Our modern world is amazingly diverse. It offers rich and poor, developed and developing countries. What do they differ from each other? And what states can be attributed to the group of economically developed? Read about it in our article.
Developed and Developing Countries: Identification Problem
At the very beginning it should be noted that the UN does not provide clear criteria for which the country can be attributed to a particular type. So, developed countries (English Terminal: Developed Countries) are designated as states that currently occupy the leading position in the global economy.
Developing countries (Developing Countries) are states with low standards of living standards, lack of free market mechanisms, oligarchic governments, etc. Interestingly, there are also countries that are not developing at the modern world. For these states, another class was invented in the UN: "The least developed states". The latter include Niger, Somalia, Chad, Bangladesh and a number of Africa and Asia countries.
Planets such as Japan, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, as well as a number of European countries are customary to attribute to the class of economically developed countries of the world. But the countries of the former USSR are not at all included in any of the above-mentioned groups, which indicates a certain subjectivity and imperfection of this political and economic classification.
Economically developed countries: the essence of the concept and evaluation criteria
Under economically developed states, countries with market economies and the highest standard of living of their citizens are meant. There are criteria according to which economists allocate developed countries. These include the following:
- market model of the economy;
- high GDP per capita (over $ 12,000 per year);
- high social standards;
- the predominance of enterprises in the service sector in the structure of the economy;
- openness and transparency of power;
- active development of science and education;
- manufacturability and high productivity of agriculture.
Today, economically developed countries are the main carriers of global scientific and technical potential. In many ways, it is this feature that is the main factor in the competitiveness of their economies.
Geography of developed states
Developed countries today are about 75% global gross product. At the same time, only 15% of the world's population lives in these states. It is between the developed countries that the main part of international capital and "minds" moves.
According to the classification of the IMF (International Monetary Fund), there are 34 modern states to economically developed countries. This is the USA, Canada, all eurozone countries, some states of East Asia, as well as Australia and New Zealand. The map below gives a common praise of their planetary geography (all developed countries of the world on it are marked in blue).
The group of developed countries also allocated "seven" of the most developed states. These include the United States, Japan, Canada, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Italy.
Industrial states of the planet
Industrial or industrial-developed countries are a group of states whose economies are based on industry, industry. In English literature, the term is found: Industrial Countries.
If the industrial product takes more than 50% in the structure of GDP and the country's export, it is usually referred to as a group of industrial and developed states. The list of these countries is determined by the IMF. Moreover, it changes regularly and is adjusted.
In addition to industrial, in the world, agricultural (which is based on agricultural economy), as well as agrarian industrial countries are also distinguished.
Examples of developed countries: Japan
The Japanese economy is one of the most developed in the world. In terms of GDP, Japan ranks third on the planet. High technologies are highly developed here, Japanese cars and ships are valued all over the world. The Japanese transport system is known for its high-speed and upgraded railways, roads.
The Japanese economic model is very unusual. It provides for the unity of large capital and state power in solving the urgent problems of the country. The government, together with the largest Japanese concerns, clearly coordinate its actions.
Agriculture in Japan managed not only to ensure their huge domestic needs, but also exports about half of all the food produced in the country abroad. The basis of the agricultural complex here is the small farms and farms.
USA: historical aspects of the state economy
Modern successes of the American economy are a consequence of several factors. Which ones?
First of all, this country went to the free order of huge and low-seated expanses, with the richest natural resource potential. On it, it was effectively developed both industry and agriculture. Another important point: in the United States never existed so-called rattles, "traces" of which would put sticks in the wheel development of the country.
Throughout the XIX-XX centuries, a huge number of "minds" - highly qualified, active and promising frames moved to the United States. All of them found themselves use in a prosperous overall country, which laid a powerful foundation for the development of American science, higher education and technologies.
The rapid growth in the US in the United States stimulated the development of the service sector. The country's economy received a customer orientation: in 1915 a million passenger car was produced in the United States. It should be noted that none of the world wars caused the economy and the US infrastructure of any damage (unlike the countries of Europe, Russia or Japan, which have long been restored after the exhaustion of the war).
The role of the state in the modern American economy remains high. It fully controls the activities of individual sectors of the national economy. First of all, we are talking about the military sector, the nuclear industry and some other spheres.
Russia is a developing or developed country?
Russia is a developed country, or not? The International Monetary Fund responds to this question unambiguously: no. Although there are no Russia in the list of developing states of Russia. But to the number of industrial and developed countries, the Russian Federation can be treated safely.
Economy of the Russian Federation - the fifth on the planet for the total volume of GDP. Her share in the global economy is about 3-3.5%. The leading industries in the structure of the national economy of Russia are mining of minerals, construction, manufacturing, electric power industry.
The country exports mainly oil, natural gas, petroleum products, non-ferrous metals, wood, as well as various military equipment. Among the main items of import it is worth highlighting steel rental, cars, appliances and equipment, pharmaceutical preparations and more. Major foreign trade partners of Russia: China, Germany, Belarus, Poland, Kazakhstan, France and Italy.
Finally…
Developed Countries) are states that occupy a leading place in a modern world economy and politics. All of them are distinguished by common features: high life standards, openness of power, rapid development of science, active introduction of high technologies in production, agriculture and other areas of life and activity of people.
According to the classification of the IMF, 34 developed states are allocated in the modern world. Almost all of them are located in the northern hemisphere, mainly within Europe.
Economically developed countries
Economically developed countries are currently under 60 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, Australia and Oceania. All of them are characterized by a higher level of economic and social development and, accordingly, the gross domestic product at the per capita (over $ 5000). However, this group of countries is characterized by quite significant internal heterogeneity and four subgroups can be distinguished in its composition.
The first of them forms "Big seven of the West countries"which includes USA, Japan, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy and Canada. These are the leading countries of the Western world, which are distinguished by the greatest scale of economic and political activities.
The share of "seven" countries account for about 50% of the world gross national product and industrial production, over 25% of agricultural products. GDP based on per capita is from 20 to 30 thousand dollars.
Ko second subgroup There are less large countries in Western Europe. Although the political and economic power of each of them is not so great, as a whole, they play a large, ever-increasing, role in global affairs. GDP based on per capita in most of them is the same as in the "big seven countries".
Third subgroup Forming the surfing countries - Australia, New Zealand and South Africa (South Africa). These are former migrating colonies (dominions) of the United Kingdom, which actually did not know feudalism, and today they differ in some originality of political and economic development. Usually, Israel is counted for this group.
The fourth subgroup It is still in the formation stage. It was formed in 1997, after such countries and areas of Asia, as the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, were translated into the category of economically developed. These states came close to other economically developed countries in terms of GDP per capita. They have a wide and diverse structure of the economy, including a rapidly growing service sector, are actively involved in world trade.
Tasks and tests on "economically developed countries"
- Countries of the world - Earth population grade 7
Lessons: 6 tasks: 9
- Population and countries of South America - South America Grade 7
Lessons: 4 tasks: 10 tests: 1
- Population and countries of North America - North America Grade 7
Lessons: 3 tasks: 9 tests: 1
- India - Eurasia Grade 7
Lessons: 4 tasks: 9 tests: 1
- Economic activities of the world's population - Earth population grade 7
Lessons: 3 tasks: 8 tests: 1
Leading ideas: The level of economic and social development of the country is largely determined by its geographical location and development history; The diversity of the modern political map of the world is a system in constant development and the elements of which are interrelated.
Basic concepts: Territory and border of the state, economic zone, sovereign state, dependent territory, republic (presidential and parliamentary), monarchy (absolute, including theocratic, constitutional), federal and unitary state, confederation, gross domestic product (GDP), human index development (ICR), developed countries, countries of large seven of the West, developing countries, NIS countries, key countries, oil-consisting countries, the least developed countries; Political geography, geopolitics, Country PGP (Region), UN, NATO, EU, Nafta, Mercosur, APR, OPEC.
Skills: To be able to conduct a classification of countries on various signs, give a brief description of groups and subgroups of the countries of the modern world, to evaluate the political and geographical location of the countries according to the plan, to identify positive and negative features, to note the change in the PGP in time, to use the most important economic and social indicators for the characteristics (GDP, GDP per capita, human development index, etc.) of the country. To identify the most important changes in the political map of the world, to explain the causes and predict the consequences of such changes.
A group of independent countries of modern world, distinguished by a high level of economic and social development, high values \u200b\u200bof macroeconomic indicators (primarily GDP per capita). Almost all these countries have already come in the period ... Geographic Encyclopedia
Countries ensuring the development of the economy based on the accumulated large volume of technically advanced fixed capital and the presence of highly qualified labor force. Industrialized countries of the country with a high level of income per soul ... ... Financial vocabulary
- (LDC) The official term used within the framework of the UN. In these states, a very low standard of living, the economy is very weak, people and resources are exposed to elements. The least developed countries are highlighted in blue including in the group ... ... Wikipedia
- (Industrial Countries) of the country, in GDP and the export of which industrial production occupies a large proportion. The list of countries that can be considered industrially developed is constantly changing. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) uses this ... ... Economic Dictionary
According to the UN classification of the country: low income; with long-term obstacles to economic growth; with an insufficient level of human resources development; and with serious shortcomings in the structure of the economy. See also: Indicators for ... ... Financial vocabulary
- (Least Developed Countries) The poorest countries of the world. At the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (United Nations Conference On Trade and Development, Unctad) in 1971. The least developed countries were designated countries with very low ... ... Economic Dictionary
Least developed countries (LDCs) - States that have adopted by the UN General Assembly criteria. The number of LDCs changes. In 1984 there were 36 people with a total population of 300 million people, in 1995 47 (more than 2/3 were countries of Africa, the rest of Asia, Oceania and Caribbean ... Legal encyclopedia
Industrially developed countries - Countries that ensure the development of the economy based on the accumulated large volume of technically advanced capital and the availability of highly qualified labor. These include the United States, Canada, Japan, most countries in Western Europe ... Legal encyclopedia
- (LDC) According to the UN General Assembly in 1971, the criteria of the state, the gross national product (GNP) of which per capita does not exceed $ 100 (in prices 1970), the share of the manufacturing industry in the GNP is no more ... ... ... Legal vocabulary
Least developed countries - users of the scheme of preferences - The least developed countries listed in Appendix 4 to the order of the State Customs Service of April 26, 1996 No. 258. With regard to goods imported into the customs territory of the Russian Federation and originating from these countries, customs duties are not applied. List of least developed ... Encyclopedia of Russian and International Taxation
Books
- Developed countries: centers and periphery. Experience of regional economic policy, Khassbulatov Omar Ruslanovich, the author of the monograph explores theoretical and practical issues of regional economic policy in developed countries of the world - the EU, USA, Canada and a number of others. The process of evolution of this ... Category: Miscellaneous Publisher: Economy, Manufacturer: Economy,
- Countries of the world. Encyclopedia, Khassbulatov Omar Ruslanovich, on our planet a huge variety of countries: the republics, the kingdom, the principality, the Commonwealth, and so on. Large and small, developed and not very, aggressive, neutral and friendly - all ... Category: Cognitive literature about everything Publisher:
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Developed countries are usually include 24 industrialized countries of North America, Western Europe and the Pacific basin with a high level of income. The countries of the so-called group of 7 large "7" are played among the industrial largest roles: USA, Japan, Germany, Canada, United Kingdom, Italy, France.
As economically developed countries, the International Monetary Fund allocates states:
Countries, skilled WB and IMF as a country with a developed economy at the end of the XX - early XXI century: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, USA.
Andorra, Bermuda, Faroe Islands, Vatican, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Liechtenstein, Monaco, and San Marino are also included in a more complete group of developed countries.
Among the main signs of developed countries it is advisable to allocate the following:
1. The per capita per capita is an average of about 20 thousand dollars and is constantly growing. This determines the high level of consumption and investment and the standard of living of the population as a whole. Social support is the "middle class", which shares the values \u200b\u200band the main foundations of society.
2. The sectoral structure of the economy of developed countries is evolutionary in the direction of the dominance of industry and a pronounced tendency of the transformation of the industrial economy into post-industrial. The scope of services is rapidly developing, and by the share of the population occupied in it, it leads. Scientific and technical progress has a significant impact on the economic growth and structure of the economy.
3. The structure of business developed countries is heterogeneous. The leading role in the economy belongs to a powerful concern - TNK (transnational corporations). The exception is a group of some small countries in Europe, where there is no world-class TNK. However, the economies of developed countries are also characterized by the widespread dissemination of medium and small businesses as the factors of economic and social stability. This business employs up to 2/3 of the economically active population. In many countries, small business provides up to 80% of new jobs and affects the sectoral structure of the economy.
The economic mechanism of developed countries includes three levels: spontaneous market, corporate and state. It corresponds to the developed system of market relations and diversified methods of state regulation. Their combination necessitates flexibility, quick adaptability to changing the conditions of reproduction and in general the high efficiency of economic activity.
4. The state of developed countries is an active participant in economic activity. The objectives of state regulation are the formation of the most favorable conditions for the attendance of capital and maintaining socio-economic stability of society. The most important means of state regulation are administrative and legal (developed system of economic law), fiscal fiscal (social budget and social funds), monetary and civil ownership. A common trend since the early 60s is to reduce the role of state property on average from 9 to 7% in GDP. Moreover, it is concentrated mainly in the infrastructure. The differences between countries in the degree of state regulation are determined by the intensity of the redistributive function of the state through its finance: the most intense - in Western Europe, to a lesser extent - in the United States and Japan.
5. The economies of developed countries are characterized by the openness of the world economy and the liberal organization of the foreign trade regime. Leadership in global production determines their leading role in world trade, international capital movement, international monetary and settlement relations. In the field of international labor migration, developed countries act as a receiving party.
Developing countries
Developing countries today are today the most numerous group of countries (more than 130), which sometimes so much develop on income per capita, according to the structure of the economy, according to the social structure of society, which sometimes there is doubt about the feasibility of incorporating them into one classification group.However, recognizing the extreme diversity of the Third World, it is necessary to evaluate that in common, which unites its participants not only formally, but in reality, detecting a common position on world problems. The community of approaches to world problems is found in general policies, for more effective implementation of which developing countries create various interstate organizations (for example, the Organization of African Unity).
Without applying the definition of the assessment, in our opinion it is possible to determine the following general characteristics of the third world countries:
1) the scale of proliferation of poverty.
Most developing countries are characterized by a very low standard of living of the population. It should be noted that the bulk of the population of these countries has a low standard of living not only compared with developed countries, but also compared with the few rich groups of the population in their countries. In other words, there are rich, but no middle class in poor countries. As a result, the income distribution system is observed when the income of 20% of higher sections of society 5-10 times higher than the income of 40% of the lower layers.
2) Low level of productivity.
According to the concept of production function, there is a systemic dependence between production volume and a combination of creating factors (labor, capital) at the existing level of technology. But this concept of technical dependence should be complemented by a wider approach. For example, it is necessary to take into account such factors as management, labor motivation of employees, the effectiveness of institutional structures. In the third world, labor productivity is extremely low in comparison with industrialized countries. The reason for this may be, in particular, in the absence or tough shortage of additional factors of production (physical capital, management experience). To increase productivity, it is necessary to mobilize internal savings and attract foreign capital for investment in real factors of production and in human capital. And this requires the improvement of the system of general and special education, transformations, reform of land tenure, tax reform, the creation and improvement of the banking system, the formation of a non-corrupt and effective administrative apparatus. It is also necessary to take into account the attitude of employees and management to improve their qualifications, the ability of the population to adapt to changes in production and society, attitude to discipline, initiative, attitude to power. The effect of low income on labor productivity in the third world countries is manifested in poor health of the majority of the population.
It is known that poor nutrition in childhood extremely negatively affects the physical and intellectual development of the child. The irrational and defective diet, the lack of elementary personal hygiene conditions may in the future undermine the health of employees, adversely affect labor motivation. A low level of performance in this situation is caused in many ways apathy, physical and emotional inability to confront competition in the labor market.
3) High population growth rates. The most explicit indicator characterizing the differences between industrialized countries is the fertility coefficient. No developed country reaches a birth rate of 20 born for 1000 people. population. In developing countries, the birth rate varies from 20 people (Argentina, China, Thailand, Chile) to 50 people (Niger, Zambia, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda). Of course, the mortality rate in developing countries is higher than in industrialized, improved health care in the third world countries makes this development not so significant. Therefore, the growth rate of the population in developing countries today averaging 2% (2.3% without China), and in industrialized countries - 0.5% per year. Therefore, in the third world countries, approximately 40% of the population are children under the age of 15 (less than 21% in developed countries). In most countries of the third world, the load on the economically active part of the population (from 15 to 64 years) on the maintenance of a disabled part of society is almost 2 times higher than in industrialized countries.
4) High and growing unemployment rate.
In itself, the growth of the population is not a negative factor in economic development. But in the conditions of economic stagnation, additional jobs are not created, so the high natural population growth generates a huge unemployment. If you add hidden unemployment to visible unemployment, then almost 35% of the workforce in developing countries does not find applications.
5) a large dependence on agricultural production and export of fuel and raw materials.
Approximately 65% \u200b\u200bof the population of developing countries live in rural areas, and in industrialized - 27%. In agricultural production employs more than 60% of the workforce in the third world countries and only 7% in industrialized countries, while the agricultural sector contribution to the creation of a GNP of about 20% and 3%, respectively. The concentration of labor in the agricultural sector and the primary sector of the industry is due to the fact that low incomes forcing people to take care of first of all about food, clothing, housing. The productivity of agricultural production is low due to an excess of labor in relation to the area of \u200b\u200bnatural for the processing of land, as well as due to primitive technology, a bad organization, lack of material resources and poor labor quality.
The situation is complicated by the land use system, in which the peasants are most often not owners, but tenants of small sites. Such a nature of agrarian relations does not create economic incentives to increase productivity. But even in countries where land is redundant, primitive tools of labor do not allow to process a plot of more than 5-8 hectares.
In addition to dominating the agricultural sector in the economy, in the third world countries there is an export of primary products (agriculture and forestry, fuel and other types of mineral raw materials). In sub-Saharan Africa, primary products provide more than 92% of foreign exchange revenue.
6) subordinate position, vulnerability in the system of international economic relations.
It is necessary to emphasize the sharp inequality of the economic and political relics of the third world countries and industrialized countries. It is manifested in the dominance of rich countries in international trade, in the possibility of the latest dictation of the conditions for transferring technologies, investments and foreign aid.
A significant, albeit less than a clear factor in conservation of weakness - transfer to developing countries of Western values, behaviors and institutions. For example, planting in the past in colonies unsuitable systems and education programs for them, the organization of trade unions and administrative systems in Western samples. Today, high economic and social standards of developed countries (demonstration effect) have even greater impact. The lifestyle of the Western elite, the desire for wealth can be promoted by corruption, reflecting the national wealth in developing countries by a privileged minority. Finally, the leakage of brains from third-world countries in developed countries also negatively affects the economic development of the emigration of qualified personnel. The cumulative impact of all negative factors determines the vulnerability of developing countries from external factors that can have the main impact on their economic and social status.
A variety of developing countries causes a certain classification that could reflect their differentiation.
Developed by the UN Classification of Developing Countries Allows to allocate 3 groups of countries: the least developed (44 countries), developing countries are not exporters of oil (88 countries) and countries of OPEC (13 countries - oil exporters).
Another classification is proposed by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OERS), which includes some countries and territories not covered by UN statisticians. This classification includes low-income countries (61 countries), with an average income level (73 countries), new industrial countries (11 countries), oil countries Exporters OPEC member (13 countries).
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has developed its classification system. This classification includes 125 countries (developing and developed), the population of each of which is more than 1 million. These countries are then divided by the criterion of the level of income per capita into four groups: low level of income, average income, income above average, high income. The first three groups covers 101 countries related to most to developing countries. The remaining 24 high-income countries are divided into 2 groups: 19 countries are typical industrialized countries, and 5 countries (Hong Kong, Kuwait, Israel, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates) are related to developing countries.
To assess the degree of differentiation of developing countries, 7 indicators may be applied:
1) Dimensions of countries (territory, population population and per capita income).
Of the 145 UN member countries, 90 countries have a population of less than 15 million people. Large countries are adjacent to small. The extensive territory usually gives advantages: possession of natural resources and capacious potential markets, less dependence on imports of raw materials.
2) features of historical development and colonial period.
Most developing countries were in the past colonies of Western European countries, the USA, Japan. Economic structures, social institutions of colonies were created according to the sample and the likeness of the metropolis.
3) provision of material and labor resources. Part of developing countries are very rich in mineral resources (the countries of the Persian Gulf, Brazil, Zambia), others are very poor (Bangladesh, Haiti, Chad, etc.).
4) the role of the private and public sector.
In general, the private sector in the economy is more developed in Latin American countries and Southeast Asia than in South Asia and Africa.
5) the nature of the production structures.
There is a certain differentiation of the sectoral structure of the economy of developing countries, although most of them are agrarian-raw materials. Natural and commodity agricultural production ensures employment most of the population. But in the 70s 90s, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Malaysia sharply accelerated the development of the manufacturing industry and actually turned into industrial countries.
6) degree of dependence on external economic and political forces.
The degree of dependence on external factors is influenced by the country's security of material resources, the structure of the economy and foreign economic relations.
7) Institutional and political structure of society.
The political structure, interests of social groups and unions of the ruling elites (major landowners, the comprador part of large business, bankers, military) are usually predetermined by the development strategy, and may be a brake of progressive changes in the economy and society, preserving the economic backwardness if the changes occurring seriously infringe on their interests.
It should be noted that no matter how the relevance of forces between military, industrial and large landowners in Latin America, between politicians, top officials and leaders of tribal clans in Africa, between oil sheikh and financial magnamines in the Middle East, most developing countries are open or It is triggered by small, but rich and powerful elites. Democratic attributes (elections to local authorities and parliament, freedom of speech) are often only a screen that covers real power in the country.
Industrially developed countries
Industrial countries include 24 countries that are part of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). This is Australia, Austria, Belgium, United Kingdom, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Iceland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand. Norway, Portugal, San Marino, USA, Finland, France, Sweden, Switzerland. Japan. Since 1996 Singapore began to include industrialized countries.The main signs of industrialized countries:
1) High GDP per capita. In most industrialized countries, this indicator is at the level of from 15 to 30 thousand dollars per capita per year. In industrialized countries, GDP per capita per year is approximately 5 times higher than the average level.
2) Multi-sectoral structure of the economy. At the same time, the services of services currently provides production of more than 60% of the GDP of industrialized countries.
3) Social structure of society. For industrialized countries, a smaller income rupture is characterized by the level of the poorest and richest 20% of the population and the presence of a powerful middle class having high life standards.
Industrially developed countries play a leading role in the global economy. Their share in the global gross product is more than 54%, and the share in world exports is more than 70%. Among industrialized countries, the most important role is played by the so-called seven countries, or C -7. This is USA, Canada, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan. They provide 47% of the global gross product and 51% of world exports. Among the seven countries dominate the United States.
In the 1990s, the US economy is steadily ranked 1st in terms of competitiveness, but the US economic leadership in the world has a tendency to weaken. Thus, the share of the United States in the GDP of the incomocialist world decreased from 31% in 1950. up to 20% at present. The share of the United States in the export of non-socialist world was particularly significantly significantly reduced - from 18% in 1960 to 12% in 1997. The share of the United States in world foreign direct investment has decreased from 62% in 1960 to 20% at present. The main reason for the relative weakening of the position of the United States in the global economy is the high rates of the economic growth of Japan and Western Europe, which quickly, using American assistance to Marshal plan, restored the ruled economy and carried out deep structural changes in the economy, creating new industries. At a certain stage, the Japanese and Western European sectors of the economy have reached international competitiveness and began to successfully compete in the global market with American companies (for example, German and Japanese car corporations).
However, despite the relative weakening of the US economic positions, the US role in the global economy after World War II has always been the lead. First, compared to any country in the world, the United States has the largest GDP - more than 7 thousand. Dolly a year and, accordingly, the most capacious internal market in the world. But the main factor in the US economic leadership is leadership in the field of scientific and technological progress, the introduction of its results into production. The US share today accounts for 40% of the world's R & D (research and development work). The share of the United States in world exports of high-tech products is 20%. The most noticeable US is leading in the field of information technology. Currently, 75% of these data banks in all industrialized countries are concentrated in the United States. In addition, the United States is leading in global food production, ensuring, in particular, more than 50% of world grain exports.
After the collapse of the USSR and the world socialist system, the United States became the only world superpower, which is an economic, political and military leader of the modern world. The preservation and strengthening of the leading role of the United States in the world is officially enshrined in the United States National Security Concept.
The second center of economic strength is Western Europe.
In Western Europe, two models of the market economy dominate: democratic corporateism and socio-market model.
Both models have a lot in common, so there is no tough border between them:
1. Democratic corporatism.
It is characteristic of such countries as Sweden, Austria. This model is characterized by a high proportion of public entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services, in investments. Facilitating economic growth and general welfare is carried out by coordinating public and private interests. For the labor market, strong trade unions and sectoral labor announcements are characterized. Preference is given to the adaptation of labor in the labor market by vocational retraining. The state conducts an active employment policy and provides a high level of unemployment benefits.
2. Socially market model.
This model is greater characteristic for Germany. The share of public entrepreneurship in the production of goods and services, in investments is insignificant. This model provides support for individual populations (youth, low-income) and entrepreneurs who cannot confront large corporations (small business, farmers). The socio-market model relies on a unlawful consensus of public and political forces.
The economic development of Western Europe after the Second World War is inseparable from the integration process that covered the entire Western Europe.
The economic development of Western Europe in the postwar period that happened in the conditions of deepening and expanding integration was dynamic and successful. Western Europe quickly restored the destroyed war economy created modern competitive branches of the economy, increasing their share in global production and exports compared to the United States.
The world leadership of Western Europe can be characterized by the following components:
1) Western Europe today is the main center of international trade, providing more than 50% of world exports, ahead of the United States and Japan. Western Europe accounts for more than 40% of world gold and foreign exchange reserves today.
2) Western Europe is leading in the pharmaceutical industry, in certain sectors of transport engineering, in some industries. In addition, Western Europe is a major center for international tourism.
Major economic problems
The proportion of Western Europe in the global economy over the past 20 years has slightly decreased, economic growth rates were low, many traditional industries have experienced a crisis (metallurgy, textile industry). European firms could not achieve high competitiveness in the field of electronics and telecommunications, where the United States leads. In the field of mass production of high-tech goods, Western Europe lags behind Japan and new industrial countries in Southeast Asia. But a massive unemployment remains the main economic and social problem of Western Europe, the level of which reaches 10% of the labor force, which is much more than in the United States and Japan.
The third World Economic Center - Japan. For the characteristics of the Economic model of Japan, the concept of hierarchical corporatism is currently used.
The characteristic of the specified model includes the following features:
1) the negliest participation of the state in the production of goods and services, in sales, in investments.
2) the active participation of the state in stimulating business activity, in changes in the structure of the economy.
3) The labor market is practiced simultaneous conclusion of employment agreements at the company's level. Labor relations characterize the corporate paternalism (lifelong hiring system, the company is our common house).
4) the special attention of the company and the state are paying advanced training of labor, involvement of workers in the management of production.
In economic literature, the Japanese economic miracle is used to characterize the economic development of Japan, which emphasizes the phenomenal success of the country which from a second-delivery and separate country has become a global state with a dynamic and competitive market economy of an open type.
Population of developed countries
The population of developed countries is aging.For most populations of developed countries, wages are the main source of existence, it is usually from 2/3 to 3/4 national income.
The average living standard of the population of developed countries is largely determined by unearned incomes, and the inequality of individual people is primarily due to the unevenness of ownership. For example, in the US, 1% of the population owns 19% of the entire amount of the country's wealth.
Loans are provided, firstly, to increase the production of food and raising the living standards of the poorest people of the population of the least developed countries experiencing food deficit. Secondly, to increase the potential for food production in other developing countries in order to improve the living conditions of the poorest segments of the population.
In cities and urban agglomerations will live 78% of the population of developed countries and 40% of the population of developing countries of the world. The greatest rates of urbanization are characteristic of Europe, North and Latin America, Oceania.
The most difficult currently is a complex of ethical problems associated with the inevitable reduction in the level of consumption of material benefits by the population of developed countries and a change in social relations.
The reasons for the increase in the role of environmental management in the service sector are associated both with the exacerbation of the environmental situation and with the formation of the population of developed countries of the ecological worldview.
The age-related pyramid of the population of developing countries on the basis of the top is narrowed sharply, while the wall of the age-related pyramid of the population of developed countries is almost decrepanned, and sometimes it has even negative steepness - until then, as long as the rise does not reach the most eldest age classes. Such sharp differences are partly due to the fact that in developing countries the birth rate is higher, and the survival is lower.
The organization of a person is also characterized by its accuracy, discipline, binding, law-ability. The population of developed countries has these qualities in much greater extent than the population of other countries. This is due to various reasons, including traditions and the education system.
But there are pessimistic scenarios. Reducing the population of developed countries opens Eldorado in front of the countries of a large demographic explosion. People who are in adverse conditions, but on the rise of population growth, can be assigned to themselves - good or strength - land and resources of the peoples of rich but those on the decline. These latter will gradually be mixed with the aliens until they lose their individuality. They will disappear, as many nations have already disappeared, hitting such a situation.
In recent decades, the population of developed countries is focused on the search for social compromises. The bulk of the inhabitants prefers to solve public problems rationalist, without extremes, based on the rules defined by existing laws.
A change in the position of a person as a consumer of material and spiritual benefits is connected with the scientific and technical revolution. In the context of meeting the most pressing needs of the overwhelming part of the population of developed countries, the evolution of the needs that stimulate production goes in the direction rather not quantitative, but a qualitative improvement of all parties to people's life. At the same time, it is traced both the process of unifying the needs of various groups and segments of society, erasering the visible borders between these social entities and the process of individualization of needs associated with a more common movement towards an increase in the autonomy of the individual in the light of less rigidity and greater mobility of the social relationships of the modern person.
When analyzing the quality of life in the country, the distribution of the population is essential. The distribution curve, typical of Russia, the late 80s. It was repeatedly noted that with a normally functioning economy, the differentiation of personal income can be approximated by the logarithmically normal law of distribution.
Thus, 25% of the population of the planet living in developed countries consumes 80% of the global gross product. Dynamics of fertility coefficient. In developed countries, the overall population growth rate (minus mortality) is 0 6% / g, and in developing countries reaches 2 1% / g. Using these data as source, one can obtain that the population doubling time of developed countries is 117 years , and developing - only 33 5 years old.
The population is the cost of younger than working age as a forecast of 5 5 million people. The risk to die in a younger age among the Russian population is noticeably higher than the population of developed countries. The population in working age is more chances to die due to external reasons to which accidents, poisoning, injury. For the population of the older and middle ages, the most high probability of death from cardiovascular diseases is the most high.
Especially pronounced the abyss between the two groups of countries in the shower indicators. In developing countries, a per capita products are produced 30 times less, and metalworking products are 60 times less than per capita developed countries.
The infardful state of technology in less developed countries gives these states from advanced winders of technical progress. A huge amount of technological knowledge accumulated by developed countries could be used less developed countries without significant research costs. For example, the use of modern crop rotation and contour agriculture experience does not require additional investment, but largely increases productivity. You can avoid large grain losses, just increasing the height of the bins of several inches. Such technological changes may seem very trivial for the population of developed countries. But for poor states, increased productivity as a result of such changes may mean the cessation of hunger and the achievement of a level sufficient for survival.
Levels of developed countries
The stage of economic development of the country largely determines its level of economic development, i.e. The degree of economic maturity of the national economy. In terms of economic development of the country (more precisely, their economies) are divided into two large groups - developed and less developed. Almost all developed countries include an international organization called Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and therefore it is often identified with a club developed economies, although several less developed countries (Turkey, Mexico, Chile, Central and Eastern Europe are also included in the OECD ). Less developed countries are often called developing countries, emerging market countries, although sometimes in these terms are inserted into a narrower value. Therefore, careful researchers call the entire group of less developed countries by the term country with emerging market and developing countries or developing and transitional economies.Among the developed and less developed economies, various subgroups allocate, although they are more often called groups. For example, a group of twenty (G20) of the largest economies of the world is distinguished - from developed countries. This is the seven leading developed economies plus a country - the EU Chairperson Plus Australia and South Korea, and from less developed countries is the BRICS countries (BRICS - Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) Plus Mexico, Argentina, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Indonesia. These countries account for 90% of global GDP, 80% of world trade and two thirds of the world's population.
Among the developed countries, the group of seven (G7) of the largest developed economies is often analyzed - this is the United States, Japan, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada (with political meetings of this group in it include Russia). Allocate such a group of developed newcomers as South Korea, Singapore, Oh. Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Among the less developed countries under the BRICS abbreviation, there are five leading economies on their continents. Other groups are simultaneously analyzed: these are new industrialized countries (NIS) headed by China, India and Brazil; countries with economies in transition to which the former socialist countries are belonging to the market economy; countries - fuel exporters, as well as countries - exporters of other raw materials, in which fuel or other types of raw materials make up more than half of their exports; The least developed countries whose per capita GDP is less than 750 dollars, a low index of human development, and economic growth is strongly unstable; The debtor countries to which the International Monetary Fund (IMF) ranks the country with a negative balance of the current balance of payments over the past four decades, as well as poor countries with great external debt. Many countries fall simultaneously in several groups, such as Russia: It is part of BRICS, is a country transition country and belongs to countries - fuel exporters.
The typology of countries in terms of economic development differs from different international organizations. The following is a typology of the IMF combined with its specific gravity statistics of groups, subgroups and individual countries in the global production of GDP (calculated by parity of the purchasing power (PPP) of national currencies, i.e. in US prices).
Traditional and socialist economic systems
The traditional economic system (traditional economy), often referred to as possible, continues to dominate the backwards of Asia and Africa, who are still at that stage of economic development, when labor and land remains the main economic resources.
For the traditional system, the dominance of such forms of ownership is characterized as communal (mainly in the form of community ownership of land), state (again mainly on land), and earlier such a form of ownership, as a feudal (characteristic of land ownership on the terms of fulfillment of feudal duties). In this system, freedom of economic agents is strongly crammed by a community, state and feudal. Economic decisions are accepted not only in the consension of the rights of private property, but also on the basis of consecrated traditions of traditions (in medieval Russia, they sought to "live in antiquity"), which also reduces independence and, accordingly, the activity of economic agents.
Previously, the traditional system dominated all countries over the Millennium and hence its name. There are no States in the world in which it dominates, but there are many countries where it coexists with a market system. Such islands of the traditional economy in the market system are called gelages.
The socialist economic system (socialist economy, socialism) is now functioning only in the DPRK and in Cuba, although in the last century it existed in our and many other countries. It is based on the dominance of public, primarily state, property (enterprises mainly state or cooperative), which is greatly shyling the independence of economic agents. In such a system, it is not possible to promote entrepreneurs, except managers of state firms. Key economic solutions eventually takes the chief owner - the state is mainly in the form of directives (orders) for enterprises.
The disadvantages of the socialist economic system led to the transition of the overwhelming majority of states of this system on the rails of the market system, and therefore their economies are often called transitional, and their countries with economies in transition.
Socially developed countries
The world economy has a system of national farms of individual countries united by international division of labor, trade and production, financial and scientific and technical connections. This is a global geoeconomic space, which, in the interests of growth in the efficiency of material production, goods, services, capital: human, financial, scientific and technical ones are freely treated. The world economy is holistic, but at the same time contradictory system of national farms. Not all the mills (and about two hundred) are equally involved in the world economy. From the point of view of the level of their development and the socio-economic organization of production in the complex structure of the world economy, the center and peripherals are quite clearly visible. The center is mainly industrialized countries with an effective, more or less regulated market economy, capable of quickly adapting to the world economic conjuncture and master the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and exporting high-tech products. Peripherals - First of all, developing countries, as a rule, having commodity specialization, a subsemore-totally effective self-development mechanism, a relatively low level of integrated economy.The center is a relatively small group of industrialized countries (24 countries (USA, Canada, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, New Zealand)), which account for almost 55% in global GDP and 71% in world exports. These countries have a highly efficient and well-organized economy, develop by the type of "social market economy". Their economic mechanism having high elasticity allows you to flexibly adapt to the world economic conjuncture. They quickly introduce achievements of scientific and technical thought.
The periphery includes mainly developing countries. With all their diversity, a number of general features can be distinguished:
Multi-definitive nature of the economy with the predominance of the onset relations and non-economic levers of the organization of the economy;
Low level of development of productive forces, backwardness of industry and agriculture;
Commodity specialization.
In general, they occupy a dependent position in the global economy.
Center and peripherals - two pluses of a single world economy. They are not isolated, but, on the contrary, closely interrelated. However, economic cooperation between them is controversial, as they are aimed at solving various tasks.
Having achieved a high standard of living, developed countries create a qualitatively other structure of production and consumption that are increasingly associated with the leisure and services industry, while even food developing countries lack. In general, between the center and the periphery of the world economy, the difference in living conditions continues to strengthen.
The main groups of countries: developed countries with market economies, countries with economies in transition, developing countries. The most complete idea of \u200b\u200bthe groups of countries in the international economy gives the data of the largest international organizations in the world - UN, IMF and the World Bank. Their assessment varies somewhat, since various countries participating in these organizations (UN-185, IMF - 182, the World Bank - 181 Country), and international organizations are observing the economies of only their member countries.
For the purposes of Economic Analysis of the UN divides countries on:
Developed countries (states with market economies);
countries with economies in transition (in the past Socialist countries or countries with centralized planning);
developing countries.
Consider the features of each of the dedicated subsystems. Countries with a developed economy are considered to be such states for whom the presence of market relations in the economy, a high level of rights and civil liberties in public and political life. All countries with developed economies belong to the capitalist development model, however, the nature of the development of capitalist relations has serious differences here. The level of GDP per capita in almost all developed countries is not lower than 15 thousand dollars a year, at a sufficiently high level a state-guaranteed level of social protection (pensions, unemployment benefits, compulsory medical insurance), life expectancy, quality of education and medical care, level development of culture. Developed countries have passed the agricultural and industrial stage of development with the prevailing value and contribution to the creation of agricultural and industry GDP. These countries are now at the post-industrialism stage, which is characterized by a leading role in the national economy of the sphere of intangible production, creating from 60% to 80% of GDP, efficient production of goods and services, high consumer demand, constant progress in science and technology, strengthening the state social policy. .
The group of countries with developed economies of the IMF refers, above all, leading capitalist countries called a large seven (G7), which includes the United States, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Italy and Canada. These states occupy a dominant position in the world economy, primarily due to their powerful economic, scientific and technical and military potential, a large population, high level of cumulative and specific GDP. Further, the group of developed countries includes relatively small in comparison with the potential of G7, but highly developed in the economic and scientific and scientific and technical terms of Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand. States such as South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan (the so-called Dragons of Southeast Asia) and Israel began to be considered economically developed. Their inclusion in a group of developed countries has become a merit for rude progress in economic development in the post-war period. This is a truly unique example in world history when absolutely nothing represents in the 1950s. Countries seized the global economic championship for a number of positions and turned into important global industrial, scientific and technical and financial centers. The level of GDP per capita, the quality of life in the dragon countries and in Israel came close to the indicators of leading developed countries and in some cases (Hong Kong, Singapore) even exceed most of the states of the big seven. Nevertheless, in the subgroup under consideration there are certain problems with the development of a free market in its Western understanding, here is their philosophy of formation of capitalist relations.
The UN includes the number of developed countries of South Africa, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) refers to their number also Turkey and Mexico, which are members of this organization, although rather developing countries, but they entered it in a territorial basis (Turkey belongs Part of Europe, and Mexico is part of the North American Free Trade Agreement - Nafta). Thus, in the number of developed countries include about 30 countries and territories.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In the late 90s. They accounted for 55% of global GDP, 71% of world trade and most of the international capital movement. The seven countries account for more than 44% of global GDP, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are included in the integration associations, of which the European Union is the most powerful - EU (20% of world GDP) and the North American Free Trade Agreement - Nafta (24%).
Countries with economies in transition
This group includes states that have since 80-90s. They carry out the transition from the administrative and command (socialist) economy to the market (therefore they are often called post-socialist). These are 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe, 15 countries - the former Soviet republics, and according to some classifications, they also include Mongolia, China and Vietnam (although formally the last two countries continue to build socialism). Sometimes the whole group of countries are related to developing (for example, in the statistics of the IMF), based on the low level of GDP per capita (only the Czech Republic and Slovenia, it exceeds $ 10 thousand), and sometimes they include only three last countries.
Countries with economies in transition produce about 6% of global GDP, including the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (without the Baltic) - less than 2%, the former Soviet republics - more than 4% (including Russia - about 3%). The share in world exports is 3%. China produces about 12% of world GDP. There are countries that have achieved market reforms for ten years of market reforms in economic development: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. In some of them, the standard of living is almost close to the standards of Western European countries, and economic growth is saved steadily high and even exceed Western European. The main structural transformations in the economy have already been carried out, and on the agenda is the issue of integration into a single European market.
Other states such as Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Albania, Macedonia are under the transformation stage of the entire economic system, and they still have to solve quite complex transition problems. There are both countries that are stagnant and have already stopped moving towards market orientation. For example, Belarus belongs to them, market reforms in which they choked, and hung a serious threat of returning to the old administrative command system. These group and countries are seriously affected by hostilities as a result of violations of their territorial integrity and numerous ethnic conflicts. Such states are simply not up to reforms, there is a problem to restore the victims of the economy victim. This is Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
If in this very young group of countries to try to allocate subgroups, then various classification is possible. In one group, the former Soviet republics can be allocated, which are now united in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). This allows you to make a similar approach to the reform of the economy, a close level of development of most of these countries, an association in one integration group, although the subgroup is sufficiently heterogeneous.
The countries of Central and Eastern Europe can be combined into another subgroup, including the Baltic countries. For these countries, a predominantly radical approach to reforms is characteristic, the desire to enter the EU, a relatively high level of majority of them. However, the strong lag from the leaders of this subgroup, the smaller radicality of the reforms leads some economists to the conclusion that Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and some of the republic of the former Yugoslavia are advisable to include in the first subgroup.
In a separate subgroup, China and Vietnam can be allocated to the reforms similarly and the low levels of socio-economic development in the first years of reforming, which is now rapidly rising.
From the former numerous group of countries with administrative and the end of the 90s. There were only two countries: Cuba and North Korea.
Developing countries (RS)
The group of developing countries (less developed, underdeveloped) includes states with a market economy and a low level of economic development. Of the 182 member countries of the International Monetary Fund, developing 121. Despite the significant number of these countries, as well as the fact that many of them are characterized by a large population and a huge territory, they account for about 40% of world GDP, a share in world Export 26%.
Represent the periphery of the global economic system. This includes countries in Africa, the countries of the Asia-Pacific region - ATP (except Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Dragon countries of Southeast Asia and Asian states of the CIS), Latin America and the Caribbean. The subgroups of developing states, in particular, the subgroup of APR countries (Western Asia Plus Iran, China, the countries of Eastern and South Asia are allocated - all other countries in the region), subgroup of Africa (Africa South Sahara mini Nigeria and South Africa - all other African countries for Except Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Tunisia).
The whole grouping of developing countries is very heterogeneous, and rather, it would be correct to call it the countries of the Third World. The developing countries are, in particular, such states that are above any developed country (United Arab Emirates, Kuwait or Bahamas). GDP per capita, the volume of social expenditures of the government here corresponds or even exceeds similar indicators of the countries of a large seven. There is an average, with a good level of development of the economic and social infrastructure in the group of developing states, there is a significant number of countries with extremely backward national economy, the majority of the population of which are located for a poverty corresponding to the UN method of one dollar cost per day for each inhabitant. It is also impossible to argue that all of them - the economies of agrarian or agrarian-industrial type.
The name of the group - developing countries - reflects, rather, the model of their national economy, in which the role of market mechanisms and private entrepreneurship is extremely small, and the predominant value for development has a natural or sectoral economy, the predominance of agricultural and industrial sectors in the sectoral structure of the economy, high degree of state interventions in the economy and low level of social protection. Due to the general nature of the above features, the developing States are quite legitimate and most of the transitional economies, the standard of living in which has decreased significantly due to the ineffectiveness of economic transformation management. In view of such difficulties in the classification and diverseness of developing countries, the easiest way to classify them by exclusion method. Accordingly, those states that have not been developing in groups of countries with a developed market economy are not developed and are not former socialist countries in Central and Eastern Europe or the former republics of the former USSR.
For the purposes of concrete economic analysis, developing countries are divided into:
Countries - Clean creditors: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia;
Countries - Pure Debtors: All Other PC;
Energy Exporting Countries: Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Venezuela, Vietnam, Gabon, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Cameroon, Qatar, Colombia, Congo, Kuwait, Libya, Mexico, Nigeria, UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador;
Energy Importing Countries: All Other PC;
Least developed countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Bur-Kina Faso, Burundi, Bhutan, Vanuatu, Haiti, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire), Zambia, Yemen, Cape Verde, Cambodia, Kiribati, Comorese, Laos, Lesotho, Liberia, Mauritania, Madagascar, Rwanda, Western Samoa, San Tome and Principe, Solomon, Somalia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia.
Problems of developed countries
The functional illiteracy of which will be discussed in the article, in something similar to Iceberg: visible, but the smaller part is outside, large, but hidden, inside. This phenomenon is complex, multifaceted. Currently, it is studied by scientists and is comprehended by the general public of many countries. They argue about him, looking for approaches, develop special programs, etc. The information below represents one of the attempts approach to this problem and do not in any way claim its comprehensive analysis. However, in our opinion, they are necessary, because For Russia, this problem, apparently, will extremely exacerbate in the near future. In the early 80s, a number of developed countries struck reports about the presence of the presence of a cultural, paradoxical phenomenon called "functional illiteracy". It was the beginning of awareness of the wide layers of the population of a new process, which later led to significant reforms of educational systems and sociocultural policies. "Nation in danger", "the crisis of reading" came, "" Will we become proletarians? " - In these and other similar expressions, the acute concerns of different layers of Society of Society of America, Canada, Germany, France and other countries with new social cataclysms were reflected.What exactly did we talk about? Functional illiteracy is not adequate to the traditional idea of \u200b\u200billiteracy. By definition of UNESCO, this term applies to any person, to a large extent to the skills of reading and writing and not capable of perceiving a short and simple text related to everyday life. The problem was so acute that 1990, on the initiative of UNESCO, was proclaimed by the UN General Assembly by the International Year of Literacy (MGG). During 1991, the results of the relevant activities in many countries and international organizations were summed up. Currently, legal acts, decisions, plans and programs are being developed for continuing and developing the movement for overcoming and preventing illiteracy in various forms.
How in everyday life the functional illiteracy is manifested, why it began to be regarded as a phenomenon of danger to society, what are the causes of the development of this process? Specialists from different countries interpret this phenomenon in different ways and make accents on different sides. The terms that use are also different: "Functional Illiteracy" ("Functional illiteracy"), "Secondary Illiteracy" ("Secondary Illiteracy"), "Semiliterate" ("Semi-Laminated"), "DysLectic", "Dyslexic" (" non-vocabulary, with poor vocabulary), etc. In the United States in recent years, the term "Family Litoracy" is widely used - "family literacy", as well as the term "AT-Risk" - "those who relate to Risk group, "or" is in danger. " But under the "danger" and "risk" here is implied not at all, which is usually referred to. This "risk" is associated with a low level of education, in other words, with functional illiteracy. This term was rooted in the United States after the "A Nation At Risk" report ("Nation in danger").
Female statistics in the USA
To illustrate this phenomenon, we give some impressive numbers. According to American researchers, one adult out of four weakly owns a diploma. There is also a phenomenon as passive literacy when adults and children simply do not like to read. The National Commission summarizes the following figures that are considered as "Risk Indicators": about 23 million adults are functionally illiterate, it is difficult for them to cope with the simplest tasks of daily reading, letters and accounts, about 13% of all Seventeen-year-old US citizens can be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy among young people may increase to 40%; Many of them do not have a number of intellectual skills that could be expected from them: about 40% cannot draw conclusions from the text, only 20% can write an essay where the convincing argument will be, and only 1/3 of them can solve mathematical The task requiring phased action.
According to D. Kozol (1985), data from various sources show that from about 60 to 80 million Americans are illiterate or semi-loving: from 23 to 30 million Americans are completely illiterate, i.e. In fact, you cannot read or write; From 35 to 54 million semi-graphical - their reading skills and ability to write much lower than it is necessary to "cope with the responsibility of daily life." The author cites convincing information about how "illiteracy takes a heavy duty from our economy, affects our political system, and, more importantly, the life of illiterate Americans."
According to the researchers, this problem is particularly heavy in that it is latent. Adults usually seek to hide defects of their education and education - inability, ignorance, bad level of informativeness and other skills and qualities that prevent success in modern information society.
A functionally illiterate person really has an easy even on the household level: for example, it is difficult for him to be a buyer and choose the necessary item (because these people are not focused on product information specified on the package, but only on labels), it is difficult to be a patient (t . when buying a medication is incomprehensible Instructions for its use - what are the indications and contraindications, side effects, the rules of application I am etc.), it is difficult to be a traveler (orient to road signs, terrain plans and other similar information, if it was not previously In this place; the problem is to calculate in advance and plan travel expenses, etc.). Among other problems: payment of accounts, filling out tax receipts and bank documents, mailing and letters and other things. Functionally illiterates have problems related to the education of children: sometimes you cannot read the letter of the teacher, they are afraid of a visit to it, it is difficult for them to help the child with the fulfillment of homework, etc. Domestic electrical appliances problems, the inability to understand the instructions for them, lead to them, and sometimes to household injuries. Functionally illiterate cannot work with computers and other similar systems. According to experts, functional illiteracy is one of the main reasons for unemployment, accidents, accidents and injuries in production and in everyday life. The losses from it amounted to, according to the calculations of specialists, about 237 billion dollars.
Millions of indigenous people of developed countries who studied at school for a number of years or practically forgotten and lost the skills and skills of reading and elementary calculations, or the level of these skills and skills, as well as general educational knowledge, which does not allow them to effectively "function" in Continuously complicated society. In Canada among people aged 18 and over 24% illiterate or functionally illiterate. Among the functionally illiterate 50% nine years have studied at school, 8% had a university diploma. The results of the survey in 1988 suggest that 25% of the French were not at all reading books during the year, and the number of functionally illiterate is about 10% of the adult population of France. The data presented in the report of the Ministry of National Education for 1989 speak of a low level of school training: about two of the two college arriving in college, it is able to write well enough, 20% of students do not own reading skills. Meanwhile, progress in teaching is closely related to the level of reader activity.
According to French researchers, not all functionally illiterates can be attributed to persons rejected by society in a professional or economic sense. However, they all are in one degree or another culturally limited and tear off from social and intellectual communication. Regardless of the age, the occupied economic situation and life experience, a functionally illiterate person can be described as follows: weak study at school, negative attitude to cultural institutions due to the inability to use them and fear to be convicted connoisseurs, etc. From the characteristic it follows that the difficulties experienced by these people are not so many difficulties of pragmatic, how much cultural and emotional plan.
Weak readers
A group of people closest to functionally illiterate, or to some extent that coincides with them, can be called "Weak Readers" - weak readers for whom the "passive reading" is characteristic. This includes adults and children who do not like to read. This group of readers was recently investigated by French sociologists.
The definition of a "weak reader" indicates the level of mastering cultural skills and experience, depending, primarily from education, social origin, and especially - from changes in family, professional or social relations. The authors emphasize that usually the "weak reader" is represented as a person who has no time to read. In reality, we are talking about the reason for a psychological nature: neither its life circumstances nor the professional orientation contribute to the transformation of reading into a constant habit. He reads from the case towards the case and does not spend a lot of time on it, considering this occupation inappropriate. In reading, such people are usually looking for "useful" information, i.e. Information that is practical. In addition, in their environment, most often read little and rarely say (or they do not speak at all) about books. For this category of readers, the world of culture is behind the limit - a barrier of his own uneducation: the library causes a feeling of timidity and is associated with an institution intended for dedicated, bookstores also offer a too large selection field, which is rather an obstacle than an incentive encouraging to read. School literary education obtained in childhood and caught on low-boiled soil caused radiation rather from literature (largely due to the compulsory nature of learning), and did not contribute to the development of interest in reading and self-education skills.
Experts have not yet come to a common opinion about whether there really existed and still exists a "reading crisis", or the reason lies completely in another - the increasing break between the level of "school products", which is ensured by modern, and the requirements of the "social order" with Parties to society and its social institutions.
The peculiarities of the modern development of society are informatization, the development of high technologies and the complication of social life tissue. Competitiveness of developed states, their participation in the global division division market is increasingly dependent on the level of education of workers, their skills and ability to continuously advanced training (Lifelong Learning - learning throughout life, i.e. continuous self-education). In the above-mentioned report, the "Nation in danger" report says the following: "... These disadvantages manifested themselves at the time when the requirements for highly qualified workers in new regions are complicated. For example ... computers controlled by computers equipment penetrates all directions of our life - at home, plants and service. According to one of the estimates, by the end of the century, millions of types of work will include laser technology and robotics. Technology is radically transformed in a variety of other classes. They include concern for health, medicine, energy, food industry, repair work, construction, science, education, military industry and industrial equipment. "
As you can see, attitude to the level of development of the reader's culture, as well as the process of readership today has changed and acquires paramount importance to society. According to French sociologists, the idea of \u200b\u200breading as a skill, acquired at school, is not true, because In fact, reading is the result of cultural experience, the degree of mastering which largely depends on social conditions, the level of education and age.
Many researchers of "weak reading" and functional illiteracy believe that the roots and causes of the development of these phenomena lie in early childhood and stem not only from the school, but also the preschool period of the child's personality. And a huge, crucial role is played by the family, its sociocultural environment and reader culture of parents. The level of literacy and culture of children and adolescents today is concerned about parents, teachers, librarians in different countries. So, in the Netherlands in 1984 among children, 12 years 7% were not able to understand the simplest text. In Poland, Germany and the United States about 40% of school-age children who have understood by the simplest literary texts.
There are absolutely illiterate in Sweden. However, among the 8.5 million population, about 300-500 thousand adults are experiencing difficulties in reading and writing. It is estimated that 5-10% of the 100,000 schoolchildren energizing the first degree of learning every year cannot read and write with ease. Teachers working in high school say that they are found too many 16-20-year-old students who are not able to read what they want, and what they need to read. These are young people whose chances in life after graduation are very limited to the inability to perceive printed information. Swedish specialists emphasize that this is a nationwide problem that steadily aggravates.
What lies in her foundation? Hot debate among specialists mainly related to the improvement of learning methods, but some of them believe that most likely the main reason is the insufficient development of the child's linguistic possibilities in preschool age. Teachers emphasize that parents have neither energy or opportunities to engage in the linguistic development of children. Many of them are not able to show children the value of books and reading. Too many students say that their parents are so busy watching television programs that they simply do not have time to talk with their children. We give the statement of one teenager: "My parents are much more interested in personalities from Dallas ... Than! They cannot even imagine that I am at least as interesting as these stereotypes, which illustrates a typical leisure picture in such families. Meanwhile, it is the parents in early childhood that are huge responsibility for the speech development of the child. Society cannot vouch for the correction of all previously admitted mistakes and negligence in family education. Nevertheless, the Swedish teachers believe that the school and society should guarantee the prevention of the situation when students end the secondary school without the corresponding skills to read and write.
Signs and characteristics of a weak reader (person who does not know how to read)
What are the "weak readers" characterize? First of all, the fact that they are bored and tedious to read. But these readers have other features. And the most typical of them are errors in reading. So, these readers can not always correctly relate the character - the letter of the alphabet with the corresponding sound. This, firstly, leads to the fact that they should do a pause to understand the text read by them, and, secondly, leads to guessing. Guessing when reading, a change in several other (this applies to long words). But even small errors with the replacement and permutation of letters lead to a change in the meaning of the text. The weakest are characterized by slow reading, taking off, constant repetition of phrases, knocking at the beginning of reading words, reading by syllables. They make morphological and syntactic errors, errors from the permutation of letters, etc., and also lose the rhythm when reading. Many of them belong to reading, as a heavy work, boring, gloomy and dull, as they lack words and expressions. Many schoolchildren can read quite competently in the phonetic attitude, but they don't mean any words and images. They read only because they should. But at the same time they never think about what they read and do not pay attention to the content. Reading for them is something unpleasant that you need to suffer and execute. Of course, those who lack words and expressions, and those who fight with their extremely poor reading technique, do not feel joy from him. Reading - Heavy work! Usually adults engaged in children's development, much time and energy spend on finding for children and adolescents really the best books. When they begin to offer them, they are often encountered on the resistance of such readers.
Teachers emphasize that students whose reading skills are at the initial level, may not always, even if they want to read what is understood by the "good literature". And only by the end of training at school, these students begin to realize what they need to improve their reader skills. As a rule, it leads them to low self-esteem and the complex of inferiority. Young people come into practice with a receipt that gives them semi-knowledge and semi-understanding, so they feel unidentified to full-fledged activities. And this group of people is large enough today in any, even the most developed society having cultural traditions.
So, from early childhood and up to old age, the functional illiteracy accompanies a person, making in his life troubles and additional suffering. However, today modern developed countries take a number of efforts to solve this problem affecting the wide segments of the population and relate to almost all spheres of life.
Markets developed countries
The economic development of countries is largely determined by the nature and depth of the public division of labor, during which the development of domestic markets occurs. The conditions for their functioning affect the efficiency of production of both its species and the economic system as a whole. The domestic market under which the exchange system inside the national economy without an export-import sector acts as the primary element of the entire functioning system of the world economy.It includes domestic connections that characterize the scope and form of interaction of various types of production that are part of the economy. External connections are serviced by national economy in the global economy. An analysis of domestic markets shows the driving forces of economic processes in each individual country and to a certain extent - in the subsystem as a whole.
If for the first half of the XX century. The traditional directions of capital flows were developing countries, the last decades are characterized by the strengthening of the mutual weakening of capital countries. The average annual growth rates of direct foreign investment in developed countries exceed the growth rate of GNP and commercial exports. Currently, in France and England, at the expense of foreign investment, one fifth of all manufacturing products are produced, in Italy - a quarter, in Germany - about one third of the FRG. England and the United States, which traditionally were the largest exporters of capital, now act as the main importers.
In the 80s, Latin American countries survived the period of the most severe economic crisis. The average rate of economic growth in the region decreased from 6% in the 70s to 1.8% in the 80s, inflation and unemployment increased significantly. There was a sharp reduction in foreign investment influx, and many countries were forced to abandon the service of external debt.
Developing countries are among the main borrowers in the international capital market - attract an average of about 26 billion US dollars per year. Most of the external debt is represented by short-term floating rate debt, and approximately 80% of the debt accounted for the state.
Hard monetary policy and budget expansion conducted by a number of developed countries, and first of all concerns the United States and Great Britain, led to an increase in real interest rates and a decrease in economic growth in them.
For developing countries, a fundamentally different structure of financial markets and a scheme for the interaction of fiscal and monetary policies are characteristic of developed countries.
The capacity of the financial market in developing countries is relatively small in comparison with the needs of the government in financing the budget deficit. High investment risks and significant emission volumes lead to a high cost of attracting funds for the state, which causes the need to use sense products to finance a gap between income and planned government expenses.
As a result, the need to finance current government expenditures, including the costs of servicing previously accumulated debt, becomes the most important motive for the formation of a monetary supply in the country.
Low capacity of the financial market and low confidence in the state from investors serve one of the main reasons for the growth of the money supply and an increase in the inflation rate.
The factors listed above also determine the need for government governments to carry out borrowing in the international financial market by issuing bonds denominated in foreign currency. The cost of drugs attracted in this way depends on interest rates in developed countries, as well as from prices for exported and imported goods. The reasons for the growth of the cost of servicing foreign debt for developing countries may be an increase in interest rates in developed countries, reducing the cost of the export unit and the rise in price of the import unit.
The limitations of funds available for investment leads to the emergence of competition for capital between the state and the private sector. Additional placement by the state of its debt obligations leads to a reduction in private production investment, that is, the effect of substitution between government expenses and private investments arises. Foreign capital applicants to the financial market play a dominant role in the pricing process. Prices of financial instruments are weakly dependent on fundamental economic indicators.
Due to the fact that in developing countries, the state's participation in the capital of the banking system and is low professional level of banking personnel, the distribution of credit resources depends not often from economic factors (profitability and profitability). Low attachment efficiency is associated with this. Public participation also determines the fact that in the case of the insolvency of the final borrower, the service of private debt may lie on the shoulders of the state budget.
The main foreign investors in emerging markets are the so-called qualified investors (banks, investment funds, speculative hedge funds), who know how to competently assess the risk and potential yield of investments and investing their funds mainly in the most liquid tools (government debt obligations and securities of export-oriented companies belonging to the number of "blue chips"). Such investors are focused mainly on the commission of short-term investments, receiving profits on arbitration and speculative operations.
Internal financial resources deficiency and underdevelopment of domestic financial markets, which determine the high cost of borrowed capital for the manufacturer, state intervention and the unprofitable structure of public debt are one of the main reasons for the high dependence of emerging markets from shocks in the international capital market. Other important factors for generating financial crises are expansionist monetary and / or fiscal policy and a negative balance on current accounts.
Little developed countries
A special category on a global scale is the least developed countries. In these states, the extremely low level of poverty, the economy is very weak, people and resources are exposed to elements.According to the latest research and estimates to the least developed countries of the world include 48 of the existing countries. Changes to this list are made every 3 years. Checks and calculations conducts Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). And the composition of the group of the least developed countries approves the UN. A similar term to designate underdeveloped states was adopted in 1971. In order to get on the list of least developed countries, it is necessary to satisfy the three criteria that the UN nominates, and in order for the country to be excluded from the list - you need to exceed the minimum threshold for two values.
Provided criteria:
Economic vulnerability (export instability, agriculture, industry);
low income (a per capita GDP is calculated over the past 3 years. For inclusion in the list - less than $ 750 USA, for exception - more than $ 900);
Low level of human resources development (the real standard of living is assessed in terms of health, nutrition, literacy, adult, education).
In any case, the corresponding to the group of the least developed countries is based on economic indicators, is subjective.
List of underdeveloped states
Over the past 40 years, only 3 countries were able to exit this list. It is Maldives, Botswana and Green Cape.
The list of least developed countries is also referred to as the "fourth world". They are allocated from the "Third World" countries to a greater extent due to the lack of any progress. Most often, states are not developed due to civil wars.
The main part of the least developed countries is located in Africa (33 countries), in Asia there is a second largest group (14 countries), and one country is in Latin America - this is Haiti.
From the most famous states can be called such:
The least developed countries of Africa - Angola, Guinea, Madagascar, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia;
The least developed countries of Asia - Afghanistan, Nepal, Yemen.
A visual example of the differences in the developed states and countries of the Fourth World can be represented by the fact that 13% of the entire world population is forced to survive for $ 1-2 per day, at the same time, a person in a developed country spends the same amount for a cup of tea.
World community and underdeveloped states
Often developed and developing countries, to help the least developed countries, remove the duty from them to pay duties and perform quotas when importing goods. The international community develops and adopts programs to support such states. A special role in such assistance is played by the powers that have never possessed the colonies, but have the experience of the underdeveloped country. These states can help in the required key, and not selectively and selectively, as countries with a large history of colonials, paying particular attention to their former colonies and neighboring territories.
The last UN conference on the least developing countries took place in Istanbul. There was a program of development, support and control for the next 10 years, it was recorded in the Istanbul Declaration. Also, the Turkish Foreign Minister was made a proposal to change the name of this group of countries. He proposed to call them "developed countries of the future" or "potentially developing countries." This proposal was taken to consideration. There are opinions that the Conference in Turkey can become a turning point in the development of world states, the fight against poverty and access to the new stage of the global economy.
Politics of developed countries
Politics of developed countries. Demographic policy in economically developed countries is carried out exclusively economic measures and is aimed at stimulating the birth rate. The arsenal of economic measures includes cash subsidies - monthly benefits to families who have children, benefits of lonely parents, promoting the prestige of motherhood, paid childcare leave.In some countries where the positions of the Catholic Church (for example, in Ireland, USA, in Poland) have recently discussed laws providing for criminal liability for a woman who has ceased to be a pregnancy and a doctor who has made an abortion in parliaments. The attitude in Western countries to demographic problems is defined as egalitarian, compliance with the principles of democracy, social justice and human rights.
They assume the exclusion of repressive measures, the superiority of the individual solution. Most industrialized capitalist countries to low fertility are vaguely.
The birth rate increase policies in France, Greece, Luxembourg. This does not mean that the governments of Western countries do not have demographic purposes. Most likely, they do not express them explicitly. Germany leads a policy of encouraging fertility. The German government in 1974 allowed the dissemination of contraceptive funds and took off restrictions on abortions in the first three months of pregnancy, but at the beginning of next year the Supreme Court of the country recognized the unconstitutional permission of abortions "at will" and limited the right to them only "medical testimony" or other emergency circumstances.
Nowadays, in Germany, a complex system of encouraging measures of demographic politics has been adopted, which is divided into three main groups: family benefits and surcharges; Manuals during childbirth; Housing benefits. 4. Russian Policy Russia has entered the twentieth century with a record high birth rate. Even in 1915, when a significant part of the men was called into the army, the population of the country continued to grow.
In the near future, the generation of 1980-1987 births is entering its degenerate. The last numerous generation capable of replacing his fathers and mothers. The state demographic policy of Russia should be aimed at stimulating the birth of the second and third child, because It still remains acceptable value and possibly when creating relevant material and domestic conditions.
Demographic policies should take first place in the state budget. The volume of benefits and incentive payments for two-three-tech families should achieve a level in which such families will be in financially more profitable one-piece. The situation in the field of demographics in the Russian Federation currently has a number of negative trends. Russia has a depopulation of the population, which is due to a low birth rate on the one hand (the parameters of which are smaller than the generations required for replacement almost 2 times) and the high level of mortality of the population, especially in infant and working ages.
Among the dead in the working age, men make up about 80%, which is 4 times higher than the mortality rate of women. The main causes of death are accidents, poisoning and injury, blood circulation system and neoplasm disease. The state of health and the mortality rate of the population is reflected in the indicators of the expected life expectancy of the country's population.
The average life expectancy of the country's population was 65.9 years. Differences in the expected life expectancy of men and women make up 12 years. The purpose of demographic policies to the medium term is to carry out measures to reduce the mortality rate of the population; Creating prerequisites for stabilization of fertility rates. In this regard, the main tasks of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of demographic policies are: Development of the main directions of action to implement the demographic policy of the Russian Federation for the long term, including specific measures to implement the concept of demographic policies, taking into account the prospects for the socio-economic development of the Russian Federation, the subjects of the Russian Federations, individual ethnic groups of the population and regional characteristics of demographic processes; Development and implementation of a complex of federal targeted programs for the protection of public health, including the prevention and treatment of arterial hypertension among the population of the Russian Federation; to provide oncological assistance to the population of the Russian Federation; Prevention and fight against AIDS and others. Development of measures providing for certification of jobs in order to identify adverse factors on the health of employees, as well as the procedure for economic stimulation of employers in improving the conditions and safety of labor; Development and implementation of measures for the prevention of offenses, drunkenness and drug addiction.
Of great importance for the country's most complete and reliable information on its various aspects, conducting a wide range of research on the formation and adjustment of demographic policies will have a conducted All-Russian population census, as well as the creation of a state register of the population of the Russian Federation.
In the field of creating the living conditions of the family, giving the opportunity to educate several children, the main focus should be to ensure the consideration of a demographic aspect in the development and implementation of public housing policies, including: maintaining the housing standards system, ensuring the favored mode of the housing standards system for families with children; promoting the development of market forms to ensure the availability of housing, which is best satisfying the housing needs of families in the active phase of the reproductive cycle; Accounting for the number of children in the family in need of improving housing conditions, in determining the amount of assistance from the state (gratuitous subsidies for the purchase of housing, assistance in repaying mortgage loans, etc.). Natural population decline in Russia amounted to 4.8 people per 10 thousand citizens. According to ITAR-TASS, such data has led today, speaking in the State Duma, Minister of Labor and Social Development of the Russian Federation Alexander Pochinkok.
He said that last year the Russian population fell to 145.6 million people.
A.Pochinok noted the overall demographic trend in the country as a whole.
Moreover, the minister clarified, such forecasts were calculated from the accounting of a positive migration balance. Excluding this factor, according to A. Pochinka, the population of Russia may amount to 171 million people, as a result of which the country from the seventh place in the world in terms of the number of its citizens drop into the fourteenth. Such a demographic situation, according to A. Pochinka, can lead a "to the catastrophe" of the pension system of Russia and the lack of labor in the country.
To prevent the demographic crisis, serious, consistent measures are needed, the Minister said. The government has already developed the concept of demographic development of the Russian Federation, which provides for a number of social programs, in particular, to reduce the level of sudden mortality, the protection of working conditions, the fight against tuberculosis and drug addiction. A. Pochinok also noted that to increase the birth rate in the country, it is necessary to significantly increase the socio-economic standard of living of people. "In order for the family today, the family give birth to children, they need confidence in tomorrow" said the minister. 5. The case of the difficulty in the socio-economic development of the third world countries contributed to the growth of the priority of demographic policies, i.e. targeted activities in the field of regulation of demographic processes.
This was facilitated by the position of industrialized countries of the West, who believe that control over the growth of the population is and a prerequisite for socio-economic development.
In a joint communiqué, heads of state and governments of the leading Western countries in Houston noted that sustainable development in a number of countries require that the growth of the population is in a reasonable balance sheet with economic resources, and the preservation of the Balance is a priority of countries supporting economic development.
The importance of demographic policies is not the same for various subsystems and countries depending on the level of their economic development and the stage of the demographic transition. In particular, in the fifth of all countries where 26% of the world's population lives, it is believed that the growth or natural increase in the population has a minor impact on the development of the country and does not need to achieve special purposes in this area.
Demographic policy, being part of socio-economic policies, is not always clear. With the greatest certainty, it is carried out when its direct purpose acts on demographic development. Demographic policy influences the two sides of the reproductive behavior of the population - to implement the needs of children and the formation of the need for the personality and family in such a number of children that would correspond to the interests of society.
This is achieved by economic, administrative legal and socio-psychological measures. A characteristic feature of these measures is their long-term due to the fact that the demographic proceeds are characterized by significant inertia, determined by the stability of the standards of demographic behavior. The peculiarity of the measures taken is their impact on the dynamics of demographic processes is predominantly not directly, and indirectly through human behavior.
Structure of developed countries
Developing countries are countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America - former colonial, semi-colonial and dependent countries that have become independent politically states after the colonial system of capitalism. The composition and structure of developing countries: Caidalized oil countries: Brunei, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Oman, Saudi Arabia. NIS, including: Cities-states: Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore. Countries with a more capacious domestic market: South Korea, Brazil, Argentina, etc. Comparatively developed small countries: Bahrain, Cyprus, Lebanon. Agrarian-raw material exporters, including: Nefteexporters: Algeria, Iraq, Iran. Other agrarian-commodity exporters: Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan, Malaysia, Morocco, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Philippines, Sri Lanka.Endogenous Development Countries, including: large countries: Pakistan, India. Back Agricultural Countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Bhutan, Mauritania, Nepal, Sudan, etc. Consider briefly the main characteristics of groups and subgroups: 1 Caidal Funny oil countries. The main characteristics of the group: high GDP growth rates in the 70s; significant active balance balance; massive capital exports; the highest level of shower income; high degree of dependence on external development factors; Single-sided diversified structure of GDP and exports. The main and rapid factor of the take-off of the countries of this group was oil. A sharp and repeated increase in oil prices in the global market in the early 80s led to a significant influx of petrodollars to these countries, however, their economy was not able to adsorb this influx. In recent years, the conjuncture in the oil market has deteriorated sharply, oil production has decreased that, in combination with the fall in world prices, sharply aggravated the economic problems of these countries. As a result of the budget deficit, overseas assets are gradually "sold". Rearrangement of the economy, diversification of the sectoral structure go slowly. New industrial countries (NIS). The main signs of the group: the highest growth rates of GDP; relatively high level of GDP per capita; active involvement in the international division of labor; Industrial export specialization; Export-oriented development strategy.
In the group there are certain differences between the countries, in it incoming. Hong Kong, Singapore and Macao (to a lesser extent), in addition to the export of industrial products, have important intermediary functions in world capitalist economy (re-export, transit, financial operations, tourism, etc.). In cities-states there is no agricultural sector, such a category as the domestic market, it is almost applicable to them. The subgroup, which includes South Korea and Taiwan, has a relatively capacious domestic market, the existing agricultural sector is significantly less developed than industrial. The involvement of South Korea and Taiwan in the international division of labor is somewhat lower than cities-states.
Comparatively developed small countries. General for this group are the following characteristics: industrial export specialization; A rather high level of GDP per capita. At the same time, serious economic problems for Cyprus and Lebanon are generated by internal and foreign policy instability. For this reason, Lebanon almost lost its role in the financial, trade, transit and tourist centers of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Bahrain in economic development makes evolution from capital-free oil recovery to the NIS group. Bahrain gradually turns into a major trading and financial center of the Mediterranean and Middle East region. Bahrain has practically no agricultural sector and, accordingly, agricultural exports. Agricultural and raw materials exporters. The most numerous and inhomogeneous group. Factors that determine the similarity of agrarian-commodity exporters: Moderate GDP growth rates; relative balance of export and import; higher share of the agricultural sector than in capital and new industrial countries; A significant role of mineral raw materials in exports. According to the commodity structure of exports, three countries are allocated: Algeria, Iraq and Iran, forming the subgroup of oil exporters.
These petroleum exporters differ significantly from capitalized oil countries with a more diversified sectoral structure of the economy, a more capacious domestic market, the presence of the agricultural sector in the national economy, smaller than oil reserves. Among other agrarian-raw material exporters, many countries exporting oil: Indonesia, Tunisia, Egypt, Malaysia, Syria. In addition to oil, they export non-ferrous metal ores, natural rubber, wood, food and industrial goods. Endogenous development countries. The main factors of the similarity of countries are: low level of shower income; low proportion of exports to GDP; considerable share of the agricultural sector; Relatively weak inclusion in the international division of labor.
The main difference between the subgroups of large countries is that they already created the foundations of the perfect reproduction complex, the import-substituting stage of industrialization has been practically completed. The export structure of these countries (especially India) is sufficiently diversified, and the proportion of industrial goods is growing in exports. In the countries of the subgroup there is its own base of research and design work, they carry out nuclear and space programs. However, the growing industrial potential of large countries has pressure backward and numerous agrarian peripherals. As for the subgroup of the backward agrarian states, the backwardness of their environmental structures, limited access to external resources, the narrowness of the export base, the underdevelopment of the domestic market, etc. It does not allow these countries in the future to achieve changes in their economic status.
New developed countries
South KoreaArea: 98.5 thousand square meters. km.
Population: 48 509 000
Capital: Seoul
Official name: Republic of Korea
Public Device: Parliamentary Republic
Legislative Body: One-Chart National Assembly
Head of State: President
Administrative device: Unitary country (nine provinces and six cities of central subordination)
Common religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity (Protestants) UN member
State party: the day of the proclamation of the Republic (September 9), the day of the state of the state (October 3)
EGP and natural resource potential. The state is located in East Asia, on the Korean Peninsula, washed by the waters of the Japanese and Yellow Seas, borders with the DPRK thirty-eighth parallel, has marine borders with China and Japan. The most close connections also supports Western and US countries. The government of the country is trying to intensify external communications and economic cooperation with North Korea.
In the depths of the country there are deposits of stone coal, iron and manganese ore, copper, lead, zinc, nickel, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium, gold, silver, thorium, asbestos, graphite, mica, salts, kaolin, limestone, but their own mineral Bases are not enough to develop the economy.
The country's population almost 99.8% consists of Koreans, is the twenty thousand Chinese community, the official language is Korean. Population density 490 people. sq. km. The urban population is about 81%. Before the beginning of World War II, quite a lot of Koreans migrated to China, Japan and the USSR. About 3.3 million people. Returned to the country after 1945. About 2 million Koreans fled from the Korean People's Democratic Republic to the Republic of Korea. The largest cities of Seoul, Suvon, Thajon, Kwangju, Busan, Ulsan, Tagu.
Seoul, the capital of the republic, the largest transportation unit (Kimpo International Airport, Incheon Airport), Cultural, Scientific, Financial and Economic Center of the country, refers to the most densely populated cities in the world.
For the first time the city is mentioned in I B. AD, in the XIV century. Chanyan was called, a modern name, which means "Capital", the city received in 1948 after the announcement of its capital of South Korea.
Together with Incheon, the city's economy gives about 50% of industrial production of the country. Enterprises are working with light, textile, automotive, electronic, chemical, cement, paper, rubber, leather, ceramic industries. Metallurgy, mechanical engineering are developed. In 1974, the metro was built. The planning of the city in separate parts is very dependent on the hilly relief. A number of old town areas are built up with modern high-altitude buildings.
In Seoul there are Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts, Seoul National University, University of Korea, Universities, Hanian and Soghan, National Museum, Traditional Dance Theater, Drama and Opera Houses.
The country's economy takes the 12th place in the world largest GDP. Developed high-tech engineering, electronics. By large-scale American, Japanese and Western European investments, the country is obliged to economic openness policies for foreign investors (since 1979). Since the end of the 80s of the last century, Conglomerate's own Korean companies - world-famous Samsung conmen, LG and others began to compete with Western transnational companies. GNP per capita is about $ 18,000. Industry. Industry gives 25% of the country's GDP, it employs a quarter of the working-age population. Most enterprises are small, family contracts, a small number of firms are presented on the National Stock Exchange. About 20 large companies produce up to a third of all industrial products. Industrial production of the Republic of Korea has shifted from textile to electronic, electrical goods, machines, vessels, production of petroleum products and steel.
The mining industry is occupied by the development of graphite deposits, the mining of kaolin, tungsten and low-quality coal, which is used in the energy sector. The economy of the Republic of Korea, like the Japanese economy, is evidence that the country can be rich due to imported raw materials.
Agriculture is a small percentage of GDP, but fully ensures the population of food and creates its remnants going on export. It employs the seventh part of the working-age population. After the land reform of 1948, a significant part of large farms was restructured, small family farms are currently dominated here, which handle the almost fifth part of the country. Half the lands irrigated. The government purchases most of the crop at stable prices.
The main culture is rice (gives 2/5 cost of all products of the industry). In addition to rice, barley, wheat, soybean, potatoes, vegetables, cotton, tobacco are grown. Gardening, the cultivation of ginseng, fishing of seafood catch, the industry fully provides the needs of the population, and excess fish and seafood are exported). Pigs and cattle are bred on family farms.
Transport. The tonnage of the Maritime Fleet of the country is more than 12 million tons. Deadweight. The main marine ports are Busan, Ulsan, Ichhon. In the middle of the country, rivers are also used for shipping. Railway transport is much worse than the automotive, the length of which is 7 and 60 thousand km. International airports operate in Seoul and Busan.
Foreign economic relations. The main foreign trade partners of the country are USA, Japan, Southeast Asian countries. Exports country products manufacturing industries - transport equipment, electrical engineering, cars, vessels, chemicals, shoes, textiles, agricultural products. Imports oil and petroleum products, mineral fertilizers, engineering products, food.
Singapore
Area: 647.5 square meters. km.
Population: 4 658 000
Capital: Singapore
Official name: Republic of Singapore
Legislative): Single Parliament
Head of State: President (elected for a period of 6 years)
Administrative Device: Unitary Republic
Common religions: Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism
UN member, ASEAN, from 1965 enters the Commonwealth
State festival: Independence Day (August 29)
EGP and natural resource potential. Singapore State in Southeast Asia, on about. Singapore and the adjacent 58 small islands, in the southern part of the Malacca Peninsula. The largest wealth of the island is considered a comfortable deepwater harbor in the southeastern part of it. From the north, Singapore Island is separated from Malaysia by the Johor Strait of about 1 km, the shores of which are connected by Dambia. From Indonesia is separated in the west of the Malack Strait. Line island relief, lowland shores are significantly wetlands, have a significant amount of bays such as Estairiev. In the southwest of the accumulation of coral reefs. The highest point of the island of Horb Bukittima (177 m).
Climate Moussely Equatorial with a lack of well-pronounced seasons. Temperatures throughout the year are constant from 26 to 280c. High humidity and rains are observed throughout the year, to 2440 mm precipitation per year. The monsoon rainy season lasts from November to February. On the islands there are remains of wet rainforests, mangrove shrubs, city of rest migrant birds migrating. There are no mineral deposits in the country, even drinking water with a water pipeline supplies neighboring Malaysia and only on the shelf at the Malacca Peninsula, deposits of oil and natural gas are open.
Population. Almost all the population of the country lives in its capital - the city of Singapore, besides him, there are several settlements on the island.
Suites from predominantly southern provinces of China are 77.4% of the country's population, 14.2% Malaya, 7.2% - Indians and 1.2% of Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Europe. Almost a third of the population professes Buddhism, the fifth - Confucianism is Christianity, Islam, Hinduism.
Singapore is one of the most densely populated countries in the world with a density of more than 4884 people. on square. km. Singapore, the capital of the same name Singapore. Located on the lowland coastal area of \u200b\u200bthe Kalang Rivers and Singapore on the southern shore of Singapore Island and the adjacent small islands of the Singapore Strait. The Malacca Peninsula is connected by iron and highway.
Singapore became known as 1299 (translated from Sanskrit - "Lion City"). Due to its successful location on Singapore Island, the city has become a crossroads of maritime traders from India, China, Siam (Thailand) and Indonesian states. During its history, the city has repeatedly plundered and destroyed by Javanese and Portuguese. Since 1824, Singapore was recognized by the possessions of England and more than a century served its main naval and trade base as the "Eastern Pearl of the British Crown".
In 1959, Singapore became the capital of Singapore's "self-governing state", and from December 1965 the capital of the Independent Republic of Singapore.
Singapore consists of several areas, contrasting each other: Central or colonial and business quarters, Chinatown.
Today, Singapore is one of the largest trade and industrial, financial and transport centers of Southeast Asia; one of the world's largest ports in terms of freight turnover more than 400 million tons per year; here there is Changi International Airport; Singapore currency exchange fourth in the world after London, New York and Tokyo; The largest center of the electronic industry in Southeast Asia. The city employs metalworking, electrical, shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises. The refinery of the city processes more than 20 million tons. Crude oil per year. Chemical, food, textile, light industry, primary rubber processing and other agricultural raw materials are also developed. There are about 135 large banks in the city, one of the world's largest rubber stock exchanges.
Singapore Significant Scientific and Cultural Center for Asia. With Singapore University, which was founded in 1949, the Center for Economic Research, there is also Nanyang University, Polytechnic Institute, Technical College, Institute for the Study of Southeast Asia, Institute of Architecture, Scientific Society and Association. The National Library, founded in 1884, has more than 520 thousand volumes.
The city has national and artistic museums, philateli museums, fleet, World War II Memorials, National Theater, Victoria Concert Hall, Drama Center, Numerous Theaters and Cinema, China Wayang Opera, Botanical Garden with Orchid Garden, Marine Aquarium , Park birds and reptiles and zoo, numerous architectural monuments, Hindu, Confucian-Buddhist, Buddhist temples and Muslim mosques.
In the northeastern part, the so-called "city of the XXI century" is being built. On the islands of the new Western port of Gurong created a large refinery. Singapore has several small islands. One of which is the island of Sentoza became the resort area of \u200b\u200bthe city.
Economy. The country is one of the largest trade and industrial, financial and transport centers of the SUVA basis of the economy of which constitute traditional foreign trade operations (mainly re-export), as well as export industries working on imported raw materials. Singapore is the largest investor in the economy of Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. In terms of investment, it is inferior only to Japan.
The government of the country has made energetic measures to stimulate economic development: significant tax benefits are provided to industrialists whose enterprises produced export products; Investor benefits were introduced into industrial production and exporters. In the 1990s, Singapore becomes one of the largest regional and international trade, finance, marketing, marketing and development centers. In terms of computerization, he went to second place in Asia after Japan.
Industry. Industrial enterprises in the country work on imported raw materials. Produced from import raw materials are often imported. The country employs metalworking, electrical, electronic, optical-mechanical, aviation, steel-smelting, shipbuilding and ship repair, refineries, chemical, food, textile, light industries. Singapore occupies the world's second place (after the USA) for the production of mobile well equipment for the development of oil shelf oils, second place (after Syangan) on the processing of marine containers, third place (after Houston and Rotterdam) from oil refining. The country has a highly developed military industry. It employs enterprises of primary processing of tea, coffee, natural rubber.
Agriculture occupies a slight place in the total production. Cultivate coconut palm trees, rubbing gevent, spices, tobacco, pineapples, vegetables, fruits. Pig breeding, poultry, fisheries and sea fishing develop.
Transport. Singapore is one of the largest (second place in the world in terms of cargo turnover) ports in the world. Length of railways 83 km, roads over 3 thousand km. Tonnage of the Marine Fleet Fleet 6900000 Reg. gross. Changi International Airport refers to the best in the world in terms of quality and service efficiency. It takes up to 36 million passengers a year, there are more than 100 stores on its territory, 60 restaurants, a large swimming pool and several free cinemas, 200 Internet zones with a free worldwide network and the largest art gallery in Asia.
Foreign economic relations. The country exports office equipment, petroleum products, television and radio equipment. Significant means receives the country's economy through the sale of exotic fish and orchids. Major foreign trade partners: USA, Japan, Malaysia, etc.
The location at the intersection of trade routes from European states to the countries of the Far East contributed to the growth of Singapore and turning it into the largest port of re-export trade in Southeast Asia. Today, re-export operations accounts for almost 30% of foreign trade. This is a global financial and investment center. Large center of international trade and industrial exhibitions.
Import consists of a food required for the country (up to 90% of the country's needs). Built spare water supply from Indonesia. Every year more than 8 million tourists attended the country, which brings significant income.
Taiwan (as the state of Ukraine is not recognized)
Area: 36.18 thousand square meters. km.
Population: 22.7 million people
Capital: Taipei
Official name: Taiwanese Republic
Public Device: Republic
Legislative): National Assembly
Head of State: President (elected for 4 years)
Administrative device: unitary state
Common Religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism
UN member
State festival: Taiwan Day (October 10)
EGP and natural resource potential. The country's territory consists of Taiwan Island, Penghudao Archipelago (Pescador O-VA), Jinmen Islands, Matsu Islands, Paracelical Islands, Pratas Islands and Sprati. More than half of the territory occupy the mountains, there are existing volcanoes, often earthquakes. The plain islands are covered with wet tropical woods whose wood is an important natural resource of the country.
Climate from subtropical to tropical monsoon with air temperatures from 15 to 280s. Every year it drops 1,500 - 5,000 mm of precipitation. The flow of July to September is typhoon. Mineral resources are oil, natural gas, stone coal, iron ore, salt, limestone, marble. The population of 98% consists of Chinese, the indigenous population of the islands - the Goashan is 1.5%. The most common and officially recognized religion is Buddhism, in addition, Taoism, Protestantia, Catholicism, Islam is common.
The largest cities: Taipei, Kaohsiun, Taichung, Tainan. Taipei, the largest city on Taiwan Island, Taiwan Province Administrative Center, the country's capital, the largest industrial and cultural center in which metallurgy and mechanical engineering enterprises work (production of electronic calculators, tape recorders, TVs, computers), cement, chemical, woodworking, food industry. Marine Avanport Jilong, Taoyuan International Airports and Songshan. The main city of Taiwan Taipei became in 1956. The highest skyscraper "Taipei-101" (509 m, 101 floor) was erected here, which became the highest building in the world. The lower floors of the skyscraper are assigned to restaurants and shops, and the top under the offices. It is in it that the fastest elevators in the world are working with which only 39 seconds can be climbed by 88 floor from the observation platform.
Economy. The association programs into a single country are put forward by Taiwan, and the PRC, but significant disagreements between the two countries do not allow it to do. Since the late 1980s, trips have resumed from the late 1980s, cultural, scientific and personal connections are developing between citizens of two parts of China. Since the 90s, economic and cultural contacts between Taiwan and mainland China began to actively develop. Taiwanese investments in the Chinese economy are growing every year. Relationships are regulated on both sides by non-governmental organizations.
Taiwan is an economically highly developed territory, among the so-called "new industrial countries". His GNP from 1995 allowed the country to enter the twenty of world leaders, for reserves of foreign currency, the country ranks second in the world after Japan.
The country's industry characterizes high-tech products known to the whole world. Taiwan produces such a number of goods and components for the global computer market, which was called the Silicone Island. Developed manufacturing industries: radio electronic, chemical, instrument and shipbuilding, textile, leather-shoe, sewing. Taiwan is the world's largest producer of camphor. Industrialization of the cranes significantly affected its environment.
Agriculture. For agricultural cultivation, only 30% of the territory is suitable. The industry gives only 4% of GDP. Farmers collect 2-3 crops per year. Grow rice, cereals, sugar cane, betel, coconuts, bamboo, sorghum, tea, utyutn, tropical fruits and vegetables. Developed fishing, pig breeding, poultry farming.
Transport. Length of railways about 4 thousand km. Highways over 17 thousand km. The main ports are Kaohsiun, Jilong, Taichung, Hualan, Suao.
Foreign economic relations. According to the total volume of foreign trade, Taiwan ranks 14th in the world. The export of the country is textiles, information technology, electronic products sugar, camphor, metal products. Import weapons, metals, oil, etc .. Basic trading partners - USA, PRC, Japan.
Experience of developed countries
World experience has shown the active development of the following areas for retailers: networks of hypermarkets, large trading enterprises like shopping and entertainment centers (shopping malls), Molls, shopping accessibility stores type discounter and "pocket supermarkets", combined in retail chains. Today, the same areas are most promising in Moscow and the near Moscow region.All over the world, hypermarkets are economically sustainable education, in demand and continue to develop. The construction of hypermarkets in the Moscow region favors the changed rhythm and the lifestyle of Muscovites and residents of the region. We are now extinguished at the level when families can travel on weekends (including per city) and comprehensively make purchases, as well as use additional services (for example, such as a hairdresser, beauty salon, etc.), Therefore, it is worth considering it as the most promising direction for the development of trade. In addition, the hypermarket becomes the place of rest, where visitors do not lose time, and hold it with pleasure. On its territory you can position the cinema, restaurants, cafes, children's rooms, etc., which is already done.
Active output to the regions is due to another factor - shortage and large rental value in Moscow. Prices for rental of commercial premises were in the range from 150 to $ 4500 per square meter. m per year, while the main part of the proposal was the area in the price category from 500 to $ 1000 Trade.
Today in the West is actively developing a trading type - Mall. In Russian practice, some specialists consider the Mall as a synonym for a hypermarket, the other noted between them the difference, which consists in the principle of trade: the basis of Molla, as a rule, is a number of large stores called anchors. They are interconnected with indoor galleries, in which there are many small stores (boutiques), restaurants, cafes, hairdressers, dry-cleaners. Galleries are closed in the ring for which the buyer passes.
Mall is a huge shopping and cultural and entertainment center, designed to visit a large number of people at the same time. In Russia, there are only projects for the construction of European Molls. Today, only the "Mega Mall Mall" located in Moscow is most close, which shows good economic results, which gives reason to build forecasts regarding the active development of this format of the commercial enterprise of the future.
However, experts say, talking about the widespread construction of Molls prematurely. In the near future, shopping centers will actively develop. The shopping center is offered to the buyer a fairly large range of products submitted by different trademarks. The shopping center serves the middle class, which although it does not leave once a week for the Moscow Ring Road to spend half of the salary, but at the same time and does not have time to go shopping every day. The shopping center can be called a peculiar compromise between the hypermarket and many separate small stores.
The shopping and entertainment center (TRC) is the same shopping center, only providing a wider range of services to the buyer. It is an opportunity and relax, and make purchases. The choice is less than in a hypermarket or Mollet, but they are located closer to the residential quarters. Often, the TRC owners resort to the organization of concerts, performances or drawing lotteries on the territory of the complex, the game is offered to be included to all visitors, which keeps buyers and stimulates a re-visiting the trading enterprise.
Network stores will also not lose in the future of development rates. They will most likely come to replace single shops that will be more complicated to retain on the market. Not only the growing number of networks is indicated about the development of networks, but also the opening of the networks of its own production of goods as an important condition for creating a company name and formation of the image.
Perhaps single stores will continue to exist as a trading format or have a slight weight in trade. In any case, if they are not displaced as a result of network competition and shopping center, they can attract the franchise market. Anyway, a clear future for single stores is not foreseen. An exception can be the store at the factory, but it is rather necessary to be positioned as a boutique, because In any case, the manufacturing enterprise will have financial resources to support their corporate store.
An example is the Dunon shop, located in two hundred meters from Red Square, which to this day perfectly performs its role: it helps to strengthen the image of Danon, and also serves as a kind of advertising of fresh dairy products.
The store annually sells up to 600 tons of Danon products, it is visited daily from 1500 to 3,500 people, not only Muscovites, but also residents of other cities in Russia, coming to Moscow and specially visiting this commercial enterprise.
Network stores do not represent "hazards" for branded shops, because Psychologically, the buyer considers the products of the branded shop in more than fresh and complete in the range, and at a price cheaper than in any retail trade enterprise, although this is not always the case.
Relatively new, but actively developing format in Russia is a discounter. In the West, it has long been widespread and uses well-deserved location from the local population. Discounter shops have a number of general features, such as: the use of simpler equipment, part of goods in the hall is offered directly in the production or transport package, the minimum number of personnel is used and as a result of all this is to reduce the costs of circulation and establish lower prices.
The trading margin in discount stores is 16 - 18%, and the surcharges are set at a minimum level - 12%, while on top of cosmetics - from 25% to 40%, which is higher than that of competitors. For a discounter, the zone of influence is determined in two bus stops (about 500 m). The discounter trading area in Russia is an average of about 1500 square meters. m, whereas in the West - only 400 - 800 square meters. m.
An example of a wide distribution of discounters can be Germany. Discounters - food, household goods, household and perfume products, shoe - are located one by one on the street, where the houses of the apartment type prevail. The feature of the German discounters is their division to cheap and more respectable (prestigious). But prices for goods in the store and its appearance may not be connected.
For example, in Aldi, Schlecker, Dr. (DRogerie Merkt), Kaiser's is a good finish, wide passages between the rows of equipment, and the equipment itself is new and high-quality. In this case, for example, Aldi is a classic discounter with a minimum assortment matrix (800 - 900 positions).
There are no specialized discounters in Russia. There is no fission on expensive and cheaper, most likely, such a division will occur in the future when their quantity will reach the threshold limit of competition in their format. Russian discounters can still boast of Western wider assortment, which is about 800 - 1400 positions.
Discounter is not the only format that conquers increasing popularity in Europe. Today there are also shops operating on the principle of the "pocket supermarket", in which, unlike large trade enterprises, prices are much higher. The success of this format originated in the United States, the tendency of its distribution, which is gaining momentum annually.
"The Secret" of this store is in the convenience of location. It is in the immediate vicinity of consumer accommodation, in those places where other trading enterprises are difficult to organize difficult or their content will not be economically profitable. Their feature is in a limited assortment and relatively high prices. Nevertheless, similar shops in the US and Europe are very popular.
One example is "Klein Aich" ("Little Country"), located in Branderburg (Germany) and the service area with a population of 2 thousand people.
Klein Aich - SB Network Shop. Its area is 100 square meters. M. Employees (two sellers and cashier) seek to ensure that the buyer can get everything necessary - from the daily newspaper to meat clippings, from fresh fruits to animal feed. Represent all product groups on the territory of 100 square meters. m is impossible, so in Klein Aich, you can easily make an order almost to any product. That is, if today on sale there is no product you need, then leaving the appropriate entry, you can get it tomorrow or in a specified period.
The organizers of the "convenient store" are striving to ensure that all goods in the trading room are clearly visible, and the assortment matrix is \u200b\u200bclearly thought out. Next to the "pocket supermarket" there is usually a parking lot on 10 - 15 cars and broken flower beds. The territory is equipped in such a way that the shopping cart can be ride straight to the car.
The company, as a rule, has a "extended" working day. Optimulated mode of operation from 7 to 23 hours or round-the-clock. It is important to note that service in such stores is built on the "family" principle. Buyers must feel that they are always glad to see. Prices in a "convenient store" are installed by 5 - 8% above average, but the European buyer does not scare it.
World trade development trends show that the leaders of the Western business reach savings due to the combination of such factors of technological processes as a decrease in the average annual value of inventories, a rational number of employees, an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the "load" by 1 square meter. M of the trading area. The centralized model used in the West is based primarily on the advantages of Internet technology and allows you to consolidate orders to suppliers, quickly redistribute the goods between the stores depending on the level of demand. The work of Western networks is organized by region. The regional group includes 50-60 stores that are connected through one distribution center. The maximum possible number of functions is centrally. There are uniform marketing policies, a merchandising system, a learning center, each workplace is standardized, all procedures are painted. At the same time, anywhere in the world the largest networks were not created from scratch, by building or buying stores. Everywhere it happened through the voluntary association of already existing shops or joining the wholesalers to this union.
Retail Formats are developing around the world in a single logic, and the Russian retail market repeats the main stages of market development of more developed countries. Evolution occurs against the background of the inevitable displacement of traditional forms of trade more modern.
First there are food formats that provide high traffic of buyers and quickly turning goods. In the first stages, formats that allow the high level of gross margin are developing, supermarkets, soft discounters. The first supermarkets appeared in Russia in the mid-1990s: "Seventh Continent", "Crossroads". Supermarkets have attracted consumers with high-quality branded goods and service quality, unprecedented post-Soviet buyers: around the clock work, modern design and wide range. Low competition allowed supermarkets to maintain a rather high level of prices, and low solvent demand restricted at first the possibilities of growth. With increasing competition and the appearance in one region of several supermarkets before the management of companies acutely faced the issue of optimizing activities, which led to the development of network business. Savings in this case is achieved due to discounts with a large amount of procurement, minimizing costs, centralization of management.
Soft discounters - the next stage of development in the evolution of retail formats next after supermarkets. It has led to the growth of price sensitivity. In a soft discounter, prices are supported on a constantly low level, the range is reduced to goods that are implemented the most quickly, services are minimized. The first representatives of this format in Russia were "penny" and "Pyaterochka".
Following the soft discounters, hypermarkets that implement the concept of "low prices and high quality in a large space" began to develop. This has become a new phase of increasing the price aggressiveness and efficiency of retail. Foreign players were presented the first format of hypermarkets in Moscow and St. Petersburg: "Ramstor", "Auchan". The response to the success of hypermarkets was the appearance of rigid discounters, in which the minimum prices were combined with the proximity of the location and convenience of transportation. Such is the global trend of the evolution of formats, but in Russia until a hard discounter has been developed, since this format makes very high demands on the company's internal organization and the quality of the application of modern management technologies.
Simultaneously with rigid discounters, Cash & Carry shops appear in many countries. This format is represented in Russia by the German company Metro, as well as the St. Petersburg "ribbon". The basis of the format is the orientation for small-winding trade, on professional buyers - representatives of small and medium-sized businesses. The main clients of the Metro company are representatives of the restaurant and hotel business, the so-called HoReca segment, small retail stores - traders who purchase goods for subsequent resale, and representatives of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs who are not related to the first two groups, but purchasing Recognizing its activities.
However, the specifics of the Russian Cash & Carry are that they work with retail customers. Given the assortment line and the size of the trading area, as well as the terminology, the "Metro Cache and Kerry" metro station can be conditionally attributed to the hypermarket format.
Simultaneously with hypermarkets, rigid discounters and Cash & Carry centers in Russia, the format was developed offering a unique range in places most convenient for the buyer - shops at the house.
The next step of the evolution of retail is the development of non-food formats, specialized formats, so-called Category Killers - DYI, BTE, perfumery and cosmetic networks, pharmalkets, drogheri, etc. The format of large network department stores is coming to the market (Department Stores), with the development of the market infrastructure, remote trade receives more active distribution.
The cycle of the evolution of formats in Russia is faster than in Western and Eastern Europe. This is explained by the fact that the world has accumulated extensive know-how in retail, there are many examples of the successful practice of retail, which leading Russian players actively apply. In addition, entering the market of the largest global players also contributes to the active development of retail technologies in Russia.
Features of developed countries
Industrially developed countries - states that are included in the OECD (Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development). These include Australia, United Kingdom, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Spain, Iceland, Italy, USA, Finland, etc. In total there are 24 states. Developed countries have the following main features: - a high level of such an economic indicator as GDP, designed per capita per year.Basically, its importance should be in the range of 15-30 thousand dollars. Developed countries have such an annual GDP per capita, that it is noticeable above the average level. - multi-sectoral economic structure. It is necessary to consider the fact that today the volume of services are capable of providing production over 60% of GDP. - Structure of society of social orientation. For the states of this type, the main feature is the presence of a small break in the income levels between the most poor and rich, as well as the powerful middle class, which has sufficiently high standards of life. The role of developed centers in the global economy. Developed countries in the global economy play a crucial role. Basically, in the total gross product, their share is over 54%, and in global exports - over 70%. Among the states of this level for the national economy are particular importance to those that are part of the seven (Canada, USA, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan and Italy). Listed developed countries provide about 51% of all exports and 47% of the total gross product in the world. Dominance among them over the past decades saves the United States. The role of the United States in the economy of the world.
So, the American economy quite stablely occupied the first positions according to the degree of competitiveness. However, recently, such economic leadership has significantly weakened. This fact is primarily manifested in reducing from 30% to 20% of US share in the total GDP of states of the non-socialist economic orientation.
The main reason for such a weakening of the position of America in the economy of the whole world is the fact that such developed countries, like Japan and the states of Western Europe, began to actively develop. And the impetus to this was American help. According to the US Marshall plan, certain financial resources were allocated for the restoration of the destroyed economy due to hostilities.
Thanks to these activities, deep structural changes were carried out in the economy, completely new industries were created. At this stage and Japanese, and Western European economic systems have reached the high competitiveness of the international level (an example is the Japanese and German automotive industry). However, we must not forget that, despite some weakening of the US influence on the global economy, the role of this state has always remained leading.
Group of developed countries
A group of developed (industrialized countries, industrial) includes states having a high level of socio-economic development, the predominance of a market economy. GDP per capita under PPP is at least 12 thousand dollars on PPP.The number of developed countries and territories, according to the International Monetary Fund, includes the United States, all countries of Western Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Israel. The UN joins them the South Africa republic. The organization of economic cooperation and development adds Turkey and Mexico to their number, although it is most likely developing countries, but they entered this number on territorial sign.
Thus, about 30 countries and territories include in the number of developed countries. Perhaps after official accession to the European Union of Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Cyprus and Estonia, these countries will also be included in the number of developed countries.
It is believed that in the near future Russia will be included in the group of developed countries. But for this it is necessary to go through a long way to transform its economy into a market, increase GDP at least to the pre-reform level.
Developed countries are the main group of countries in the world economy. In this group of countries allocate "seven" with the greatest volume of GDP (USA, Japan, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Canada). More than 44% of global GDP accounts for these countries, including the USA - 21, Japan - 7, Germany - 5%. Most developed countries are members of integration associations, of which the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are the most powerful.
In the UN Materials, all the variety of countries of the world is reduced to the allocation. more developed countries and less developed countries. The classification discusses 204 countries and territories - all countries of the UN members, as well as other countries and territories with a population of more than 150 thousand people. To the number more developed countries 47 countries are related to less developed - 157 (including 50 least developed countries).
More developed countries. These countries are located in Europe, Anglo-Saxon America (developed regions), they also include Japan in Asia, Australia and New Zealand.
More developed countries also include Russia and CIS member members located in Europe, while the Asian Republics to less developed countries.
Placing regions with a predominance of countries of various levels of development is a clearly pronounced geographical character. Developed countries, with rare exception, are located north of 30 ° north latitude, less developed - south. This pattern is noticed not only by geographers, in the work of economists it is called as the problem of North-South or the "geographical situation of more developed and less developed countries"\u003e center-peripherals.
Less developed countries. These countries are extremely different. These include Brazil and Tuvalu, India and Somalia, Tajikistan and the United Arab Emirates. It is in varying degrees such common features as predominantly agrarously raw materials specialization of the economy, an unequal position in the world economy, dependence on foreign capital, the most academic manifestations of global problems of humanity - demographic, food, environmental, as well as the low standard of living of the most population. Moreover, some of the less developed countries, such as oil-producing Kuwait, Brunei, in terms of the level of GNI per capita are approaching more developed countries.
Division of countries by more developed and less developed Only in general, characterizes the differences between them.
