Economy during the reign of Alexander III. Economic of Alexander III - Russia, Russia Goals of the reign of Alexander 3 economic steps of the government

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"Counter-reforms in the domestic policy of Alexander III" - Ideology. Personalities. Document. Police state. The law on the obligatory redemption by peasants of their allotments. Temporary rules on the press. Alexander III. Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. Events. Measures to mitigate the lack of land of the peasants. Regulations on measures for the protection of public order. Exit of peasants from the community. Education policy. Change of government. Domestic policy of Alexander III.

"The domestic policy of Alexander 3" - City counter-reform. The establishment of a jury in a criminal court turned out to be completely false for Russia. Zemstvo counter-reform. V.P. Meshchersky. It was not possible to completely eliminate the judicial charters of 1864. Class composition of the Zemstvo assemblies. In 1887, the property qualification for jurors was significantly increased. Emperor Alexander III. Attempts at judicial counter-reform. Land leaders. Resignation of N.P. Ignatiev.

"Counter-reforms of Alexander 3" - 1845-1894 - the years of the reign of Alexander III. Forced Russification. The activities of Alexander III are called counter-reforms. National and religious policy. Resignations. Alexander ruled in place of his deceased brother. Judicial reform. Judicial counter-reform (1887-1894). New appointments. Domestic policy of Alexander III. Circular about cook's children. Zemstvo counter-reform. What was the nature of politics?

"Economic development under Alexander 3" - Financial reform. The main directions of economic policy. Economic boom of the 90s. Results of economic policy S.Yu. Witte. Peasants. Economic development during the reign of Alexander 3. Directions of economic policy S.Yu. Witte. Development of agriculture. The main directions of economic policy N.Kh. Bunge. Features of industrial development. N.H. Bunge. N.A. Vyshnegradsky.

"Counter-reforms of Alexander III" - However, "knowledgeable people" were not elected by the Zemstvos, but were appointed by the government. Built in 1892–1916. The number of City Council meetings was limited. 1881 - "Regulations on measures to protect state security and public peace." Chief Prosecutor of the Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev. Protectionism 1897 - financial reform. S. Ivanov. Providing farmers with preferential loans for the purchase of land.

"Alexander III and his domestic policy" - The Peasant Question. Law on zemstvo district chiefs. Reign of Alexander III. Domestic policy. What events are being told. Economy under Alexander III. National and religious policy. Resignations. What tasks did Alexander III solve? The beginning of the reign of Alexander III. Pobedonostsev Konstantin Petrovich. Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. Counter-reform. Start. Labor law.

Under Alexander III, cities, factories and plants grew, domestic and foreign trade grew, the length of railways increased, and the construction of the great Siberian Railway began. In order to develop new lands, peasant families were resettled in Siberia and Central Asia.

In the late 1980s, the state budget deficit was overcome, and revenues exceeded expenditures.

The results of the reign of Alexander III

Emperor Alexander III was called "the most Russian Tsar." He defended the Russian population with all his might, especially on the outskirts, which contributed to the strengthening of state unity.

As a result of the measures taken in Russia, a rapid industrial boom took place, the exchange rate of the Russian ruble grew and strengthened, and the well-being of the population improved.

Alexander III and his counter-reforms provided Russia with a peaceful and calm era without wars and internal unrest, but also engendered in the Russians a revolutionary spirit that would break out under his son Nicholas II.

Socio-economic development of the Russian Empire at the turnXIX- XXcenturies Reforms S.Yu. Witte.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. The world has entered a new phase of its development. In the advanced countries of the West, capitalism has reached imperialist stage. Russia belonged to the "second tier" of countries that embarked on the path capitalist development.

During the post-reform forty years, Russia has made significant progress in the economy, primarily in industrial development. She has traveled a path that took centuries for the countries of the West. This was facilitated by a number of factors and, above all, the use of the experience and assistance of the developed capitalist countries, as well as the economic policy of the government of the accelerated development of the leading industries and railway construction. As a result, Russian capitalism entered the imperialist stage almost simultaneously with the advanced countries of the West. It was characterized by all the main features characteristic of this stage, although there were also its own characteristics.

After the industrial boom of the 1890s, Russia experienced a difficult economic crisis 1900-1903, then a period of long depression 1904-1908. In 1909-1913. The country's economy has made another sharp leap. The volume of industrial production increased 1.5 times. The same years saw a number of unusually fruitful years, which gave the country's economic development a solid foundation. The process of monopolization of the Russian economy received a new impetus. The crisis at the beginning of the century accelerated the process of concentration of industrial production. The corporatization of enterprises proceeded at a rapid pace. As a result, temporary business associations of the 1880-1890s were replaced by powerful monopolies - mainly cartels and syndicates that united enterprises for the joint marketing of products (Prodmed, Produgol, Prodvagon, Prodparovoz, etc.).

At the same time, the strengthening of banks and the formation of banking groups (Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International, Azov-Don Banks) went on. Their ties with industry were strengthened, as a result of which new monopolistic associations such as trusts and concerns arose. The export of capital from Russia was not on a large scale, which was explained both by the lack of financial resources and the need to develop the vast colonial regions of the empire. The participation of Russian entrepreneurs in international unions was also insignificant. Russia joined in the redistribution of spheres of influence in the world, but at the same time, along with the interests of the Russian bourgeoisie, the military-feudal aspirations of tsarism played a significant role.

Despite the high rates of economic development, Russia still failed to catch up with the leading countries of the West. At the beginning of the XX century. she was average agro-industrial country with a pronounced multistructural economy. Along with the highly developed capitalist industry, in the Russian economy a large share belonged to various early capitalist and semi-feudal forms of economy, from manufacturing, small-scale commodity to patriarchal subsistence.

The concentration of remnants of the feudal era remained Russian village. The most important of these were, on the one hand, latifundial landownership, large landowner estates, and widely practiced working off (a direct relic of corvée). On the other hand, peasant land shortages, medieval allotment land tenure, the community with its redistributions, striped stripes, which were a brake on the modernization of the peasant economy. Although certain shifts took place here, expressed in the expansion of sown areas, the growth of gross harvests of agricultural crops, and the increase in productivity, however, on the whole, the agrarian sector was strikingly behind the industrial sector, and this lag more and more took the form of an acute contradiction between the needs of the bourgeois modernization of the country and the inhibitory influence of feudal vestiges. The social class structure of the country reflected the nature and level of its economic development. Along with the emerging classes of bourgeois society (bourgeoisie, proletariat), class division continued to exist in it - as a legacy of the feudal era: the nobility, merchants, peasantry, petty bourgeoisie.

By the beginning of the XX century. leading positions in the economy of the country occupied bourgeoisie. However, until the mid-1990s, it did not actually play any independent role in the socio-political life of the country. Being dependent on the autocracy, it remained an apolitical and conservative force for a long time. Nobility, while remaining the ruling class-estate, retained significant economic power. Despite the loss of almost 40% of all its lands, by 1905 it concentrated over 60% of all private land ownership and was the most important social pillar of the regime, although socially the nobility was losing its homogeneity, moving closer to the classes and strata of bourgeois society. The peasantry, which makes up almost 3/4 of the country's population, was also deeply affected by the process of social stratification (20% - kulaks, 30% - middle peasants, 50% - poor peasants). Contradictions were brewing between its polar layers.

Class hired workers, numbering by the end of the XIX century. about 18.8 million people, was also very heterogeneous. A significant part of the workers, especially those who had recently come from the countryside, still retained contact with the land and farming. The core of the class was the factory proletariat, which by that time numbered about 3 million people, and more than 80% of it was concentrated in large enterprises.

The political system of Russia was absolute monarchy. Made in the 60s and 70s of the XIX century. a step along the path of transformation into a bourgeois monarchy, tsarism legally and in fact retained all the attributes of absolutism. The law still proclaimed: "The Emperor of Russia is an autocratic and unlimited monarch." Nicholas II, who ascended the throne in 1894, firmly grasped the idea of ​​the divine origin of royal power and believed that autocracy was the only form of government acceptable to Russia. With stubborn constancy, he rejected all attempts to limit his power.

The highest state bodies in the country until 1905 were: State Council, whose decisions were advisory in nature for the king; Senate- the highest court and interpreter of laws.

executive power was carried out by 11 ministers, whose activities were partly coordinated by a committee of ministers. But the latter did not have the character of the Cabinet of Ministers, since each minister was responsible only to the tsar and carried out his instructions. Nicholas II was extremely jealous of any major personality among his ministers. So, S.Yu. Witte, who acquired great power and influence in the ruling spheres as a result of successful reforms, was removed from his post in 1903 and appointed to the honorary, but insignificant position of chairman of the Committee of Ministers.

The unlimitedness of the tsarist power in the localities was manifested in the omnipotence of officials and the police, the reverse side of which was the civil and political lack of rights of the masses. Social oppression, the absence of elementary civil liberties were supplemented in many regions of Russia by national oppression.

The Russian Empire was multinational state, in which 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples who were subjected to national oppression in one form or another. National oppression manifested itself in different ways, depending on the level of socio-economic, political and cultural development of a particular region. At the same time, it is important to note that the standard of living of the Russian people was not higher, but more often even lower than that of other peoples. In developed regions (Finland, Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine), oppression manifested itself in the desire to unify local conditions and their specifics with the all-Russian structure. In the rest of the outskirts, where the national question was intertwined with the colonial question, semi-feudal methods of exploitation occupied a significant place, and administrative arbitrariness flourished. Tsarism not only infringed on the rights of non-Russian peoples, but also sowed discord, mistrust, and enmity among them. All this could not but give rise to a national protest. However, the split of Russian society occurred mainly not along national, but along social lines.

The difficult economic situation, civil and political lack of rights, repression and persecution have caused an ever-growing emigration from Russia. Masses of peasants rushed to work in the border states, and then to the USA, Canada, Brazil and even Australia. In an effort to avoid oppression on ethnic grounds, a considerable number of Russian subjects emigrated. And, finally, an increasingly noticeable part of the emigration was made up of people who made the struggle against the autocracy the goal of their lives.

Russo-Japanese War 1904 - 1905

The Russo-Japanese War began on January 26 (or, according to the new style, February 8) 1904. The Japanese fleet unexpectedly, before the official declaration of war, attacked ships located on the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. As a result of this attack, the most powerful ships of the Russian squadron were disabled. The declaration of war took place only on 10 February.

The most important reason for the Russo-Japanese War was the expansion of Russia to the east. However, the immediate reason was the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, previously captured by Japan. This provoked military reform and the militarization of Japan.

About the reaction of Russian society to the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war, one can briefly say this: Japan's actions outraged Russian society. The world community reacted differently. England and the USA took a pro-Japanese position. And the tone of the press reports was distinctly anti-Russian. France, which at that time was an ally of Russia, declared neutrality - an alliance with Russia was necessary for it in order to prevent the strengthening of Germany. But, already on April 12, France concluded an agreement with England, which caused a cooling of Russian-French relations. Germany, on the other hand, declared friendly neutrality towards Russia.

The Japanese failed to capture Port Arthur, despite active actions at the beginning of the war. But, already on August 6, they made another attempt. A 45-strong army under the command of Oyama was thrown to storm the fortress. Having met the strongest resistance and having lost more than half of the soldiers, the Japanese were forced to retreat on August 11. The fortress was surrendered only after the death of General Kondratenko on December 2, 1904. Despite the fact that Port Arthur could have held out for at least another 2 months, Stessel and Reis signed an act on the surrender of the fortress, as a result of which the Russian fleet was destroyed, and 32 thousand soldiers were destroyed. man was taken prisoner.

The most significant events of 1905 were:

The Battle of Mukden (February 5 - 24), which remained the largest land battle in the history of mankind until the start of the First World War. It ended with the withdrawal of the Russian army, which lost 59 thousand killed. Japanese losses amounted to 80 thousand people.

The Battle of Tsushima (May 27-28), in which the Japanese fleet, 6 times larger than the Russian, almost completely destroyed the Russian Baltic squadron.

The course of the war was clearly in favor of Japan. However, its economy was depleted by the war. This forced Japan to enter into peace negotiations. In Portsmouth, on August 9, participants in the Russo-Japanese War began a peace conference. It should be noted that these negotiations were a major success for the Russian diplomatic delegation headed by Witte. The signed peace treaty sparked protests in Tokyo. But, nevertheless, the consequences of the Russo-Japanese war turned out to be very tangible for the country. During the conflict, the Russian Pacific Fleet was practically destroyed. The war claimed more than 100 thousand lives of soldiers heroically defending their country. The expansion of Russia to the East was stopped. Also, the defeat showed the weakness of the tsarist policy, which to a certain extent contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiment and eventually led to the revolution of 1905-1907. Among the reasons for the defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. the most important are the following:

diplomatic isolation of the Russian Empire;

unpreparedness of the Russian army for combat operations in difficult conditions;

frank betrayal of the interests of the fatherland or mediocrity of many tsarist generals;

serious superiority of Japan in the military and economic spheres.

The first Russian revolution. Main stages, events and results.

The aggravation of contradictions within the country, and the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War led to a serious political crisis. The authorities were unable to change the situation. Causes of the revolution of 1905 - 1907:

the unwillingness of the highest authorities to carry out liberal reforms, the drafts of which were prepared by Witte, Svyatopolk-Mirsky and others;

the absence of any rights and the miserable existence of the peasant population, which accounted for more than 70% of the country's population (agrarian issue);

the lack of social guarantees and civil rights for the working class, the policy of non-intervention of the state in relation to the entrepreneur-worker (labor issue);

the policy of forced Russification in relation to non-Russian peoples, who at that time accounted for up to 57% of the country's population (the national question);

unsuccessful development of the situation on the Russian-Japanese front.

The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907 was provoked by the events that took place in early January 1905 in St. Petersburg. Here are the main stages of the revolution.

Winter 1905 - autumn 1905 The execution of a peaceful demonstration on January 9, 1905, called "Bloody Sunday", led to the start of workers' strikes in almost all regions of the country. There were also unrest in the army and navy. One of the important episodes of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. there was a mutiny on the cruiser "Prince Potemkin Tauride", which occurred on June 14, 1905. During the same period, the movement of workers intensified, the peasant movement became more active.

Autumn 1905 This period is the high point of the revolution. The all-Russian October strike, started by the printers' trade union, was supported by many other trade unions. The tsar issues a manifesto on the granting of political freedoms and the creation of the State Duma as a legislative body. After Nicholas 2 granted the right to freedom of assembly, speech, conscience, the press, the Union of October 17 and the constitutional democratic party, as well as the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, announce the end of the revolution.

December 1905 The radical wing of the RSDLP supports an armed uprising in Moscow. On the streets - fierce barricade battles (Presnya). On December 11, the regulation on elections to the 1st State Duma is published.

1906 - the first half of 1907 Decline in revolutionary activity. Start of work of the 1st State Duma (with a Cadet majority). In February 1907, the 2nd State Duma was convened (it was leftist in composition), but after 3 months it was dissolved. During this period, strikes and strikes continue, but gradually the government's control over the country is restored.

It is worth noting that along with the loss of government support for the army and the all-Russian October strike, the law on the establishment of the Duma, the granting of freedoms (speech, conscience, the press, etc.) and the removal of the word “unlimited” from the definition of the power of the tsar are the main events of the revolution of 1905 - 1907

The result of the revolution of 1905-1907, which bore a bourgeois-democratic character, was a series of serious transformations, such as the formation of the State Duma. Political parties were given the right to act legally. The situation of the peasants improved, as redemption payments were canceled, and they were granted the right to free movement and choice of place of residence. But they didn't own the land. The workers won the right to legally form trade unions, and the length of the working day in factories and factories was reduced. Part of the workers received voting rights. National politics became softer. However, the most important significance of the revolution of 1905-1907. is to change the worldview of people, which paved the way for further revolutionary changes in the country.

The formation of parliamentarism in Russia. 1 - 4 State Dumas.

The State Duma - a legislative, representative institution of the Russian Empire in 1906-1917 - was declared by the Tsar's Manifesto on October 17, 1905. The Duma considered bills, which were then discussed in the State Council and approved by the tsar. Multistage elections to the Duma were held in four unequal curiae. Half of the country's population (women, students, military personnel) did not have the right to vote. On February 27 (March 12), 1917, the Provisional Committee of the State Duma formed the Provisional Government. Formally, the Duma continued to exist until October 6 (19), 1917.

The composition of the 2nd State Duma (February 20-June 2, 1907) turned out to be more left-wing than the first. The central issue was agriculture. The 2nd Duma was dissolved after being accused of preparing a military conspiracy against the Social Democratic faction.

The 3rd State Duma worked from November 1, 1907 to June 9, 1912. She passed a law on June 14, 1910, aimed at the division of common lands in favor of individual owners. The law was adopted despite the protests of deputies from the peasants, who introduced their own bill, which actually demanded the liquidation of landownership. The consequence of the adoption of the law of June 14, 1910 was the rapid growth of the economic power of Russia.

Sessions of the 4th State Duma were held from November 15, 1912 to October 6, 1917. Its activity coincided with the beginning of the First World War of 1914-1918 and the political crisis that ended with the overthrow of the autocracy. Since the beginning of the war, sessions of the Duma were convened irregularly, legislative activity was carried out by the government in addition to the Duma. After the February Revolution of 1917, the Duma openly opposed the Soviets, and on October 6, 1917, the Provisional Government, under pressure from the revolutionary masses, dissolved the Duma.

Reforms P.A. Stolypin.

Stolypin Petr Arkadyevich (1862 - 1911) during the period of peasant unrest was the governor of the Saratov province. After 3 years, he became the head of the Ministry of the Interior. From July 1906, Stolypin successfully combined this position with the position of head of the Council of Ministers. By that time, Stolypin's activities had earned him fame in all sectors of society. Surprisingly, the attempt on his life by the Socialist-Revolutionaries - Mensheviks (August 12, 1906) only increased the popularity of this man. However, most of his bills were not accepted by the tsarist government.

Stolypin's idea, expressed by him at the height of the revolutionary movement, that the country needed to calm down first, and only then reforms, formed the basis of the government's program. One of the most serious problems of that time was the agrarian question. It was he who in many ways provoked the revolutionary events of 1905-1907.

Stolypin's agrarian reform, begun in 1906, provided for:

the elimination of many estate and legal restrictions that hindered the development of the economic activity of the peasantry;

the gradual introduction of private property of peasants in land plots;

increasing the efficiency of peasant labor;

the reform encouraged the purchase of land by peasants, including landlords;

The reform also provided support for the activities of peasant associations and cooperative farms.

These measures soon yielded noticeable results. The result of the agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin was an increase in the area of ​​sown land, an increase in grain exports. Also, this reform led to the final departure from feudal remnants, an increase in the productive forces in the villages. According to statistics, up to 35% of peasants left the communities, 10% of them organized farms. The differentiation of types of agricultural production by regions has intensified.

She took into account Stolypin's land reform and the problem of overpopulation in the central regions of Russia. It was supposed to solve the problem of lack of land by resettling part of the peasants in other areas, for example, beyond the Urals. The government allocated considerable sums for the settlement of settlers, laying roads, and medical care. However, the results of this reform, which was undoubtedly progressive for Russia at that time, were not sufficient to radically change the situation. The fact is that the growth of agricultural production was not due to the intensification of production, but due to an increase in the intensity of peasant manual labor. Stolypin's reform described briefly above could not completely solve the problem of hunger and agrarian overpopulation in the central regions of the country. It is worth noting that modern experts, although they put forward a variety of assessments of the Stolypin agrarian reform, but, in general, give it a positive assessment.

Russia's participation in the First World War.

The First World War was a consequence of the contradictions that arose between the states of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and the Entente (Russia, England, France). At the heart of these contradictions was the conflict between England and Germany, including economic, naval and colonial claims. There were disputes between France and Germany over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine taken from France, as well as Germany's claims to French colonies in Africa.

The reason for the start of the war was the murder in Sarajevo on June 25, 1914 of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. The attack was carried out by a member of the Serbian nationalist organization G. Princip. An international conflict broke out between Austria and Serbia, in which Russia began to support Serbia, and Germany took the side of Austria-Hungary. On August 19, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia as a response to the mobilization of Russian troops that had begun.

Military operations in Europe were divided into two fronts: Western (in France and Belgium) and Eastern - Russian. Russian troops operated on the North-Western Front (East Prussia, the Baltic states, Poland) and the South-Western (Western Ukraine, Transcarpathia). Russia entered the war without having had time to complete the rearmament of its troops. However, the high patriotic upsurge that reigned in society and the army made it possible to achieve success in the first stage of the war. Despite the failures in East Prussia, the forces of the Southwestern Front managed to carry out an operation, as a result of which the formations of the Austro-Hungarian army were defeated and Galicia was occupied. Successful operations were carried out against German troops near Warsaw and Lodz.

In the autumn of 1914, Turkey took the side of the Triple Alliance. The opening of the Caucasian front greatly complicated the position of Russia. The troops began to experience an acute need for ammunition, the situation was complicated by the helplessness of the allies.

In 1915, Germany, having concentrated the main forces on the Eastern Front, carried out a spring-summer offensive, as a result of which Russia lost all the gains of 1914 and partly the territories of Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine and Western Belarus.

Germany transferred its main forces to the Western Front, where it began active fighting near the fortress of Verdun. In April, the Russian General Staff developed a plan for a summer offensive. To support the defeated Italian and French troops, a massive offensive was launched by the forces of three fronts.

On the sector of the Southwestern Front, the corps of General A.A. Brusilov, breaking through the defenses, inflicted serious damage on the Austro-Hungarian troops and advanced significantly to the West. The "Brusilovsky breakthrough" distracted the Germans and saved France from defeat near Verdun.

Despite the revolutionary events of 1917, the Provisional Government put forward the slogan: "Continuation of the war to a victorious end."

However, two offensive attempts - in Galicia and Belarus - ended in defeat. The Germans managed to capture the city of Riga and the Moonsund archipelago.

On October 26, 1917, the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a Decree on Peace, in which all the belligerents were invited to start negotiations. On November 14, Germany agreed to conduct negotiations, which began on November 20, 1917 in Brest-Litovsk.

A truce was concluded, Germany put forward demands, which the delegation headed by L. Trotsky rejected and left Brest-Litovsk. To this, the German troops responded with an offensive along the entire front. On March 3, 1918, the new Soviet delegation signed a peace treaty with Germany on even more difficult terms.

Russia lost Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, part of Belarus. The military presence of Soviet troops in the Baltic states, Finland, and Ukraine was excluded.

Russia undertook to demobilize the army, transfer the ships of the Black Sea Fleet to Germany, and pay a monetary contribution.

February Revolution of 1917.

Since the revolution of 1905-1907. did not solve the economic, political and class contradictions in the country, then it was the prerequisite for the February Revolution of 1917. The participation of tsarist Russia in the First World War showed the inability of its economy to carry out military tasks. Many factories stopped their work, the army felt the lack of equipment, weapons, food. The transport system of the country is absolutely not adapted to the military situation, agriculture has lost ground. Economic difficulties have increased Russia's foreign debt to enormous proportions.

Intending to extract the maximum benefits from the war, the Russian bourgeoisie began to create unions and committees on issues of raw materials, fuel, food, and so on.

True to the principle of proletarian internationalism, the Bolshevik Party revealed the imperialist nature of the war, which was waged in the interests of the exploiting classes, its predatory, predatory nature. The party sought to direct the discontent of the masses into the channel of a revolutionary struggle for the collapse of the autocracy.

In August 1915, the Progressive Bloc was formed, which planned to force Nicholas II to abdicate in favor of his brother Mikhail. Thus, the opposition bourgeoisie hoped to prevent the revolution and at the same time preserve the monarchy. But such a scheme did not ensure bourgeois-democratic transformations in the country.

The reasons for the February Revolution of 1917 were anti-war sentiments, the plight of the workers and peasants, political lack of rights, the decline in the authority of the autocratic government and its inability to carry out reforms.

The driving force in the struggle was the working class, led by the revolutionary Bolshevik Party. The allies of the workers were the peasants, who demanded the redistribution of land. The Bolsheviks explained to the soldiers the goals and objectives of the struggle.

The main events of the February Revolution took place rapidly. For several days in Petrograd, Moscow and other cities there was a wave of strikes with the slogans "Down with the tsarist government!", "Down with the war!". On February 25, the political strike became general. Executions, arrests were not able to stop the revolutionary onslaught of the masses. Government troops were put on alert, the city of Petrograd was turned into a military camp.

February 26, 1917 was the beginning of the February Revolution. On February 27, the soldiers of the Pavlovsky, Preobrazhensky and Volynsky regiments went over to the side of the workers. This decided the outcome of the struggle: on February 28, the government was overthrown.

The outstanding significance of the February Revolution is that it was the first people's revolution in history of the era of imperialism, which ended in victory.

During the February Revolution of 1917, Tsar Nicholas II abdicated.

Dual power arose in Russia, which was a kind of result of the February Revolution of 1917. On the one hand, the Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies as an organ of people's power, on the other hand, the Provisional Government is an organ of the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, headed by Prince G.E. Lvov. In organizational matters, the bourgeoisie was more prepared for power, but was unable to establish autocracy.

The provisional government pursued an anti-people, imperialist policy: the land issue was not resolved, factories remained in the hands of the bourgeoisie, agriculture and industry were in dire need, and there was not enough fuel for rail transport. The dictatorship of the bourgeoisie only deepened the economic and political problems.

Russia after the February Revolution experienced an acute political crisis. Therefore, the need was ripe for the development of the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist one, which was supposed to bring the proletariat to power.

One of the consequences of the February Revolution is the October Revolution under the slogan "All power to the Soviets!".

1. Characteristics of economic policy. Alexander III. Chromolithograph. 1861. Consolidation of the Russian Empire was impossible without a powerful economic base. The emperor appointed N. Bunge, I. Vyshnegradsky, S. Yu. Witte to key economic positions. They began to patronize domestic industry, improved the tax system, and developed railway construction.

The main directions of economic policy in the 80-90s. n 1. The patronage of domestic n n industry contributed to protecting it from foreign capital (protectionism) 2. Improving the collection of taxes and customs duties 3. Improving the monetary system in order to strengthen the ruble 4. Widely attracting foreign capital (Witte) 5. Development of railway construction

N. H. Bunge. (1881 -1887) (p. vol. 2) In May 1881, N. Bunge became Minister of Finance. He advocated accelerated economic development without direct government funding. As a result of the tax reform, redemption payments decreased and the abolition of the poll tax began. In exchange, excise duties were introduced on alcohol, tobacco, sugar, oil, customs duties were increased, and spending on the reduced army was reduced. N. H. Bunge

The main directions of the economic policy of N. H. Bunge (1881 -1887) n 1. Issuance and implementation of laws favorable for the development of the economy n 2. Reform of the tax collection system, weakening the tax collection for peasants (reducing redemption payments, abolishing the poll tax n 3) Increasing state revenues through the introduction of indirect taxes in the form of excise duties on vodka, tobacco, sugar, oil, new taxes were imposed on city houses, real estate n 4) He pursued a protectionist policy, i.e., increased customs tariffs on goods imported from abroad, which contributed to the competitiveness of domestic goods

N. A. Vyshnegradsky (1887 -1892) 1. 1. 1887 N. Bunge resigned. He was replaced by I. Vyshnegradsky, who set a goal to improve the financial situation of the country. The Ministry of Finance accumulated large cash reserves and raised the ruble exchange rate. In 1891, a new customs tariff was introduced, which increased duties on imported equipment. The state began to actively intervene in the economy and attract foreign loans. N. A. Vyshnegradsky.

The main directions of the economic policy of I. A. Vyshnegradsky (1887 -1892) n 1. The main task is to quickly improve the state of money circulation, the purchasing power of the ruble n 2. He pursued an active protectionist policy and advocated the creation of the most favorable working conditions for domestic business in Russia ( now customs duties were levied not only on raw materials imported into Russia, but also on engineering products) n 3. Maintaining a wine monopoly n 4. Attracting foreign capital to Russia

4. Economic recovery of the 90s. In 1892, S. Witte became Minister of Finance. His programs included: -strict tax policy, state. monopoly on distillation, protectionism, financial reform, introduction of the gold system of the ruble, attraction of foreign capital. This program was embodied after the death of Alexander III and caused an economic boom in 90. S. Yu. Witte

The main directions of economic policy S. Yu. Witte (since 1992) n 1. Tight tax policy: heavy taxation of the peasantry, the growth of indirect taxes on consumer goods (primarily the state monopoly on vodka) - the necessary capital was released for investment in industrial production and distribution of state orders for industrial enterprises n 2. Strict protectionism - domestic industry is protected from foreign competition.

The main directions of economic policy S. Yu. Witte (since 1992) n 3. 1897 - financial reform: the introduction of a system of unified backing of the ruble with gold - the gold ruble is one of the stable European currencies, the development of banking, the expansion of foreign investment. n 4. Appeal to foreign capital (in the form of direct capital investments in enterprises or in the form of government bonded loans, which were distributed on the European securities markets). The greatest growth in foreign investment was observed in the coal industry and metallurgy.

"Golden Decade". What industries have evolved? Trans-Siberian Railway. Metallurgy developed rapidly in the south. Most of the factories belonged to foreigners. After the monetary reform of 1897, the influx of foreign capital increased sharply. In the 90s, oil production began in the Caucasus. The newly created enterprises used advanced technologies, while the labor force was cheap, which brought big profits. In 1891, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began.

Results of economic policy S. Yu. Witte n 1. Rapid pace of development. Facts? n For 13 years (1887 -1900), employment in industry increased significantly n 2. The length of the railway network doubled. The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway was completed, which contributed to the further development of this region. New railroads were laid. Since 1893 - a new railway boom. By the end of the century, Russia took the 1st place in Europe and the 2nd place in the world in terms of the length of railways. n 1) What role did railway construction play in the further industrial development of the country? n 2) What was the difference in the railway policy of Alexander 2 and Alexander 3? (document, p. 222)

The development of agriculture after the peasant reform n 1. List the characteristic features of the development of agriculture n n n 2/2 of the 19th century. 2. List the main features that characterize the landlord economy 2/2 of the 19th century. 3. What's new happened in the development of agriculture in the 80s of the 19th century (p. vol. 6) 4. In the development of agriculture, capitalist or feudal features prevailed? 5. Did agriculture develop intensively or extensively in the post-reform period? Why did the yield increase so slowly? Conclusion: the development of agriculture was dominated by feudal features with individual elements of capitalism.

Agriculture (pp. 5, 6) Agriculture developed without state support. The impoverished peasants were hired by the landlords and used their tools. Capitalism prevailed in the Baltic, the Central region and the Volga region. In a number of regions, a mixture of the two systems was observed. The North specialized in industrial crops and milk. Ukraine and the Volga region - in the production of grain.

Agriculture. Distribution of bread to the starving Peasants (1891-1892) To the south of Moscow beef cattle breeding developed. The sown area increased by 25%, but the yield grew very slowly, which was explained by the low level of agricultural equipment used by the peasants. This led to frequent disasters, in 1891-92. More than 600,000 people died of starvation as a result of the drought.

What are the features of industrial development in the late 80s-90s n 1. The rapid pace of economic development, the transformation of Russia from an agrarian into an agro-industrial country (industrial production has doubled over the past 10 years, and the output of heavy industry has increased 3 times) n 2. The high role of foreign capital in the development of industry. Why?

What are the features of industrial development in the late 80s-90s n 3. The high role of the state in the development of industry, especially railway construction n 4. But capitalism developed mainly in industry, and feudal features with individual elements of capitalism prevailed in agriculture. The predominance of feudal traits in agriculture hindered the development of capitalism in agriculture and throughout the country.

LECTURE XLI

(Start)

Financial policy in the second half of the reign of Emperor Alexander III. - I. A. Vyshnegradsky and his system. – Extreme development of protectionism in customs policy and in railway tariff legislation. – The results of this system.

Ivan Alekseevich Vyshnegradsky

In my last lecture, I described the development of that reactionary policy which, in the second half of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, successively spread to all branches of government activity and made itself felt sharply in all areas of popular and social life.

The only easing of the reactionary course that we saw back in the mid-80s, as I already told you, was felt in the Ministry of Finance, where until January 1, 1887, if not an unconditional liberal, then, in any case, a humane , an honest and democratically minded person - N. H. Bunge. But at that time he was so persecuted by all sorts of intrigues and insinuations in court spheres and in the reactionary press that, being, moreover, already at an advanced age, he finally decided to leave the post of Minister of Finance and on January 1, 1887 was dismissed retired and replaced by a new minister, I. A. Vyshnegradsky. I. A. Vyshnegradsky was a man, undoubtedly, partly prepared for this position, but of a completely different type than Bunge. He was also a scientific professor, but not a theoretician-economist, but a scientific technologist and practitioner, undoubtedly very gifted, who showed his talents both in some inventions of a military-technical nature, and in very well-established academic courses, which he taught as a professor. students at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology and at the Mikhailovskaya Artillery Academy. In particular, his contact with the military spheres through the artillery academy gave him an important advantage for the Minister of Finance: he managed to become well acquainted with the military economy and the military budget, which is such an important part of the general state budget in our country.

Thus, Vyshnegradsky appeared as Minister of Finance as a man, undoubtedly, to some extent prepared and informed - this cannot be denied to him. In addition, having early managed to make a certain fortune for himself thanks to his technical inventions, he then participated very successfully in various stock speculations and stock exchange affairs, and this area, therefore, was also well known to him. But, at the same time, it is impossible not to admit that in his management of the Ministry of Finance, and especially in his financial and economic policy, Vyshnegradsky revealed a complete absence of any broad views and far-sightedness; for him, the most important and even the only, apparently, task was a visible improvement in Russian finances in the near future. In his financial policy, he set himself the same goal that Reitern once set himself, namely, the goal of restoring the exchange rate of the credit ruble, that is, the goal that, as you know, to a large extent, all finance ministers in Russia in the 19th century But not all of them pursued her with the same measures, and not all of them considered her their only task.

Whatever it was, the course of the Ministry of Finance with the replacement of Bunge by Vyshnegradsky changed quite dramatically. Under Vyshnegradsky, the main and immediate task of the ministry became the accumulation of large cash reserves in the cash departments of the state treasury and wide participation with the help of these reserves in foreign exchange transactions in order to put pressure on the foreign money market and in this way raise our exchange rate. At the same time, in customs policy, the Russian government began to move with new energy along the path of protectionism, which reached its climax under Vyshnegradsky. In 1891 a new customs tariff was issued, in which this system was taken to the extreme. At the same time, considering the strengthening of the Russian manufacturing industry to be a very important matter for the success of its measures, the Ministry of Finance begins to listen with extreme attention to all complaints and wishes of representatives of large-scale factory industry and undertakes, on their initiative, to revise what is, in fact, still very little developed factory industry. legislation that was worked out in the interests of the workers under Bunga. Under Vyshnegradsky, the rights of factory inspectors established under Bunga are extremely diminished not so much by new legislative norms as by means of circular explanations, which very soon affect the composition of the factory inspectorate, because under these conditions the most devoted and independent representatives of this inspectorate, seeing the complete impossibility of acting in accordance with their conscience, and even in accordance with the exact meaning of the law, retire. Thus the institution of factory inspection is greatly changed for the worse. Russian large-scale industry, thanks to a number of protective measures - and in particular the careful attitude of the Ministry of Finance to the question of the direction of railway lines beneficial for the domestic manufacturing industry and of such railway tariffs that would strictly correspond to the interests of large-scale industry, especially the central, Moscow region, is becoming in this time in especially favorable conditions. It can be said that these favorable conditions are artificially created for it; it becomes a favorite brainchild of the Ministry of Finance, often contrary to the interests of other segments of the population and especially contrary to the interests of all agriculture, the state of which was especially unfavorably affected by the protective customs tariff of 1891, which extremely increased the price of such important items in agricultural life as, for example, iron and Agreecultural machines. Agreecultural equipment.

Meanwhile, at this time, we not only do not see an improvement in the condition of the masses of the people, despite all the palliative measures taken under Bunga, but, on the contrary, we observe the continuing ruin of the peasantry, which I described to you in one of my previous lectures. In the end, however, this undermines the conditions for the domestic sale of products of the manufacturing industry, which satisfies the needs of the broad masses of the people, for example, the conditions for the sale of products of the paper-weaving industry. The impoverished domestic market soon becomes cramped for her. To some extent, compensation for it is the external market in the east, acquired by conquests in Central Asia, but it soon turns out that this is not enough, and now we see that towards the end of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, a new idea is gradually being created - to promote the sale of our products. industries as far east as possible. In connection with this is the idea of ​​building the Siberian railway - an idea that is being developed very widely; is the question of access to the Eastern Sea, of acquiring an ice-free port in the Far East, and in the end, all this policy, already before our eyes, leads to the emergence and development of those enterprises in the Far East, which are already in the ministry of S. Yu. Witte in at the very beginning of the 20th century. led to the Japanese war and the collapse that followed.

To put an end to financial and economic relations during the period under review, I will say a few more words about the expansion of our railway network, which has played an extremely important role here. By the end of the reign of Alexander II, the railway network did not exceed 22.5 thousand versts, and during the thirteen-year period of the reign of Alexander III it had already developed to 36,662 versts, of which 34,600 were broad-gauge. In the matter of building railroads, the old policy of Reitern was supported in the sense that these railroads, as before, were directed in such a way as to, on the one hand, facilitate the transport of raw materials to the ports and thus, precisely by increasing exports, create a favorable moment for our balance of trade and for improving exchange rate, and on the other hand, as I mentioned, the ministry sought, through the establishment of differential railway tariffs, to create the most favorable conditions for the transportation of products of the factory industry of the central provinces. To this end, even a special institution was created within the Ministry of Finance - the Tariff Department, headed by S. Yu. in a wider arena, in solving the common political problems of our time.

Another feature of the new railway policy, a feature opposite to Reitern's policy, was the construction of roads by the treasury and the purchase of the old private railway lines into the treasury. During the reign of Emperor Alexander III, the length of state-owned railways increased by 22,000 versts, while the length of private roads, despite the construction of new private lines, decreased by 7,600 versts due to the redemption of old lines to the treasury.

These are the general features of the financial policy, which undoubtedly prepared and deepened a new aggravation of Russian socio-economic conditions at the beginning of the 20th century. These conditions developed hand in hand with the crisis that the Russian population had to endure after the crop failure of 1891-1892, which caused extreme poverty and even famine in as many as twenty, mostly black earth, provinces. This crisis was, so to speak, the final touch in the general picture of Russia that we see at the end of the reign of Emperor Alexander III, and at the same time was a powerful factor in those changes in subsequent years that will, perhaps someday, form the subject of the next part of my course on the final period of the history of Russia in the 19th century.

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Economic policy of Alexander III was aimed at solving two most important tasks: accelerating the economic development of the country and supporting and strengthening the positions of the nobility.

In solving the first task, the head of the Ministry of Finance, N. Kh. Bunge, focused on expanding the domestic market, simultaneously raising agriculture and industry, and strengthening the position of the middle strata of the population. At the same time, he advocated the development of tax legislation conducive to the development of industry’ and agriculture, and opposed state financing of industry.

May 9, 1881 a law was adopted to reduce the size of redemption payments and write off arrears on them for previous years. A December 12, 1881 a decree was promulgated on the transfer of all temporarily liable peasants to compulsory redemption by January 1, 1883. 1886 all state peasants were transferred to redemption payments. The losses incurred by the treasury were supposed to be covered by a 1.5-fold increase in the land tax, the tax on urban real estate, and excise rates on tobacco, alcohol and sugar.

The gradual abolition of the poll tax (1882-1886) was accompanied by the development of other forms of taxation: income from cash deposits increased, excises increased, commercial and industrial taxation was transformed, customs duties were almost doubled.

Burdensome for the country's budget was the system of state guarantees of income for private railways. Under N. X. Bunga, control over the railway sector was introduced and the state began to buy out private railways and finance the construction of state-owned railways.

In 1883, the creation of joint-stock private banks resumed. In 1885, the Noble Land Bank was created, designed to support landownership (N. Kh. Bunge opposed its creation).

In January 1887, N. H. Bunge resigned under pressure from conservatives who accused him of being unable to overcome the state budget deficit. I. A. Vyshnegradsky (1887-1892), who replaced him, was a well-known mathematician and at the same time a large stock exchange businessman. He retained the general direction of the economic and financial policy of his predecessor, but he focused on the accumulation of funds and the appreciation of the ruble through financial and exchange transactions.

Vyshnegradsky increased protectionism in customs policy. In general, for 1880-1890. the increase in import duties brought about an increase in revenue of almost 50%. In 1891, a general revision of the customs tariff was carried out with the aim of its centralization and the elimination of local tariffs. Thanks to the protectionist customs policy, the import of foreign capital into Russia increased (during 1880-1890 from 98 million rubles to 2-15 million).

Taxes were again increased (on land, on city property), in 1887 an excise tax on kerosene and matches was introduced, and the size of the drinking excise tax was raised.

As a result of a successful exchange operation in 1888-1890. Russia's external loans were converted from 5% to 4%.

At the end of the 80s. finally managed to overcome the state budget deficit. By 1893, the revenues of the treasury had increased by 60% compared with 1880, and expenditures by 36%. In monetary terms, revenues exceeded expenses in 1893 by almost 100 million rubles. ‘

Alexander III

Alexander the Third (1845-1894) - the penultimate Russian emperor. Ruled Russia since 1881. He was the second son of Alexander II and was not going to succeed his father on the throne, but in 1865 his older brother Nicholas died and he became the first contender for the throne.

Economic policy of Alexander 3

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage wars, for which the tsar received the nickname "peacemaker"

Brief biography of Alexander III

• 1845, February 26 (old style) - was born
• 1865, April 12 - after a serious illness, Alexander's elder brother Nikolai died and Alexander became a contender for the throne of the Russian Empire
• 1866, June 17 - engagement of Alexander and the Danish princess Maria Sophia Frederica Dagmar (1847-1928)
• 1866, October 28 - the marriage of Alexander and Maria Sophia Frederica, who became Alexandra Feodorovna
• 1869, March - during an audience, Alexander spoke rudely with the head of the cartridge factory, Captain Karl Gunnius, cursed him obscenely. Gunnius sent a letter to the Tsarevich demanding that he apologize, threatening that he would shoot himself if no apology was forthcoming. The Tsarevich did not apologize, and the captain kept his word. Alexander II, angry with his son, ordered him to follow the coffin of Gunnius at his funeral

K.I. Gunius, the son of a pastor from the Livland province, a graduate of the Mikhailovsky Artillery School, a military officer, who received the Order of St. Stanislav 3rd degree with swords and a bow and a silver medal "For the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan" for his distinction in operations against the mountaineers in the Caucasus, in 1861 In 1992 he was seconded to the Arms Commission of the Artillery Committee, where he specialized in rifle systems. The name of Gunnius is associated with the arming of the Russian army with rifles of the Berdan system (famous Berdans)

• 1881, March 1 - Alexander II was killed by terrorists
• March 3, 1881 - Alexander III ascended the throne
• 1883, May 15 - coronation in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin

• 1881, March 30 - Pobedonostsev’s report urging the new emperor “not to succumb to the“ voice of flattery and dreaminess ”and not to abolish the death penalty for the terrorists who killed Alexander II, to which the new tsar replied:“ Be calm, they won’t dare to come to me with such proposals no one, and that all six will be hanged, for this I vouch"
• 1868, May 6 - son Nicholas was born, the future Emperor Nicholas II, killed in 1918
• 1869, May 26 - son Alexander was born, died April 20, 1870
• 1871, April 27 - son George was born, died June 28, 1899
• 1875, March 25 - daughter Xenia was born
• 1878, November 22 - son Mikhail was born
• 1882, June 1 - daughter Olga was born
• 1888, October 17 - the collapse of the royal train near the Borki station, 50 kilometers from Kharkov. The royal family, who was in the dining car, remained intact, but the roof of the car collapsed; Alexander was said to have held her on his shoulders until help arrived.
  1894, October 20 - due to an injury received in a train crash, Alexander III died

Reforms and counter-reforms of Aleksandar III

• 1881, April 29 - "Manifesto on the inviolability of autocracy", which announced a departure from the liberal policy of the past reign. The Manifesto called on "all faithful subjects to serve faithfully and truthfully to eradicate vile sedition that dishonors the Russian land, to affirm faith and morality, to bring up children well, to exterminate untruth and theft, to establish order and truth in the operation of all institutions"
• 1881, May 6 - "circular to the heads of the provinces." signed by Count Ignatiev: “the great and widely conceived transformations of the past Reign did not bring all the benefits that the Tsar-Liberator had the right to expect from them. The manifesto of April 29th indicates to us that the Supreme Power has measured the enormity of the evil from which our Fatherland suffers, and has decided to begin to eradicate it.
• 1881, August 14 - Law "Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Order and Public Peace" - an emergency measure to combat the revolutionary movement
• 1881, December 28 - decrees on the reduction of redemption payments for peasants and on the mandatory redemption of land by former serfs
• 1882, May 3 - regulation of the Committee of Ministers "On the procedure for bringing into force the rules on the Jews", tightening restrictive laws against Jews
• 1882, May 18 - Regulations on the Peasant Bank, intended for issuing loans to peasants for the purchase of land
• 1882, June 1 - Law prohibiting the work of children under 12 years old, introducing an 8-hour working day for children from 12 to 15 years old, forbidding children to work at night, on Sundays and in hazardous industries
• 1882, August 27 - "Temporary rules on the press" with new censorship restrictions
• 1883, April 26 - the law on noble escheatable property, according to which property after hereditary noblemen is turned into the property of a noble society
• 1883, May 3 - the law on the Old Believers, which provided them with a relatively legal status
• 1884, April - the publication of the liberal journal "Domestic Notes" was discontinued
• 1884, June 12 - Law more strictly regulating the appointment of jurors
• 1884, June 13 - "Rules on parochial schools", according to which two- and four-year schools were created in the villages
• 1884, August 23 - new University Charter, which raised tuition fees, introduced mandatory uniforms and abolished the autonomy of universities
• 1885, April 21 - the Noble Bank was created, which issued loans to the nobles on favorable terms
• May 20, 1885 - An act that significantly expanded the powers of the Minister of Justice in overseeing the organization of trials in the courts and control over sentences and decisions
• 1885, October 30 - Alexander III reacted to Pobedonostsev's report, which proposed a return to the pre-reform system of justice: "" Thank you very much for the note sent on the reform of the judiciary"

The judicial statutes of 1864, however, were not radically reformed because this was facilitated by the position of broad sections of society, mainly bourgeois x

• 1886, March 18 - a law that made it difficult for peasant family divisions, since this required the consent of the head of the family and 2/3 of the village assembly
• 1887, January 1 - from this day the poll tax was canceled - the tax that the population paid for the maintenance of the army
• 1887, April 28 - The law "On changing the rules for compiling lists of jurors" established an educational qualification for jurors - the ability to read Russian, and also increased the property qualification
• 1887, June 5 - Circular "On the reduction of gymnastic education", which prohibited the admission to the gymnasium of "children of coachmen, lackeys, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people, whose children, with the exception of perhaps gifted with brilliant abilities, should not at all strive for the average and higher education.

  It is popularly nicknamed "The Cook's Children Circular"

• 1887, August 16 - it was decided that the order of St. Vladimir of the 4th degree (reporting the nobility) can be requested to persons of non-noble origin only after serving in class ranks for at least 20 years
• 1889, July 12 - "Regulations on zemstvo district chiefs", which introduced the position of an appointed zemstvo chief, who had administrative and judicial functions, abolished the world court in villages and villages, which only aggravated hostile relations between peasants and nobles, who were appointed zemstvo chiefs
• 1889, July 7 - changes in the statute of criminal proceedings, limiting the jurisdiction of jurors
• 1890, June 12 - The new "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which reduced the rights of zemstvo assemblies and legitimized elections by estates with a decrease in the number of vowel peasants in favor of the nobles
• 1891, February 25 - Decree on the beginning of the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway
• 1891, August 21 - an agreement between Russia and France on consultations on all political issues. Start
• 1892, June 11 - new City Regulations with changes in the electoral system: the electoral qualification was increased, which cut off small and medium-sized owners from participating in elections, the rights and independence of city governments were limited
• 1892, July 9 - the awarding of ranks to persons of the merchant class, as well as persons not enjoying the rights of public service, was discontinued - for unofficial distinctions.
• 1893, July 8 - Law on land redistribution
• 1893, December 14 - Law on measures to prevent the alienation of peasant allotment lands. Both laws limited the rights of the community to redistribute land and assigned allotments to peasants for at least 12 years.
• 1893, July 20 - a wine monopoly was introduced, giving the state the exclusive right to produce alcoholic beverages, which significantly increased the flow of money to the budget
• 1893, May 14 - Regulations on the state apartment tax

Reasons for the counter-reforms of Alexander III

They are simple. Alexander II freed the peasants from serfdom, carried out many important liberal reforms, but did not please everyone, both right and left. “Oh, so,” his son said to his subjects, “didn't you like the previous reign? With me it will be the other way around.”

The result of the reforms and counter-reforms of Alexander III

- Significant decline in revolutionary and terrorist activity
- Restoration of the authority of the Orthodox Church
- Industrial growth
- State revenue growth
- Revolutionary, liberal ideas were not defeated, but driven inside in order to actively manifest themselves under the son of Alexander III, Nicholas II

* - military-political bloc of Russia, Great Britain and France, created as a counterweight to the "Triple Alliance" of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy

More articles

The desire of Alexander III to strengthen the greatness of the Russian Empire was unthinkable without the creation of a powerful economy. Under him, the government made energetic efforts aimed at developing domestic industry and capitalist principles in the organization of production. In May 1881 the post of Minister of Finance was taken by a prominent scientist - economist N.Kh. Bunge. He was a supporter of the acceleration of economic development, he was against the direct financing of industry by the state. Bunge reduced the redemption payments for the peasants and began the gradual abolition of the poll tax. He introduced excise taxes (excise - an indirect tax on consumer goods) on vodka, tobacco, sugar, oil; raised customs duties on goods imported from abroad.

In 1887 I.A. became the Minister of Finance. Vyshnegradsky - financier, inventor. The Ministry of Finance has accumulated large funds to participate in transactions on foreign exchanges.

Economic policy in the reign of Alexander III

He was for the active participation of the state in economic activity and, especially, in creating favorable conditions for private entrepreneurship. Vyshnegradsky was in favor of attracting foreign capital to Russia, for introducing a wine monopoly.

In 1892, S.Yu. was appointed Minister of Finance. Witte. He developed an economic program in which he continued the work of his predecessors. This program included:

- an increase in indirect taxes, the introduction of state. monopoly on vodka;

- further increase in customs duties;

- monetary reform to strengthen the ruble, the introduction of its free exchange for gold;

- Widespread attraction of foreign capital to the country.

By 1887 there were - 2 metallurgical plants, by the 90s. there were 17 of them. In 1897. The monetary reform strengthened the position of the ruble, which made it possible to increase the inflow of money from abroad. Since the 90s the oil industry in the Caucasus experienced rapid growth. All enterprises created in the 90s. were new enterprises. They used advanced technology, introduced the latest forms of large-scale production.

Agriculture. The impoverishment of the peasants forced the landlords to switch to using their own equipment and hiring free workers. The landlords of the Baltic, western, southwestern parts of the country, as well as St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl and Saratov provinces organized the cultivation of their lands in a new way. In the 80s. the specialization of agriculture in individual regions has noticeably increased. The Polish and Baltic provinces, as well as Pskov and St. Petersburg, switched to the cultivation of industrial crops and milk production. The center of the country's grain economy: the steppe regions of Ukraine, the Lower Volga region. In the Ryazan, Oryol, Tula and Nizhny Novgorod provinces, animal husbandry was developed. The sown area at that time increased by 25%, by 30% - the total harvest of grain.

The active economic policy of the government of Alexander III made it possible to significantly strengthen the country's finances and gave a new impetus to the growth of industry. At the same time, the development of agriculture was still hampered by serfdom remnants and technical backwardness.

Control questions and tasks:

1. Describe the socio-economic development of Russia in the first third of the 19th century.

2. List the causes of the economic crisis in this period.

3. What were the specific features of the industrial revolution in Russia in the first half of the 19th century?

4. How did the liberal reforms of Alexander II contribute to the socio-economic development of Russia?

5. What is the essence and significance of the counter-reforms of Alexander III?