proportions in the national economies of an increasingly growing number of countries and the world economy as a whole.
New technological base, availability of information since the early 80s change the conditions of production and consumption. Individualization of demand, an increase in the saturation of mass needs, a reduction in the timing of meeting demand, a constant threat of overproduction, a number of socio-economic moments - all this is dramatic. increased the role of consumer demand as an incentive for the qualitative development of production and services, or, in other words, the formation of directions of technical progress, the final efficiency of material and spiritual production.
New technologies bring into play qualitatively new economic ties: they aim at saving resources, individualizing and specializing production and consumption. The cumulative result of new links goes not so much along the chain of costs as along the axis of the growing effect from their application. The chain reaction here has a consequence saving all kinds of resources. Increasing the role of consumers in the "producer - consumer" system results in the implementation of a complex of organizational and managerial measures at the corporate level of marketing nature (strengthening the link between research and development (R&D) and production activities with sales policy, preliminary identification and assessment of consumer opportunities) , focus on meeting a narrow specific demand).
Application of new technologies affects world economic relations. The nature of the IRM is changing as the newest forms of automation deprive developing countries in an increasing number of economic activities of some of the advantages associated with the presence of a significant cheap labor force, which affects traditional incentives to export capital. They are shifting away from labor savings to savings on costs, associated with lower standards for environmental cleanliness and labor safety, which developing countries go to for the industrialization of national economies. In addition to the export of goods and capital, industrialized countries are increasingly using the export of scientific and technical information and scientific and technical services as a "battering ram" of great disruptive power to establish and expand their positions in the world market.
The modern world is moving to a new, synthesized model of development, which is characterized by: a) a qualitative renewal of the technological base of production, b) widespread introduction of resource and energy saving technologies, c) shifts in the structure, content and nature of production and consumption processes.
9. Strengthening the trend of globalization in the development of the world economy at the beginning of the XXI century.
Globalization as a process is a movement towards superinternationalization, superintegration, which is manifested in all world markets.
The process of globalization has led to a new qualitative state of the world economy, the so-called globalized space. Globalization as a new qualitative state of the world economy is a new stage in the development of human society, at which the features of the integrity of the world economy, the interdependence of all its parts become obvious, noticeable at the level of both phenomena and individual events.
The revolution in finance and technology, as well as the availability of information, have led to a new state of society: neither governments nor national mass media are able to isolate economic agents from the full volume of information about economics, politics, problems and ways of solving them in other countries.
Economically globalization means lowering barriers between national economies (the role of the World Trade Organization - WTO is increasing, numerous agreements on telecommunications and financial services are being developed), over-integration of national economies.
At the beginning of the XXI century. under the influence of the global information system, the boundaries between technologies, industries, and sources of capital are disappearing. Various computer technologies grow together into a single integral information system, dragging along not only the information environment and information technologies, but also the markets for capital, goods and services, and labor. Now it is often difficult to determine the country - the manufacturer of the goods, the country - the source of capital.
Globalization is especially evident on the capital market: thanks to the information and technical power of modern means of communication, huge amounts of financial resources are rapidly moving from one point of the planet to another; the speed and direction of this movement is difficult to predict; they are instantly invested where they perform best.
In 1980, 4.6 million Americans owned shares of various funds, and in 2000 already half of the US population invested their money in the securities markets. At the same time, there was a "narrowing of space"; on the commodity market, this manifested itself in a sharp increase in world exports, which in half a century increased from $ 53 billion to $ 7 trillion.
Technological prerequisites for globalization computerization, miniaturization, fiber optics, increased use of satellites, the introduction of the Internet. The number of computers per capita, the number of CDs and digital disks, as well as the number of individuals using e-mail, as well as the number of Internet users, are becoming important indicators of the development of a country.
10. Correlation of globalization and global problems in the world economy
The deepening of the process of globalization, unfortunately, not only does not lead to the solution of global problems, but also contributes to the prosperity of a small group of industrialized countries and the degradation and impoverishment of the least developed countries of the world.
None of the global world problems, known since the middle of the 20th century, has yet been fully resolved: the creation of a mechanism for resolving issues of war and peace, disarmament, conversion, overcoming poverty, hunger, and disease. There is no paradigm for human development and survival in the context of global warming, a unified environmental protection program, and a joint search for new sources of energy. Today, more than 80 thousand chemicals are used in everyday production that have a detrimental effect on human health.
Moreover, itself globalization gives rise to new global problems. Direct investments of transnational corporations do not always give an unequivocally positive result, for which they are called “instruments for preserving underdevelopment,” producing products that the country does not need with the help of unnecessary technology. Financial resources attracted through the globalization process “run away” as quickly as they come. In mid-1997, Western capital left Thailand, and in 1998 - South Korea and Indonesia, causing a financial shock in each of these countries.
Even in countries reaping the "sweet fruits" of globalization, there are occasional protests against alien values sold as universal (anti-globalization movement). The sharply increased severity of competition on a global scale leads to growing income inequality and a lack of job security. In industrialized countries, globalization is being rebuffed from both the left and the right of the political spectrum. The left sees the differentiation of consumption: the suffering of the poor and the over-enrichment of dozens of citizens, the right sees the erasure of national borders, the unification of national identity, the loss of jobs, the loss of clearly expressed national sovereignty.
The trade unions of the developed countries are also protesting against globalization. It is known that in the United States a worker earns an average of about $ 19 an hour, and a Mexican worker $ 1.50, which causes a massive outflow of production to Mexico.
Capital that has burst out into the global space finds those areas where wages are minimal, taxes are negligible, and government regulation is almost absent.
11. Ecological crisis as a global problem of humanity
The ecological problem has a long history, but it has worsened since the second half of the 19th century as the planet industrialized.
The aggravation of the ecological problem means a transition to a qualitatively new dependence of the population of the world community on the impoverished surrounding nature as a result of the barbaric impact of human activity on it.
The main directions of exacerbation of the environmental crisis:
Increased withdrawal from land use (area) of cultivated land as a result of excessive use of chemical fertilizers, soil salinization, wind and water erosion, etc .;
Chemical impact on agricultural and livestock products, water, human habitat, deforestation, etc .;
The growing volume of emissions of pollutants into the Earth's atmosphere (hundreds of thousands of tons of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, etc.), leading to the gradual destruction of the ozone protective layer around the Earth's atmosphere;
The rapid build-up of waste, the transformation of significant land areas into landfills for various industrial waste. As a result, useful areas of land are reduced and territorial centers with increased danger to human life are expanding;
The growth in the number of nuclear power plants.
The so-called local wars in Vietnam, Kampuchea, Laos, Afghanistan, Africa, Central America also influenced the acceleration of the ecological crisis. The vast expanses of the jungle, which were untouched for centuries, turned out to be literally scorched.
The links between the environment and the economy can be seen in many phenomena. The recent famine in sub-Saharan Africa is the result of severe environmental and economic degradation rather than drought alone, which undoubtedly was the catalyst for the disaster.
The problem of environmental safety is closely related to the achievement of economic security, the establishment of equal economic relations, excluding the predatory exploitation of natural resources, the export of polluting industries and hazardous waste, - this idea was emphasized at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, held in 1992 American scientist Brown, Director of the Washington Institute for World Observation , stressed in this regard that the extensive destruction of natural support systems and deteriorating environmental conditions pose a threat to national and international security, which now competes with the traditional military threat.
This is where the most developed forms of international cooperation are required on the basis of common criteria and generally recognized universal approaches.
12. International economic aspects of the food problem
Although food consumption in general is increasing in all regions, it is unevenly distributed across continents and across individual states:
1) industrial zones of the world, including Western and Northern Europe, North America, Australia and Japan - regions that are faced not with a shortage of high-quality food, but with its surplus;
2) regions of southern Europe and Central Asia, as well as most of the countries of Latin America, the Maghreb countries and ASEAN, in which food supply is at a level approaching the norm in terms of the requirements of the UN WHO;
3) the countries of Eastern Europe, the CIS and the Baltic countries, as well as India, Egypt, Indonesia, the food supply of which is at the "permissible" level of deviation from the norm according to the UN WHO standards;
4) developing countries, the overwhelming part of the population of which is just experiencing all the severities of the food crisis (a vivid example is the countries of the south of the Sahara).
The level of food production in countries of Eastern Europe, CIS and Baltic countries does not correspond to their real capabilities. Russia alone, possessing vast territories for the cultivation of various agricultural crops and animal husbandry, has enormous potential not only to fully provide its population with the necessary food, but also to provide assistance to other countries. However, at present the CIS countries and the Baltic countries are food importers.
Providing food for a rapidly growing population developing countries is one of the most pressing global problems of our time. The solution to the food problem of developing countries is associated with overcoming their economic and scientific and technological backwardness and lies on the path of radical socio-economic transformations, the elimination of backward forms of land tenure and land use, the rise of agriculture through the introduction of advanced scientific methods of its management.
According to FAO estimates, the total number of people suffering from acute hunger in the early 1990s due to the food crisis in Africa was between 600 million and 700 million. The criterion of hunger in this assessment is its extreme degree, determined by the "critical level" of the body's energy needs, sufficient only for survival. If, on the other hand, a less rigid approach is used to define hunger, the number of hungry people in developing countries will be even greater. Hunger in the liberated countries is a massive and constant phenomenon that accompanies the daily life of broad strata of the population.
Chronic hunger causes irreparable damage to the reproduction of labor resources, shortens life expectancy, and contributes to maintaining a high mortality rate.
13. Global international cooperation and the UN. ECOSOC
United Nations Is the largest, universal and most authoritative international organization at the present time, designed to deal with the main political problems of concern to mankind. The political activity of the UN is inextricably linked with economic and social tasks directly related to world politics.
The preamble of the UN Charter states that its purpose is to promote the economic and social progress of all peoples. In duties UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) includes the organization of research and the preparation of various kinds of reports and recommendations on a wide range of international economic, social, cultural and other "related" issues. The Council prepares draft conventions for submission to the UN General Assembly, can convene international conferences on these issues. As the main coordinating body in this area, ECOSOC coordinates work with other UN organizations, holds consultations, involving for this purpose non-governmental organizations specializing and interested in the problem under consideration.
The main questions of ECOSOC:
The state of the world economic and social situation and the preparation of fundamental reviews and other analytical publications;
The state of international trade;
Environmental protection problems;
Economic, scientific and technical assistance to developing countries;
Various aspects of the food problem;
Problems of socio-economic statistics;
Population problems;
Natural resource problems;
Settlement problems;
Problems of planning and mobilizing financial resources, etc.
In the system of ECOSOC bodies there are five regional economic commissions: Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA), Economic Commission for West Africa (EWA).
Environmental meeting held by EEC in 1979, adopted the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (entered into force in 1983) and the Declaration on Low-Waste and Non-Waste Technology and Waste Reuse.
Within the framework of ESCAP the project of trans-Asian railways and highways has been developed and is being implemented.
The document, which determined the economic policy of the continent's states for the 90s, was adopted at the 24th session ECA(1989). It is the Framework for the African Alternative to Structural Adjustment Programs for Economic Recovery and Transformation. The "alternative" is a real basis for halting Africa's slide into the now deepening economic crisis.
14. UN organizations
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is designed to regulate world trade relations. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was created and operated outside the UN framework. Therefore, many countries set a task for the UN - to have in its structures an independent and universal body called on behalf of the world community to regulate complex problems of international trade. To this end, an autonomous UN body was founded in 1964 to facilitate international trade, negotiate and develop international treaties and recommendations in this area; it currently includes about 170 states. The main body of UNCTAD is a conference, which is convened in session twice a year. Sessions of UNCTAD committees are convened more often - on commodities, on finished goods and semi-finished products, on shipping, technology transfer, economic cooperation among developing countries, etc.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Within its framework, a Section for Integrated Industrial Projects was created: development, coordination and control over the implementation of individual large-scale technical projects, development and management of joint programs of technical cooperation with FAO. During the year, UNIDO is working on more than 100 interregional and global projects for Latin America and Asia in all sectors of the economy and training.
Environment program(UNEP): protection of soil and water, flora and fauna, socio-economic aspects of energy, urban planning problems, cooperation in the field of education and exchange of information on environmental protection, practical implementation of the tasks of environmental safety.
The International Labour Organization(ILO): Development of international conventions and recommendations on labor and trade union rights.
Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO): Collect and compile information on nutrition, environmental management, agricultural production, forestry and fisheries. The main field of activity is the agriculture of the world.
purpose European Bank for Reconstruction and Development(EBRD) - to provide financial assistance to the new states of Eurasia and Eastern Europe in carrying out economic reforms, in particular, in financing "privatization programs" and encouraging "private initiative" and "entrepreneurial spirit". The bank actually started functioning only in 1993. In 1994–1997, some technical assistance was provided to a number of countries, but it is clear that the EBRD's capabilities are limited and it is unrealistic to expect any significant financial impact on the CIS members, the Baltic countries and Eastern Europe.
15. Natural resources and their role in the world economy
The world economy is based on the use of significant reserves of natural resources. The economic activity of economic agents is unthinkable without soil cover, minerals, fresh water, solar and wind energy, precipitation moisture, biological (flora and fauna) resources.
All elements of nature used in economic activity and being the means of human existence form the natural resource potential of the world economy. All natural resources are subdivided into real ones, i.e. identified by modern survey methods, technically available and economically viable, and potential, i.e. resources, the amount of which is set theoretically and has a forecast character.
Potential resources are resources of the future. Due to their current economic unprofitability, they can be involved in production under conditions of a qualitatively new level of development of scientific and technological progress.
Classification is important on the principle of exhaustion. From this point of view, all resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible.
The demand for exhaustible resources sharply exceeds their volumes and the rate of their natural replenishment, which leads to the depletion of these resources.
Based on the intensity and rate of natural renewal exhaustible resources are divided into non-renewable (all types of mineral and land resources), renewable (flora and fauna) and relatively renewable (productive arable natural soils, mature forests).
16. Stocks of mineral raw materials and energy resources in the world (coal, oil)
Despite the significant development of geological exploration (primarily in developed countries), the study of the subsoil is still insufficient. The specific weight of proven reserves for some types of minerals sometimes amounts to several percent of geological reserves.
Among the fuel and energy resources, the world's largest reserves coal. Its geological reserves, according to some estimates, reach 9-11 trillion tons (in conventional fuel), and of brown coal and lignite - 2.2 trillion tons. If we compare the figure of world reserves with world coal production - over 4.3 billion tons in 1994 (in terms of conventional fuel - 3.1 billion tons), it turns out that it will be enough for 3000–3700 years with modern production (and for 1000 years with a production level possible in 2020). Explored coal reserves are much less than geological - 1.2 trillion tons.
Of this total, the United States accounts for 430 billion tons, Germany - 100 billion, England - 50 billion, India - 29 billion, Canada - 50 billion, Australia - 90 billion and the CIS - 290 billion tons. The bulk of coal is mined in the CIS, USA, China, Germany, Poland, Slovakia and England.
In the United States, by the mid-90s, about 900 million tons of coal were mined annually. About 1/10 of the coal is exported. The coal industry has excess capacity due to the displacement of coal by other more efficient fuels. Coal production is declining in European countries. In England, mines are closed in connection with the depletion of coal reserves and the rise in the cost of its production, as well as the displacement of coal by oil from the North Sea. Production decreased in France and Russia.
The share of coal in the world consumption of energy resources (in terms of equivalent fuel) at the beginning of the XX century. was 56%, and in 1995 - 27%. In the coming years, the ratio between the types of energy resources consumed in the world will change towards a decrease in the proportion of oil, the sources of which are limited. The share of consumption of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy will grow.
Reliable reserves oil are 127 billion tons of standard fuel and probable - 360 billion tons of standard fuel. In addition, the probable reserves of oil from unconventional sources - oil shale and tar sands - amount to 750 billion tons. Reliable oil reserves from traditional sources in the world are distributed as follows (in%): in the Near and Middle East (in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, Iraq) - 70, in Africa (in Nigeria, Algeria, Libya) - 9–11, in North America - 8–10, in Central and South America - 5, in Western Europe - 5. Currently, slightly less than half traditional oil reserves are located on coastal shelves.
Oil is likely to remain the main fuel and energy resource for a long time to come. It is estimated that in 2020 the share of oil in world energy consumption will be at least 10%. It should be borne in mind that with the existing production technique, only 30–35% of the oil in the Earth's interior is extracted to the surface on average.
17. Stocks of mineral raw materials and energy resources in the world (natural gas, iron ore, etc.)
The world has natural gas(in terms of equivalent fuel) 79 billion tons of proven reserves and 276 billion tons of probable reserves (66 trillion and 230 trillion cubic meters, respectively, in physical terms). The largest proven gas reserves are located in developing countries - Iraq, Saudi Arabia and other countries of the Near and Middle East, as well as in Algeria, Libya, Nigeria, Venezuela, Mexico. Among developed countries, the USA, Canada, Australia have significant gas reserves, and in Europe - Great Britain, Norway and Holland (North Sea reserves). In many of these countries, gas reserves have been discovered over the past 15–20 years, and there is reason to believe that further discoveries are possible.
The production of natural gas in the world reaches 1.7 trillion cubic meters per year. This figure will increase and may double by the middle of the 21st century. The share of gas in global energy consumption is estimated to be about 15% by 2020.
Geological potential reserves iron ore estimated in trillions of tons. The resources of known deposits, including those whose use is currently economically unprofitable, reach about 600 billion tons, and the reliable and probable reserves - 260 billion tons. The largest deposits of iron ore in the world are in Brazil, Australia, Canada, the USA, South Africa, and among European countries - France, Great Britain, Germany, Sweden and Norway. There are large deposits of iron ore in the CIS and China. The iron content in the known deposits of industrial ores for the most part does not exceed 40%. Poor ores with an iron content of 30–35% and less undergo the beneficiation process at mining and processing plants. Rich ores - with an iron content of more than 45% - are used without beneficiation.
The production of iron ore in the world is about 870 million tons per year. In recent years, its production has decreased significantly and the production of ferrous metallurgy has decreased. Steel production capacity decreased as the demand for it decreased, in particular in the automotive industry. Steel is being replaced by plastics, heavy-duty ceramics, and other materials.
General stocks bauxite(raw materials for the production of aluminum) amount to 50 billion tons, of which reliable and probable - about 20 billion tons. The production of bauxite reaches 80 million tons, mainly in Australia, Guinea, and Jamaica.
General stocks copper ore are determined at 860 million tons, of which reliable and probable - 450 million tons. There are data on 363 million tons of assumed and 290 million tons of theoretically possible resources. The bulk of the total reserves of copper ores are located in the United States, Chile, Zaire, Zambia, as well as in Canada, Panama, and Peru. About 8 million tons of these ores are mined annually.
Limited stocks and other non-ferrous metals- lead, tin, zinc. Total lead reserves are 200 million tons, reliable and probable - 100 million tons. Most of the reserves are located in the USA, Australia, Canada. Lead production is about 2.5 million tons annually. The total reserves of tin are 8.3 million tons, of which reliable and probable are 3.8 million tons (India, then Thailand, Bolivia).
18. Natural resources for agriculture
The natural resources that are increasingly used in the course of the development of society and create the conditions for its existence, first of all, refers to the earth - this is the basis, basis, living space of a person. From this value of the land as a space in which society exists, its active importance in production differs, primarily as the basis of agriculture, as the main means of production of food and raw materials. The land covered with forest - a source of obtaining wood and other raw materials, must also be attributed to the production sphere, since the forest is used and reproduced by society. Finally, the bowels of the earth contain various types of mineral raw materials, are the environment that contains them, fossils also serve as means of production.
Of the total surface area of the Earth of 510 million km 2, land accounts for 149 million km 2. Agricultural land occupies 51 million km 2 and forested areas - 38 million km 2. In the composition of agricultural land, arable land and perennial plantings account for 13.4 million km 2, hayfields and pastures - 37.4 million km 2. Thus, on average, per capita in the world there is 0.3 hectares of arable land - the main source of food and fodder. In recent years, arable land has been declining absolutely, not to mention a relative decline (per capita), due to population growth, especially in developing countries. In individual countries, the area of arable land per capita varies sharply. Thus, in the USA, per capita there is 0.67 hectares of arable land, in the Federal Republic of Germany - 0, 12, in the UK - 0, 11, in Japan - 0.03 hectares.
There are reserves in the world for increasing the cultivated areas: several million square kilometers of land that could be used for agricultural needs, but their development requires significant capital investments. Therefore, in order to increase food production, the first step is to improve the use of available agricultural land. Most of the cultivated land is in the Northern Hemisphere. More than half in Europe and Asia and 15% in North America. The bulk of food is also produced in these countries.
More than half of the area is occupied grain crops. The production of grain and leguminous crops on the planet in 1994 reached 1,658 million tons, including in China - 403 million, in the USA - 359 million, in India - 227 million, in Russia - 81, 3 million, in France - 57, 1 million, in Brazil - 49, 2 million, in Canada - 49 million, in Argentina - 24, 9 million tons. Over the past 25 years, the production of grain and legumes has doubled.
Urbanization, the development of industry, transport lead to the alienation of agricultural land, their sale for other needs. Alienation of suitable land for cultivation directly reduces the ability to produce food. Significant damage to land resources is caused by the deterioration of their condition, degradation due to erosion, deflation, waste pollution, which is facilitated by imperfect methods of land cultivation, its overload, and depletion.
19. Use of natural resources for agriculture
Agriculture Development in the first place in the world are USA. This is facilitated by favorable natural conditions, vast flat areas, a temperate climate, which changes to subtropical in the south, and sufficient moisture. Agricultural land occupies over half of the country's territory. Agricultural exports are growing, labor productivity has increased with a decrease in the number of agricultural workers (1.7% of those employed in the national economy, or 3.1 million people). The high level of labor productivity in agriculture is based on its wide mechanization. Farms in recent years have been in a state of aggravating crisis. Dealers of agricultural products get big profits, farmers go bankrupt.
Areas of irrigated land are growing; they collect up to 1/4 of the harvest. All surface water in the western United States is practically distributed; groundwater is mainly used, including from the very vast Ogallala groundwater body.
Wind erosion and deflation negatively affect the soil. When the soil dries up and deep plowing, the fertile layer is blown out.
Significant depletion of land resources occurs in countries of Asia. This is the result of primitive farming in conditions of rapid population growth, cultivation of the same crops, plowing of new unproductive lands, and overloading of pastures. In South and Southeast Asia, a slash farming system is used: slash-and-slash, in which the decay products of felled forest are used, and slash-and-burn, based on burning wood and using ash. Such predatory methods of farming accelerate soil degradation, their disposal, lead to land salinization, desertification.
Rapid processes of erosion and deflation, as well as general depletion of arable and rangelands, occur in countries Africa, where backward methods of farming are widespread. On pasture lands, the vegetation cover degrades due to overgrazing. Desertification is underway, involving thousands of square kilometers of semi-arid lands in the regions north and south of the Sahara. In the Sahara, the Sahel, on the Kalahari Plain, dust storms occur, and their intensity is so great that sand and dust are sometimes transported across the Atlantic Ocean and reach the West Indies.
In countries Latin America the area of agricultural land is expanding, which is largely due to the reduction of forest areas. The slash-and-burn farming system is widely used, which is why erosion and deflation cover most of the cultivated land in these countries.
IN Australia the development of cattle breeding for several decades has led to the deterioration of pasture lands; periodic droughts also contributed to this; plowing in the “wheat-sheep breeding belt” caused erosion processes. Measures are being taken for land reclamation, backfilling of ravines, plowing across slopes, tinning of eroded lands, and construction of water-retaining shafts.
20. Forest resources. Their importance in the global economy
The forest is of great importance for life on Earth. With the help of light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll of plants, i.e. by photosynthesis, organic substances are formed, necessary and the plants themselves, and all others living organisms. This is one of the main biological processes taking place on Earth. More than 100 billion tons of organic matter is formed on the Earth annually, half of which is accounted for by terrestrial vegetation, mainly forests. The forest covers with its underground and aboveground multi-tiered structures, more than other plants, a part of the biosphere, counting per unit of occupied area.
Worldwide, the forested area reaches 36 million km 2, which is 27% of the land area. The bulk of the forested area is within the CIS - 8.1 million km 2, in the USA - 2 million, in Canada - 2.6 million, in Brazil - 3.2 million km 2. Large areas are covered by forest in India, Angola, Colombia, Mexico, Peru.
Forest - source of wood, construction material, raw materials for pulp and paper, woodworking, including furniture, and other industries. The total timber reserves in all forests in the world are 360 billion m 3. The development of logging depends not only on the available timber reserves, but also on the quality of forestry. It is characteristic that in Sweden and Finland, which have a small stock of wood - only 4.1 billion m3 of all species and 3.4 billion m3 of conifers - the removal of wood is about 100 million dense m3, or almost 1/8 of the total removal. developed capitalist countries.
Taking the annual growth of timber as 1% of its total volume in the forests of the world, i.e. 3, 6 billion m 3, we get that about 80% of the annual forest growth is harvested. But from this ratio it is still impossible to conclude that forests are used rationally. First of all, logging in general is growing rapidly. So, in the mid-50s, they amounted to 1.5 billion cubic meters per year. By 2000, with the same increase, they reached 3.3 billion cubic meters, i.e. almost equal to the annual growth of timber.
Along with wood, a number of other types of forest products: various types of technical raw materials, for example, resin for the production of rosin and turpentine, gutta-percha for the production of rubber, tanning agents, organic dyes and other wood chemistry products. The forest has significant food and feed resources(wild berries and fruits, mushrooms, nuts, honey plants, birch sap). The annual harvest of all types of forest food products is measured in tens of millions of tons, but only a small part of this amount is used.
Are important forest products(fruits, foliage, needles, bark, roots) for the production of medicines. There are widely known very effective medicines obtained from sea buckthorn, lemongrass, ginseng, lily of the valley and many other forest plants, shrubs and trees. It should be noted the role of forests in protecting soil, protecting fresh water sources, performing recreational functions, etc.
21. General concepts of demography
Population information is obtained on the basis of regularly conducted (usually once every 10 or 5 years) general population censuses, and in the intervals between them - by means of calculations based on census data as a basis. In many countries, there have been no censuses for a long time, so the total population is considered to be an approximate estimate.
According to the UN, in 2005 the population of the Earth was 6.5 billion people and will continue to grow and in 2050 will amount to approximately 9.1 billion people.
The labor force and the population movement as a whole deals with demography- a science that, on the basis of social, economic, biological and geographical factors, explores the patterns occurring in the structure, dynamics, as well as the distribution and movement of the population. On the basis of this, a population policy is developed, forecast estimates are made of changes in the population of a country, a region and within the framework of the world economy as a whole.
In demographic statistics are used odds fertility (the number of births per 1,000 citizens of the country, measured in per thousand), mortality (the number of deaths per 1,000 citizens, in per thousand), marriage rates, vital rates - the difference between fertility and mortality rates.
Odds are most often calculated for calendar year. Coefficient mortality(fertility): the number of deaths (or births) per year is divided by the average population (of the country or other study area) for the same year, after which the quotient of the division is multiplied by 1000.
Average population for a given year: population as of June 30 of the year in question (or calculate the arithmetic average of the population as of January 1 of this and next year). In the same way, and marriage rate: the count may be based on the number of marriages contracted, or the number of newlyweds, which is twice the number of marriages.
As a result of fertility and mortality, there is a process of continuous renewal of the population, which is called "reproduction". To observe the dynamics of the population, its annual growth is determined. Annual growth rate- this is the population growth during the year under consideration (i.e. between two consecutive January 1) as an arithmetic mean:
P = (P r / P m) x 1000,
where P g is the increase during the year; Р m is the average number of the population during the year.
With the exception of periods of war, epidemics and famine, the birth rate slightly exceeded the death rate; annual population growth, as a rule, reaches several units per 1000, with the upper limit being 10 per 1000, or 1%. To assess the extent to which a given generation has secured its replacement, it is necessary to trace this generation from the moment of its birth until it gives birth to its descendants. Full generation replacement is observed if 1000 people of a given generation, taken into account from the moment of their birth, gave birth to 1000 newborns (living).
22. Types and characteristics of reproduction in different groups of countries
Analysis of the dynamics of the world's population shows that in most European countries, and also in the countries of North America in the XIX and XX centuries, the mortality rate of the population decreased. In other states of the world, a noticeable decrease in the mortality rate of the population began only after the collapse of the colonial system, i.e. mainly after the Second World War. The prerequisites for the decrease in mortality were: a) a general increase in the standard of living of the population; b) improving health care; c) carrying out preventive measures to prevent diseases, primarily infections.
Thus, one can point to two characteristic types of demographic transition to a new type of reproduction:
1) "Classic", or European, type: the transition from high levels of mortality and fertility to low ones takes place over a long time, and the fertility rate in most cases exceeds the mortality rate by an amount significantly less than 10%, which leads to a slowdown in population growth;
2) "Modern" type: a decrease in the overall mortality rate for a shorter period than in the first case, to a level of about 10%, with a stabilization or increase in a significant birth rate.
This ratio of fertility and mortality rates means rapid population growth: a doubling of its size over a period of about 20 years. Measures to regulate the birth rate in some countries contribute to its decline. Individual countries are characterized by numerous features of these processes, which often complicate the task of their classification.
Generally developing countries can be attributed to the "modern" type of demographic reproduction. A number of developing countries have very low overall mortality rates due to a “young” age structure. At the same time, the level of age and sex mortality is higher than in the economically developed countries of the West.
However, sometimes it appears specific type of reproduction, when the mortality rate begins to exceed the birth rate, and the result is a coefficient of vital movement of the population with a minus sign (i.e., there is a natural decline in the population - depopulation). Trends of this kind are clearly evident in modern Russia.
According to the latest census (2002), the resident population of the Russian Federation was 145.2 million, which is 1.8 million more than the current estimate of the population. As of December 1, 2005, the population was 142.8 million. In 2005, the population decreased by 0.5% (680 thousand people).
23. Urbanization. Urban and rural population
Urbanization- a multilateral socio-economic, demographic and geographical process taking place on the basis of historically established forms of social and territorial division of labor. In a narrower, demographic and statistical understanding, urbanization is the growth of cities, especially large ones, an increase in the proportion of the urban population in a country, region, and the world.
The development of the urbanization process is closely related to features of the formation of the urban population, inclusion in the urban environment or assignment to urban administrative subordination of suburban areas, transformation of rural settlements into urban. In fact, the growth of the urban population also occurs due to the formation of wide suburban areas and urbanized areas. The living conditions of the population in these areas are increasingly approaching those in big cities.
The outstripping growth of the urban and non-agricultural population in comparison with the rural and agricultural population is the most characteristic feature of modern urbanization.
In three parts of the world - Australia and Oceania, North Africa, Europe - urban dwellers prevail; rapidly urbanizing Latin America is catching up with them; at the same time, the population of Afro-Asian countries, due to their large numbers, creates an advantage of the countryside over the city on average throughout the world. The developed countries have the highest percentage of the urban population. In Europe - Great Britain (91%), Sweden (87%), Germany (85%), Denmark (84%), France (78%), Netherlands (76%), Spain (74%), Belgium (72%) ; in North America - USA (77%), Canada (76%); in Asia - Israel (89%), Japan (78%); in Australia and Oceania - Australia (89%), New Zealand (85%); in Africa - South Africa (50%). When the share of the urban population exceeds 70%, the rate of its growth, as a rule, slows down and gradually (when approaching 80%) stops.
Urbanization is characterized by concentration of the population in large and super-large cities. It is the growth of large cities (with a population of over 100 thousand people), the associated new forms of settlement and the spread of the urban way of life that most clearly reflect the process of urbanization.
At the end of the XX century. a qualitatively new phenomenon of urbanization - megacities(cities with a population of over 20 million people) - also originated in developing countries. By the 60s of the XX century. there were only 2 megacities in the world (New York and London), then Mexico City, Tokyo - Yokohama, Big Bombay, Calcutta, Jakarta, Dhaka, Karachi, Madras, Bangkok were added.
In 2000, the urban population was about 48% of the world's population. The most urbanized region is Western Europe; the least urbanized is Africa.
24. Employment. Economically active and passive population
Employment- This is the activity of the able-bodied population to create a social product or national income. Providing an opportunity for everyone who is willing and able to work in social production leads ideally to full employment.
Employment in social production does not exhaust all types of useful employment, such as studying in general and special educational institutions, military service, employment in the household, raising children, caring for the sick and the elderly, etc.
Accounting for all types of economic and socially useful activities is reflected in the concept global employment. Outside of it are those who, for subjective or objective reasons, could not find a useful field of activity that does not contradict the law.
Employment in social production is of decisive importance from the point of view of the development of society itself, i.e. productive employment. The ratio of productive employment with other types of useful employment makes it possible to determine rational employment.
In international statistics, the categories are widely used "economically active population" and “Economically inactive population”.
According to the ILO recommendations to economically active the population includes all persons who participate in the production of goods and services, including the production of goods for the market, through barter channels and for personal use: persons of hired labor - workers and employees; independent workers; unpaid family members; seasonal and casual workers; persons temporarily not working for objective reasons (illness, vacation, etc.); students combining study with part-time work; apprentices and persons undergoing vocational training in production and receiving either a scholarship or a salary.
In different countries, the definition of the economically active population differs somewhat, for example, according to the age of entry into active working life (USA - from 15 years old, in Sweden - 16 years old). Differences by category: In the UK, the economically active population does not include part-time students or job seekers. The economically active population for the current period in the countries of the market economy is defined as "work force".
The labor status of the economically active population is quantified by the number of weeks or days worked in a certain period of time (12 months or one calendar year). By the amount of time worked, the economically active population is subdivided into employed, unemployed and part-time workers.
TO economically inactive to the population, international statistics includes everyone who, regardless of age, is not included in the category of the economically active population: full-time students, housewives, old-age and disability pensioners, rentiers, persons receiving material support from public organizations and individuals; employed in unpaid public work, persons providing voluntary, free services, etc.
25. International labor migration
The rapidly occurring internationalization of production and capital is accompanied by the internationalization of the labor market. International migration has become an integral part of the modern system of the world economy.
In countries that actively employ foreign workers, entire sectors of the economy are dependent on labor imports. In France immigrants make up 1/4 of those employed in construction, 1/3 in the automotive industry; in Belgium- half of the miners; in Switzerland- 40% of all construction workers, etc. At the same time, for most developing countries that export labor, abandoning it would mean the loss of an important source of foreign exchange. So, if in Egypt the operation of the Suez Canal at the end of the 80s gave a profit of $ 970 million, and tourism - 600 million, then immigrant remittances - $ 3.1 billion.
The number of foreign workers in Western Europe is 4, 1-6, 5 million, in USA- 5-5.6 million, in Latin America- 3.5-4 million, in countries Middle East and North Africa - 2, 8 million, in West Africa- 1.3 million people.
First Immigration Center formed in Western Europe, where foreign labor began to be used on a permanent basis. The EU has 13 million immigrants and their family members, including about 8 million (or 61%) from non-EU countries. In Germany, foreign labor makes up 8% of the total employed, in France - 7, Switzerland and Luxembourg - up to 30%.
But the special role of foreigners as an additional labor force for the countries of immigration was that young people, as a rule, up to 25 years old, suitable for intensive work and physical activity, mainly participated in interstate movement.
Until recently, foreign workers were used mainly in those spheres where the share of manual labor is high (construction, service sector), and in those industries where work is too dangerous, dirty, or considered not prestigious for the local population. Here the share of foreigners is very high, sometimes it reaches 70%, which means that such enterprises are already “oriented” towards the use of foreign labor.
Second Immigration Center Traditionally, the United States is the country, whose workforce has historically been formed precisely by immigrants. Now the arriving labor force is constantly about 5%, and in coastal areas and more (counting those who did not have time to assimilate).
Third center- in the region of oil-producing countries of the Middle East. Until recently, it was the third center of immigration: in the UAE the share of the labor force is about 90%, in Qatar - over 80, in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain - almost 40, in Oman - 34%. The main exporter of labor in the region is Egypt (75% of the total number of immigrants).
Fourth center- in Latin America: Argentina and Venezuela accept workers from neighboring countries. The total number of immigrants is 3 million, the vast majority are Hispanics. The most common form is rural seasonal migration. Longer-term migration is typical for workers in industry and services.
26. Scientific and technical potential (STP) in the world economy
Scientific and technical potential of the state (industry, separate industry)- a set of scientific and technical capabilities that characterize the level of development of a given state as a subject of the world economy and depend on the quantity and quality of resources that determine these capabilities, as well as on the availability of a fund of ideas and developments prepared for practical use (introduction into production). In the process of practical development of innovations, the materialization of scientific and technical potential occurs.
Scientific research, especially in the field of natural and technical sciences, is increasingly becoming an integral part of the process of material production, and applied research and experimental design development can practically be considered an integral part of this process.
The science is a complex and very difficult to measure system that embodies the results of intellectual activity of people, an ordered set of their ideas, knowledge and experience. As a result, the study of the results of scientific and technical activities is fraught with a number of difficulties.
The main components of the scientific and technological progress: provision of the country with scientific and technical personnel and material and technical support of research activities. The main "quality" components: organization of a science management system; provision of scientific and technical information; the main directions of scientific research.
The development of scientific and technological progress testifies to the onset of a qualitatively new stage in world development, which is manifested in the following: 1) the economy is experiencing continuous innovation process, during which transformations in the technological, organizational and social spheres merge. At the same time, a new model for the development and use of human resources, focused on a highly skilled workforce integrated into the production system; 2) gains priority intangible accumulation, including investment in a person, in comparison with material accumulation; 3) turns into the most important productive force information. Its production, processing, distribution, creation of information infrastructure and information networks are becoming necessary conditions for competitiveness and economic growth; 4) industry-specific range of services, performing important production functions in the modern reproduction process, becomes the main sphere of employment of the population; 5) the mobility of public institutions, vocational qualifications and social class structures increases; 6) social control over capital increases, social expenditures of corporations increase, the role of social guidelines in the development of the whole society increases; 7) the spread of powerful information systems enhances the interconnectedness of the states of the world. However, many critical problems facing society (destruction of the natural environment, limited resources, wealth and poverty, terrorism, etc.) also acquire a global character.
27. STP as the basis of economic growth
Analysis of trends in the financial and staffing of scientific activities shows that its scale in developed countries continues to grow. R&D expenditures at the macro level are growing, but the share of R&D expenditures in GNP tends to stabilize at below 3% (except for Japan, where this indicator is surpassed).
Increasing the scale of scientific activity is a positive factor in economic growth. American scientist F. Scherer formulated "Natural law of technical progress": R&D costs in each individual country should grow faster than the production of the gross national product at a rate. At the same time, the optimal scale of resource provision for science is 3% of GNP.
Reasons for sustainable long-term growth in the knowledge intensity of the economy: the rise in the cost of research and development in connection with the use of highly skilled labor and sophisticated science-intensive equipment on a growing scale; "maintaining stable funding for scientific divisions of corporations or even increasing it in the years of both normal and unfavorable economic conditions; technological convergence, which requires firms to train experts in broader fields of science and technology, to carry out developments in a wider range of related technologies; life cycles of high-tech goods (frequent change of generations of computers, household appliances); constantly growing demand for high-tech products on the part of healthcare (diagnostics, medicines).
Modern Russia is characterized by a gradual and steady decline in the share of spending on science in GDP, a transition to indicators that are typical, at best, for medium-developed countries. According to Goskomstat, the share of R&D in GDP fell to 1.6% in 2005 (at the level of India, Canada, Brazil).
Process prioritization involves simultaneously taking into account at least four factors: 1) national ideas (ensuring national security, competitiveness of the economy, development of education, health care); 2) the need to solve the most acute problems of this period, for example, saving energy (70s), environmental protection (80s), fighting AIDS (late 80s - early 90s); 3) the implementation of modern scientific achievements, for example, the results of molecular biology or genetic engineering, and in the more distant future - the phenomenon of superconductivity; 4) the real possibilities of national scientific schools.
Comparison of the list of NTP priorities of different countries, for example, OECD countries, leads, first of all, to the conclusion that most of the positions are significantly similar. Among the recurring positions in the lists of state priorities: technologies for the production of new materials, information technology, communications, biotechnology, health and environmental protection; space research plays an important role.
In the long term, common priorities will retain their importance, but they will increasingly fit into the solution of global tasks of preserving man and nature.
28. The concept of the sectoral structure of the economy
Sectoral structure of the economy broadly understood, it is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.
Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if we consider them in a long historical framework, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of "primary industries" (agriculture and mining), then "secondary" (industry and construction), and in the last period - "tertiary industries" ( services sector).
In world practice, the basis for the formation of the structural elements of the economy is the International Standard Industrial Classification of all types of economic activity and the International Standard Classification of Occupations, which are part of the SNA. The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications - by industry and by sector. The grouping by industry provides a characteristic of the sectoral structure of the economy, makes it possible to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, and to trace inter-industry relations and proportions. The grouping by sectors of the economy, formed depending on the functions performed by economic units in the economic process, allows you to analyze the processes in the field of distribution and redistribution of income, investment financing. A special place in the system of national accounts is occupied by intersectoral balances, which, depending on the goals of economic analysis, can include from several tens to several thousand industries.
Basic industries for developing intersectoral balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, other sectors (they mainly include the service sector). Each branch of the economy, in turn, is divided into the so-called enlarged industries, branches and types of production. Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous industries that are specialized in the production of certain types of products.
When attributing an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular branch of the economy taken into account the purpose of the product or services, the type of basic raw materials and materials, the nature of the technological process. In a number of cases, difficulties arise when attributing a specific section of the economy to a particular industry. This is due to the fact that as a result of specialization, homogeneous products are often manufactured using various technologies, from various raw materials, etc. In addition, there is penetration process techniques and methods from one industry to another. Products for a wide variety of purposes are produced from the same raw materials.
29. Sectoral structure of modern industry
Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created; its share in the aggregate GDP of developed countries is about 40%.
Modern industry consists from a variety of independent industries, including a large group of related enterprises and production associations located at a considerable territorial distance from each other.
Sectoral structure of industry characterized by the composition of industries, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them. The sectoral structure of industry is determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees and the value of the basic production assets of the industry.
The main one is indicator of the volume of production: allows you to judge the ratio of industries, their interrelationships, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry.
When determining the sectoral structure of industry by employment rate the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and the share of industries with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated.
The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level of industrial development of the country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. The progressiveness of the structure of industry is judged by the composition and specific weight of the branches included in the industry, by how perfect the intra-branch structure of a particular branch of industry is.
Factors determining changes in the sectoral structure of industry: 1) STP and the degree of implementation of its results in production; 2) the level of social division of labor, the development of specialization and cooperation of production; 3) the growth of material needs of the population; 4) the socio-historical conditions in which the industry is developing; 5) natural resources of the country.
The classification of industries is based on the next principles: economic purpose of manufactured products; the nature of the functioning of products in the production process; the homogeneity of the intended purpose of the products, the commonality of the processed raw materials, the affinity of the applied technology; the nature of the impact on the subject of labor, etc.: 1) IN system of national accounts the classification of industries is used according to one of the following signs: the homogeneity of the intended purpose of the manufactured products (engineering, fuel, food), the commonality of the raw materials (metalworking and woodworking), the similarity of the applied technology (chemical industry). Most of the industries are covered by the attribute intended purpose their products; 2) by the nature of the impact on the subject of labor: extractive and processing industries.
30. Dynamics of the sectoral structure of modern industry
The current stage of economic development of the leading countries of the world is characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which leads to irreversibility of the transition to new intersectoral and reproductive proportions. This was also influenced by such factors as the raw material and energy crises, which contributed to the rise in the cost of raw materials and energy carriers, and, consequently, equipment and construction. The investment process has become more complicated, in general, production costs have increased significantly. All this not only caused, but also intensified the tendency towards an increase in the cost of the reproduction process itself.
Passing structural adjustment is aimed at increasing the quality parameters of production and manufactured products, strengthening the resource-saving type of reproduction, the intensification of national economic processes, the accelerated development of the latest science-intensive industries. Structural changes are taking place in the sectoral and reproduction sections. Structural transformations began to be carried out at the micro level - the level of subsectors and types of production - mainly due to qualitative changes within traditional sectors of the economy.
Wherein industry remains the leading branch of material production and above all mechanical engineering, where scientific and technical achievements are accumulated. Therefore, it is in it that the tendency towards a decrease in the proportion of raw materials, energy carriers, living labor is most noticeable; in the structure of industry, the share of the latest high-tech industries is rapidly growing.
The share of the mining industry is declining(with an increase in costs for exploration, drilling and production of gas, oil, etc.). At the same time, the latest progressive technological processes are increasingly penetrating into it, microprocessors and microcircuits are being introduced, which have a tremendous impact on the structure of production and contribute to the massive release of labor from the production process.
Complex automation of production, development of "unmanned" technology - the leading directions of scientific and technological progress.
In general, in the last decades in industrially developed countries, the general pattern of sectoral shifts consists in a noticeable decrease in the share of raw materials and agriculture, in the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. The most radical changes are taking place at the level of sub-sectors, within which science-intensive industries have the highest dynamics.
31. Fuel and energy complex, development trends
The branches of the fuel and energy complex (FEC) are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its branches are represented, usually the main capital investments within the range of up to 85% are in the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (approximately in equal shares) and up to 15% in the oil refining and coal industry. Investments in the oil industry have a significant impact on the investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.
The cyclical nature of business development in the oil industry due to the fact that decisions to increase investment in the oil industry are made at a time when there is a shortage of oil on the markets, accompanied by an increase in prices and profits. At this time, there is a revival of the investment process in this industry, and an increase in production volumes begins in about 10 years. An excess of oil supply over demand appears on the oil markets, prices begin to decline, which is also accompanied by a decrease in investment until the excess oil disappears. This period also lasts about 10 years. Over the past 100 years, there have been five such cycles, each lasting from 20 to 22 years, and these cycles did not necessarily coincide with the development cycles of the entire economy.
In the period up to 2010, there will be an increase in oil prices, and capital investments will revive.
Investment in development electric power industry less prone to such cyclical changes. Annual investment in this industry will be (with some fluctuations in one direction or another) in the range of $ 100 billion per year.
In the long term until 2015, according to experts' forecasts, the average annual growth rate of electricity generation in the world will be about 2.7%, however, significant differences have emerged both in the rates of development of the electric power industry in industrialized and developing countries, and in the ratio of the use of various power generation.
In the long term, industrialized countries are expected to see very little growth in their own production. primary energy resources (PER). As a result of this, with a steady downward trend in oil production in these countries, the dependence of these countries on the import of PER from third countries will increase.
In the structure of PER consumption for oil, it is obvious that the first place will remain not only until 2015, but also for many years to come beyond this period. However, the share of oil in the total PER consumption will gradually decrease. Consumption of natural gas will grow at a faster pace. By 2015, in the structure of PER consumption, gas will come to the second place, coal to the third. The main share will remain for PER of organic origin (over 92%).
Share electricity from nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and other energy sources in the total PER consumption of industrialized countries by 2015 will increase to 7.4% compared to 6.5% in 1990. At the same time, the growth rate of the use of nuclear power will be no more than 0.9-1% per year , while from hydroelectric power plants and renewable energy sources will exceed 3% per year.
32. Agro-industrial complex and tendencies of its development
Agro-industrial complex (AIC)- this is a fairly general concept, which means a unified system of agricultural and industrial enterprises and industries that has developed in social production, united by integration (close, long-term) production and commercial ties based on ownership or contractual (contracting) relations and covering the entire agro-industrial chain: production important means of production for agriculture, their transportation, production of initial agricultural products, their storage, transportation, processing and marketing of finished products or products.
The agro-industrial complex is divided into three areas:
1) branches of industry supplying means of production for agriculture and related industries, as well as providing production and technical services to agriculture;
2) agriculture itself;
3) industries engaged in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing, storage, transportation, sale).
A number of industries entirely (or almost entirely) serve the needs of the agro-industrial complex (production of agricultural machinery, fertilizers, equipment for animal husbandry and fodder production, etc.). Other industries are only partially engaged in meeting the needs of the agro-industrial complex. They are included in the functional structure of the agro-industrial complex only to the extent that their products are used for the needs of the agro-industrial complex.
Formation of the agro-industrial complex- a new stage in the development of social production, based on the development of the productive forces of agriculture, the "industrial revolution" in agriculture, which in this sense, as it were, caught up with industry. However, this does not mean that the technical and technological level of millions of peasant farms has reached the level existing in industry. Unfortunately, in the world, and above all in developing countries, tools and implements are still widespread, which have come in our time from time immemorial and do not correspond to modern industrial productive forces. But humanity has created new material means of production for agriculture, close in their parameters (productivity, energy intensity, economy of living labor, etc.) to the means of production of industry, the technological level of world agriculture approached the technological level of industry. In developed countries, they already predominate in agriculture, in the developing world they are distributed in enclaves, islands, covering the agriculture of the most economically and socially developed regions and countries.
33. Features of the development of the agro-industrial complex in various groups of countries
The main direction of international agro-industrial integration in the current environment is solving the biggest global problem of our time- problems of meeting the growing needs of the world's population in food products.
The process of development of agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far into industrialized countries, primarily in the United States.
To an immeasurably lesser extent, this process is observed in developing world, where, along with the general trends and forms of its manifestation, specific features and forms appear associated with a significant lag in the agro-industrial sphere of the liberated countries and their economic dependence on the West.
In most developing countries, TNCs play an important role in this and act as integrators. This is due to many factors, including the fact that, creating their processing enterprises in developing countries, TNCs bring with them the forms and methods of activity that have developed in their home countries.
Agricultural production intensification factor in recent decades, it continued to be decisive in terms of the scale of gross grain production in the group of industrialized countries. Grain farms, like agriculture as a whole, have essentially become an integral part of the agro-industrial complex, in which direct agricultural production is closely combined with the processing, storage and final sale of products, as well as providing the farm with the means of production. The intensive path of development of grain production in the world will continue to prevail, since only this path can lead to a softening of the crisis in the supply of food to the constantly growing population of the planet.
In many developing countries, archaic forms of agriculture and land use, the implementation of progressive agrarian reforms is delayed. Crop production in many of them, especially in Africa, remains highly dependent on weather conditions. The development of grain production in a group of developing countries is becoming increasingly dependent on the intensive factor, large capital investments in agriculture, infrastructure, related industries, as well as on large-scale reclamation work.
With a significant increase in gross grain production in general in industrialized countries and developing countries, it continues to deepen disproportion in grain farming: growing and multidirectional gap between production and consumption in each of these groups of countries.
In industrialized countries, there is a concentration of "surplus" of grain, as production exceeded the consumption of grain. In developing countries, on the contrary, due to increasing food needs, the grain deficit increased, per capita production increased insignificantly, and continued to decline in a number of regions.
34. Transport in the world economy. Automobile transport
Transport complex- one of the main branches of material production, carrying out the transportation of passengers and goods. Based on the difference in functions, transport is divided into passenger and freight. It forms the basis of the domestic and international division of labor.
All routes of communication, transport enterprises and vehicles together form world transport system, within which separate modes of transport, countries and regions interact.
Transport systems developed countries account for 78% of the total length of the world transport network, 74% of the world cargo turnover; the density of the transport network is 50–60 km per 100 km 2 of the territory; characterized by a high technical level, close interaction of all types of transport, complex configuration of the transport network, high "mobility" of the population.
Transport systems developing countries account for 22% of the total length of the world transport network, 26% of the world cargo turnover; the density of the transport network is 5–10 km per 100 km 2 of the territory; characterized by a low technical level, the predominance of one or two types (railway, pipeline) transport, the predominance of transport lines connecting the main center (port, capital) with areas of export specialization, low "mobility" of the population.
Most developed are the transport systems of North America and Western Europe. North America ranks first in terms of the total length of roads (30% of all world communications) and the turnover of major modes of transport. Western Europe is leading in terms of network density and traffic frequency, although it is far behind North America in terms of distance. In North America, in Western Europe, the leading role belongs to road, pipeline and air transport.
Types of transport are grouped as follows: land (land and pipeline), water (sea and river) and air.
The leader in terms of the structure of the world cargo and passenger turnover automobile transport, which accounts for 8% of freight turnover and 80% of passenger turnover of the total world volume (railway - 16% of cargo turnover and 11% of passenger turnover, pipeline - 11% of cargo turnover, sea - 62% of cargo turnover and 1% of passenger turnover, river - 3% of cargo turnover and 1% of passenger turnover, for air - less than 1% of cargo turnover and 8% of passenger turnover).
Automobile transport is the most expensive type of transport with great maneuverability, speed and the ability to deliver goods directly to consumers. The total length of highways is 24 million km (70% of the total length of all communication routes). The density of the world's highways is 180 km per 100 km 2 of territory.
The largest length of highways in the USA, India, Japan, China, Russia, France; the densest road network in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain; the highest level of motorization in the United States (600 cars per 1000 inhabitants). It also has the highest freight turnover of road transport.
35. Other modes of transport in the world economy
Railway transport provides transportation of goods and passengers over long distances. The greatest length of railways is in the USA, Canada, Russia, India, China. Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic have the densest railway network. In terms of cargo turnover, the leaders are Russia, the USA, China, Canada, and Poland.
In developed countries, there is a tendency to reduce the railway network, in developing countries - to expand.
Pipeline transport. The USA is the leader in the length of oil and gas pipelines. The longest pipelines are in Russia and Canada. The world's largest trunk pipelines have been laid in Russia (Druzhba, Soyuz, Progress, Shining of the North).
Sea transport- an important part of the world transport system, performing intercontinental transportation. Sea transport provides 98% of foreign trade traffic of Japan and Great Britain, 90% of all foreign trade traffic of the USA and the CIS countries. Sea transport has the lowest cost price.
The following countries are leading in terms of sea tonnage: Liberia, Panama, Japan, Norway, USA, Greece, Cyprus, Russia. The tonnage of the developing countries' naval fleet is growing. This is due to the provision of so-called cheap flags: the use of ships and cheap labor by enterprises in developed countries.
An important link in the transport system are seaports: universal (typical for developed countries) and specialized (typical for developing countries).
River transport the most developed in the USA, China, Russia, Germany, Canada, the Netherlands, France. These countries are leading in terms of river freight turnover.
International river basins play an important role: Danube (uniting 12 countries), Nile, Congo, Niger (9 countries each), Rhine, Amazon, Zambezi (7 countries each).
Many river basins (Volga, Ob, Lena, Yangtze, Yenisei, Amazon, Mississippi, etc.) have a significantly higher carrying capacity than the largest railways.
Air Transport, the youngest and most dynamic, provides transportation of passengers and goods over long distances. The largest passenger turnover is noted in the USA, Russia, Japan, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany.
The largest airports in the world are located in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, London. There are 34 major airports in the world, half of them in the USA, 8 in Europe.
Financing the transport complex in industrialized countries is traditionally one of the priority functions of the state, because transport, along with energy and communications, is the most important universal basis for the normal operation of production and the social environment in the state.
Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, the role of fixed assets of the transport complex has significantly changed. In this regard, investments are mainly directed to ensure the intensive development of transport.
36. Prospective trends in the development of transport
In the long term, market economies are expected to further development of scientific and technological progress in transport. The structure of the network of communication lines will undergo significant changes.
The length of the inactive and unprofitable railway lines and sections will shrink. At the same time, it is planned to build a number of new, mainly high-speed, lines. Expansion of work on the electrification of railways is expected.
Length automotive paved roads will increase. The main focus will be on improving the existing network.
The number of airports(mainly cargo) and the length of domestic airlines.
In the United States, the length of pipelines, first of all - gas and oil pipelines.
Both in the USA and in Western European countries on the domestic water transport hydraulic engineering works, port reconstruction are coming. The modernization of ports is envisaged in maritime transport.
Substantial changes will occur in the vehicle park. Their number will increase slightly and the share of progressive types of traction will noticeably increase. The share of specialized rolling stock, its carrying capacity and power density will increase.
In the field of interaction of various modes of transport existing means will be improved and new means for uninterrupted door-to-door communications will be created, containerization of not only general cargo, but also a significant part of bulk cargo will be covered, automated information systems of different types of transport will be unified, unified systems of different types of transport will be built, unified railway stations and transshipment terminals with improved layout, etc.
NTP in transport will allow significantly improve its economic performance, improve the quality of customer service and traffic safety. In transport, it is planned: the widespread use of marketing, the study of demand, the introduction of accounting for needs, the use of modeling, etc. The development of the Raylink computer system (which currently connects railways, customers and banks) or another similar system to the entire network of communications is expected, which will make it possible to include transport in the network of commercial exchanges.
Work will continue to ensure interoperability of information systems in order to interconnect national computer networks.
37. The main types of states in the world economy. Developed countries with market economies. Countries with economies in transition
In international practice, all countries of the world are divided into three main groups: developed countries with market economies, countries with economies in transition and developing countries. This breakdown into groups was chosen for the convenience of analysis in ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council) and is now being revised, especially in light of the recent cardinal geopolitical changes.
Group of developed market economies includes 23 countries. It is further subdivided for analysis purposes into overlapping classification subgroups of the largest industrialized countries, which include the seven countries with the largest gross domestic product (GDP) in the developed market economy (EDM) group. These are Germany, Italy, Canada, Great Britain, USA, France and Japan; European Union - EU (Belgium, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Great Britain, France, Sweden, Finland and Austria); European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Austria, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, Sweden; Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg); North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): USA, Canada, Mexico.
Group of countries with economies in transition subdivided into the countries of Eastern Europe, which include: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, Slovakia and new states that emerged after the collapse of the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Moldova, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, as well as new countries that emerged after the collapse of Yugoslavia.
Practically in all countries of this group, since the beginning of the 90s, economic reforms have been carried out aimed at ensuring sustainable development of the national economy through internal and external macroeconomic stabilization, the creation of competitive market relations and the corresponding price reform, structural restructuring of production and enterprises on the basis of a clear legislative defining property rights - public and private, limiting the domination of monopolies and state interference in the activities of economic entities of a market economy, expanding and deepening international economic integration.
The greatest successes in carrying out economic reforms in this group of countries have been achieved by Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. After three years of a crisis in the economy at the beginning of the reforms (1991-1993), the situation began to stabilize in 1994, and already in 1995-1996. the national income in these countries increased annually by an average of 6%. Since 1995, economic growth began in other countries of Eastern Europe - Romania, Bulgaria and Slovakia.
38. Developing countries. Least developed countries
Developing countries usually grouped by region based on their geographic location. For the purposes of the analysis, countries with an active balance of payments and countries that import capital are also singled out separately. The latter, in turn, are subdivided into countries - exporters and countries - importers of energy resources. A country is considered an exporter of energy resources if it simultaneously meets the following two criteria:
1) its production of primary energy resources (including coal, lignite, crude oil, natural gas, hydropower and nuclear energy) exceeds its own consumption by at least 20%;
2) the export of energy resources is at least 20% of the total export volume. Among developing countries - importers of energy resources, there are countries with a newly formed surplus of payments, which include four Asian countries that are considered the first generation of successful exporters of finished goods (Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan).
Among developing countries in modern conditions, there is a process of further economic differentiation. Currently, they find themselves at at least three different levels of economic development. The most industrially developed developing countries have formed a group "Newly industrialized countries" (NIS). These include Argentina, Brazil, Hong Kong, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Singapore, Taiwan, Turkey.
Intermediate group formed countries that significantly lagged behind the NIS both in total production volumes and in the production of goods and services per capita. This group, in particular the countries of the Middle East, is characterized by a large differentiation of sectoral structures, social strata of the population and their position in society.
To the group Least developed countries include about 50 developing countries. As a rule, they have a narrow, even monocultural structure of the economy, a high degree of dependence on external sources of funding for activities in the socio-economic sphere. The UN uses three criteria for assigning countries to this group: the share of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita does not exceed 350 US dollars; the share of the adult population who can read - no more than 20%; the manufacturing industry in GDP is no more than 10%. This group includes 8 countries in Asia, 28 in Africa, 5 in Latin America and Oceania, etc.
39. Indicators characterizing the economic potential of the country
A varied combination of factors of production and conditions of development of different countries does not allow assessing the level of economic development from any one point of view. To do this, use a number of key indicators. one. GDP / GNP or ND per capita. 2. The sectoral structure of the national economy. 3. Production of the main types of products per capita (the level of development of individual industries). 4. The level and quality of life of the population. 5. Indicators of economic efficiency.
It should be emphasized that the level of economic development of a country is a historical concept. Each stage of development of the national economy and the entire world community as a whole introduces certain changes in the composition of its main indicators.
The leading indicators in the analysis of the level of economic development are indicators GDP / GNP per capita. They form the basis of international classifications that subdivide countries into developed and developing countries. For example, developed countries in 2000 included countries with a per capita production of GDP of more than 9 thousand dollars per year (countries with a high level of income).
In some developing countries (in Saudi Arabia), the GDP per capita is at a high level, corresponding to the developed industrial countries, but in terms of the totality of other indicators (the sectoral structure of the economy, production of the main types of products per capita, etc.), such countries cannot be classified as developed.
Another indicator is sectoral structure of the economy. Its analysis is carried out on the basis of the GDP indicator calculated by industry. First of all, the ratio between large national economic branches of material and non-material production (in terms of the share of manufacturing in the country's economy) is taken into account.
Characterize the level of economic development of the country and production indicators of some main types of products, which are basic for the development of the national economy; they make it possible to judge the possibilities of satisfying the country's needs in these basic types of products.
First of all, these indicators include the production of electricity per capita. The electric power industry underlies the development of all types of industries, and therefore, behind this indicator, there are also opportunities for technical progress, and the achieved level of production and quality of goods, and the level of services, etc. The current ratio for this indicator between developed countries and least developed countries is 500: 1, and sometimes even more.
The statistics also highlight the production of steel and the production of rolled metal, metal-cutting machines, automobiles, mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers, paper and a number of other goods.
Close to these are indicators of the availability (or production in the country) per 1000 population or per average family of a number of durable goods: refrigerators, washing machines, televisions, cars, video equipment, personal computers, etc.
40. Living standards of the population
The standard of living of the country's population is largely characterized by the structure of GDP by use. The analysis of the structure of private final consumption (personal consumer spending) is especially important. A large share in the consumption of durable goods and services indicates a higher standard of living of the population and, consequently, a higher overall level of economic development of the country.
An analysis of the standard of living of the population is usually accompanied by an analysis of two interrelated indicators: "consumer basket" and "living wage".
The standard of living is also assessed by indicators:
but) state of labor resources(average life expectancy, educational level of the population, per capita consumption of basic foodstuffs in calories, in protein content, skill level of labor resources, number of pupils and students per 10 thousand people, share of education expenditures in GDP);
b) development of the service sector(the number of doctors per 10 thousand people of the population, the number of hospital beds per 1 thousand people of the population, the provision of the population with housing, household appliances, etc.).
Economic efficiency indicators characterize the level of economic development, as they show the quality, state and level of use of the country's fixed and working capital, labor resources.
Among them are:
1) labor productivity (in general, in industry and agriculture, in individual industries and types of production);
2) the capital intensity of a unit of GDP or a specific type of product;
3) return on assets of a unit of fixed assets;
4) material consumption per unit of GDP or specific types of products.
An important condition in the analysis of this group of indicators is the need to consider their relationship with each other. Thus, high labor productivity can be achieved at the cost of excessive labor intensification or huge capital expenditures and material resources.
Despite all attempts to formulate an aggregate indicator of the efficiency of the functioning of the national economy, which would reflect the level of economic development of the country, such an indicator has not been created due to the numerous difficulties in bringing together value and physical values, the costs of skilled and unskilled labor, etc. However, there is a general approach and consists in constructing an indicator that makes it possible to correlate the aggregate results of the society's labor for the reporting year (GDP / GNP, ND) with the aggregate costs of all factors of production, reduced to the same reporting year.
The higher the level of economic development of the country, the more active and diverse the forms of its foreign economic relations. Consequently, a country's participation in international economic relations may partly reflect the level of its economic development.
41. International economic integration
International economic integration Is a process of economic and political unification of countries based on the development of deep stable relationships and division of labor between national economies, the interaction of their reproductive structures at various levels and in various forms. On the microlevel this process goes through the interaction of the capital of individual economic entities (enterprises, firms) of neighboring countries through the formation of a system of economic agreements between them, the creation of branches abroad. On the interstate level integration takes place on the basis of the formation of economic associations of states and the coordination of national policies.
The development of inter-firm ties gives rise to the need for interstate (sometimes supranational) regulation aimed at ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor between countries within a given region, at coordinating and conducting joint economic, scientific and technical, financial and monetary, social, external and defense policy. The result is the creation integral regional economic complexes with a single currency, infrastructure, common economic proportions, financial funds, common supranational or interstate government bodies.
The simplest form of economic integration is Free trading zone, within the framework of which trade restrictions between the participating countries and, above all, customs duties are canceled.
Another form is Customs Union: along with the functioning of the free trade zone, a unified foreign trade tariff and a unified foreign trade policy in relation to third countries are established.
In both cases, interstate relations concern only the sphere of exchange, in order to provide the participating countries with equal opportunities in the development of mutual trade and financial settlements.
A more complex form is Common Market, ensuring its participants, along with free mutual trade and a single external tariff, the freedom of movement of capital and labor, as well as the coordination of economic policy.
But the most difficult form of interstate economic integration is economic (and monetary) union, combining all the above forms with the conduct of a general economic and monetary policy.
Economic integration ensures conditions for the interacting parties: 1) business entities (producers) get wider access to resources: financial, material, labor, to the latest technologies throughout the region, as well as the ability to produce products based on the capacious market of the entire integration group; 2) privileged conditions are created for firms from countries participating in economic integration, they are protected from competition from firms from third countries; 3) integration participants jointly solve the most acute social problems: equalization of conditions for the development of backward regions, mitigation of the situation on the labor market, provision of social guarantees, etc.
42. EU and socio-economic development of countries
Officially, until November 1, 1993, the leading integration grouping of Western European countries was called the European Community (EU). It appeared after the merger in 1967 of the bodies of three previously independent regional organizations: the European Coal and Steel Community - ECSC (1952), the European Economic Community - EEC (1958); European Atomic Energy Community - Euratom (1958).
On February 7, 1992, in the Dutch city of Maastricht, the Maastricht Treaty was signed, which provided for a gradual transition from the already established single market to a full economic and monetary union (EMU), the creation of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the replacement of national banknotes with a single currency, the establishment citizenship of the European Union. FROM November 1, 1993 after the entry into force of the Maastricht agreements, the European group received the official name European Union (EU). Within the EU, a common policy is being implemented in the field of diplomacy, justice, police and defense.
At the end of March 1998, the European Commission announced the final composition of the Economic and Monetary Union - it included 11 EU states (with the exception of Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark and Greece). On January 1, 1999, the management of monetary policy in these countries passed to the European Central Bank (ECB), located in Frankfurt am Main (Germany).
Since January 1, 2002 euro entered circulation and replaced the national currencies.
Currently full members of the EU there are 15 countries: Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Finland, France, Sweden. The EU's strategic plans envisage expanding its membership in the next 10-15 years to 30 countries. These plans are being embodied in the EU's integration activities. Since 1998, the EU Commission (CES) has been negotiating with officially recognized candidates for accession to the EU - these are 8 states belonging to the "first stage candidates" (Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Estonia, Cyprus, Malta, Turkey), and 5 states - “candidates of the second stage” (Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Romania and Bulgaria).
A single legal space has been formed within the EU.
In the field of foreign trade and agricultural policy, trade and civil law (freedom of competition, monopolies and cartels), tax law (convergence of income tax systems; turnover tax and direct contributions to the EU budget), European Union legislation replaces national laws.
Jointly carried out structural policy(sectoral and regional). Supranational regulation applies to the least competitive industries and backward regions.
The greatest successes have been achieved in pursuing a joint agricultural policy. Its financing represents the largest item of expenditure in the budget of the Union. The general agricultural policy is based on subsidizing domestic and export prices. As a result, the EU has become the world's second largest agricultural exporter after the United States.
43. Regional integration in the North American region
In January 1989 entered into force American-Canadian Free Trade Agreement. As a result, a free trade zone was created, covering bilateral trade of almost $ 200 billion a year. At the same time, both sides reserved the right to impose their own import restrictions on trade with third countries.
In June 1991, on the initiative of Mexico, negotiations began between this country, the United States and Canada, culminating in the signing of an agreement on the establishment of North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA), which entered into force on January 1, 1994. Key elements of the agreement:
Elimination of all customs duties in mutual trade until 2001;
Phased elimination of a significant number of non-tariff barriers to mutual trade in goods and services;
Relaxation of the regime for US-Canadian investment in Mexico;
Liberalization of conditions for the activities of US and Canadian banks in the Mexican market;
Creation of the American-Canadian Arbitration Commission.
Unlike the Western European integration model, NAFTA does not have tools for coordinating economic policy and functioning supranational institutions; significant differences persist in the levels of economic development of states. Unlike the EU, which provides financial assistance from joint budgetary funds to less developed countries and regions, NAFTA does not provide Mexico with such support.
According to experts, participation in NAFTA will allow Mexico to shorten the period of reforming its economy and reaching the level of developed countries from 50 to 10-15 years. Mexico gets the biggest gain from joining NAFTA in the form of a rapid growth in foreign capital inflows, primarily from the United States. By the volume of direct foreign investments, which are of paramount importance for the development of production, by the beginning of the XXI century. Mexico ranked first among Latin American countries.
However, the US business community has high hopes for NAFTA, due to the significant expansion of US exports and the associated increase in the number of jobs. The relocation of labor-intensive, material-intensive and environmentally expensive manufacturing from the United States to Mexico can reduce production costs and increase the competitiveness of many American industrial products. In the long term, through participation in NAFTA, American TNCs expect to expand their economic participation in Latin America, and Canada - to expand sales markets, reduce production costs and increase the profitability of new high-tech industries (computers, telecommunications, etc.). In addition, the formation of a liberalized market space on a continental scale stimulates the inflow of direct and portfolio investments to Canada from third countries, mainly from Japan and EU member states.
44. Integration processes in South-East Asia and the Asia-Pacific region
In the Asia-Pacific region, the most significant integration associations are ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and APEC.
ASEAN was established in 1967 following the signing of the Bangkok Declaration; it includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines (currently, Myanmar, Brunei, Laos and Vietnam are also members of ASEAN). The purpose of this association is to promote the social and economic development of the member countries of the Association, cooperation in industry and agriculture, and research work.
The economic crisis of 1997–1998. left an imprint on the development of the ASEAN member countries. In December 1998, the main ASEAN member countries at a conference in Vietnam discussed and mapped out several ways out of the crisis: 1) financial assistance from Japan (in the amount of $ 30 billion from the Fund for Assistance to Structural Reforms organized by Japan for this purpose). In reality, only Malaysia and Thailand were able to use it, which received $ 1.85 billion each; 2) the introduction of the collective currency of the ASEAN member countries, control over the migration of capital and the strengthening of state regulation of national economies in general. However, this path has not yet received universal approval, but it has not been removed from the agenda for the future development of the region.
In November 1989, the APR hosted the first conference of the ministers of foreign affairs and trade, which established a new integration economic grouping - Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, which united 18 states of the region (Australia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Canada, China, Kiribati, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Singapore, USA, Thailand, Taiwan, Philippines, Chile), then to these states were joined by Vietnam, Peru and Russia.
Thus, APEC includes member countries of NAFTA, ASEAN, and the Australian-New Zealand Free Trade Area (ANSERTA).
From the very beginning, APEC was given consultative status, i.e. all decisions are made by consensus. However, in fact, within the framework of its working bodies, regional rules for conducting trade, investment and financial activities are being developed, meetings of industry ministers and experts on cooperation in various fields are held. Such bodies are committees for trade and investment, industrial research and technology, telecommunications, transport, human resource development, energy cooperation, etc.
At a meeting of heads of government in 1994 (Indonesia), it was decided to create a free trade zone and liberalize the investment sphere by 2020 (for developed countries - until 2010), reduce barriers to trade in goods and services in accordance with the principles of the WTO ...
APEC surpasses the rest of the world: its share (together with the NAFTA countries) accounts for 40% of the world's population, about 60% of the gross world product and investments, more than 40% of world exports.
45. The place and role of Russia in the internationalization of economic life
The place and role of any country in the world economy, MRI and in the internationalization of economic life depend on the following factors: the level and dynamics of development of the national economy, the degree of its openness and involvement in MRI, the progressiveness and development of foreign economic relations (FEC), the ability of the national economy to adapt to the conditions of international economic life and at the same time to influence them in desired direction.
The inclusion of Russia in MRI and world economic relations will ultimately depend, first, on the recovery of the country's economy along the path of its structural restructuring and transition to market conditions of management, and secondly, on the creation of effective legislative, organizational, material and technical prerequisites for this.
The key to creating a viable transition economy in Russia is its openness. In an open economy, world market prices directly and indirectly determine prices for domestic products and do so much more efficiently than any government agency. In this case, Russian producers are left with one main path to prosperity - improving the quality and competitiveness of products, expanding their production while reducing costs. The transition to an open economy is a purposeful process carried out in stages so that external competition does not turn, instead of a creative factor, into a force that destroys the Russian economy.
The formation of prices for products in the Russian economy in transition under the influence of the world market brings to the fore mechanism for assessing the main factors of production- natural resources, capital and labor. At the same time, however, the estimates will deviate from the criteria of the world market, since a collision with the world market will reveal their uncompetitiveness and unprofitability.
Hence, the task of the state is a centralized redistribution of financial resources aimed at creating conditions that ensure the survival of the domestic economy in conditions of its ever-increasing openness. Needed economic revaluation and economic protection of all public resources- land, natural resources, funds, stocks of raw materials, materials, finished products. The main asset of Russia in the transition period is natural resources. They require rational use, evaluation in accordance with the criteria of the world market.
