The nature and dynamics of the country's economic development are the subject of close attention of economists and politicians. From what processes and structural changes occur in national economy, much depends on the life of the country and its prospects.
- a multidimensional process covering all areas economic activity... The indicators of the dynamics of economic development are numerous, the main one being GDP / ND per capita.
Due to the difficulties in measuring the process of economic development, it is most often analyzed, i.e. change in the volume of goods and services produced in the country, although this is only one of the criteria for economic development.
Economic development and its level
The essence of economic development
Economic development of society is a multifaceted process covering economic growth, structural changes in the economy, an increase in the level of, etc.
This process does not always follow an ascending line, it includes periods of growth and decline.
So. in Russia in the 90s. the transformation was accompanied by a sharp decline in production, degradation of the economic structure, and the level and quality of life decreased for the majority of the population.
distinguish between developed countries(USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden, France, Australia, etc.); developing(Brazil, India, etc.); least developed(mainly the states of Tropical Africa). According to some indicators, Russia can be classified as a developed country, and according to others, it can be classified as a developing state.
Indicators of the level of economic development
A variety of historical and geographical conditions, a combination of material and financial resources at their disposal different countries, do not allow assessing the level of their economic development by any one indicator. For this, there is a whole system of indicators, among which the following stand out first of all:
- GDP / NI per capita;
- structure of the economy;
GDP / NI per capita is the leading indicator of the level of economic development. In 2002, GDP per capita, measured in purchasing power parity, in Luxembourg was $ 51,060, which is more than 100 times the GDP per capita in the poorest country, Sierra Leone (490) and even higher. than in the US (35,060), although the economic potentials of the US and Luxembourg are incomparable. In Russia, the per capita income of the population in the same year was $ 7,820. This is the level of a developing country of the upper echelon (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina) rather than a developed one.
In some developing countries (for example, Kuwait), the GDP / NI per capita is quite high, but the sectoral structure of the economy does not meet modern requirements. Developed countries are characterized by a low share of agriculture and other sectors of the primary sector, a high share of the secondary sector (primarily due to the manufacturing industry, especially mechanical engineering; the predominant share of the tertiary sector, primarily due to education, health care, science and culture, the residential and commercial sector ). The sectoral structure of the Russian economy is characteristic, rather, for a developed than for a developing country.
The indicators of the level and quality of life are numerous. This is primarily life expectancy, the incidence of various diseases, the level health care, the state of affairs with personal safety, education, social security, the state of the natural environment. The indicators of the purchasing power of the population, working conditions, employment and unemployment are of no small importance. An attempt to summarize some of the most important of these indicators is the index human development, which includes indices (indicators) of life expectancy, population coverage in education, living standards (GDP per capita in purchasing power parity). In 2001, the index in Russia was 0.779, which was slightly higher than the world average and is still lower than in 1985 (0.811), although higher than in 1995 (0.776). In developed countries, it is approaching 1, and in the least developed countries it was below 0.6, dropping even to 0.275 (Sierra Leone).
The level of economic development of a country, which determines the degree of its participation in the world economy
Variety of combinations of indicators of economic development different countries allows you to assess the level of economic development of a particular state not from any one point of view, but comprehensively. For this, several basic indicators and criteria are used, in particular:
- absolute and relative ();
- and per capita income;
- the sectoral structure of the country's exports and imports;
- the level and quality of life of the population.
It should be emphasized that the level of economic development of a country and its participation in the world economy is a historical concept. Each stage in the development of the national economy and the entire world economy as a whole introduces certain adjustments in the composition of the main indicators.
For a long time, domestic literature has practiced the division of the world into two opposite socio-economic systems (earlier - even into two camps) - the world capitalist economic system and the world socialist economic system. Accordingly, within the framework of the international division of labor, the international socialist division of labor and the international capitalist division of labor were considered, and within the framework of the world market - the world capitalist market and the world socialist market (with the understanding, however, that there is both a single world economy and a world division of labor) ... At the same time, all countries of the world were divided into three groups: developed capitalist, developing and socialist states. Such a grouping had a pronounced ideological coloration, stemming from the bloc policy of confrontation and a bipolar vision of the world, although it had a certain objective basis. With the collapse of the socialist system and the USSR as a single state, the approach used in the United Nations became more objective.
Within the framework of the UN, which united the entire world community, a grouping of countries was adopted without the use of ideological terms:
- with a market economy;
- and territory;
- countries with centrally planned economies.
At the turn of the 90s, when radical socio-economic and political transformations began in most of the socialist countries, in the UN publications, instead of a group of countries with a centralized planned economy, two groups were singled out: the countries of Eastern Europe (including the USSR), which were called countries with economies in transition, and the socialist countries of Asia (China, Vietnam, DPRK, Mongolia). The UN statistics classifies Yugoslavia, Cuba and Laos as developing countries.
There are several approaches to determining the place of a country in the world economy. The simplest of them is the division of the world economy into groups of countries according to the level of income per capita.
This approach is used by the UN, IMF, IBRD (absolute indicators of per capita income by countries are calculated annually). For example, the IBRD distinguishes between three groups of countries according to the level of per capita income. In 2005, the following boundary values for annual per capita income were determined: low level income - no more than $ 755, below average - from $ 756 to $ 2995, above average - from $ 9265.
In another approach, the role of the country in the world reproduction process is determined.
The world, but its socio-economic nature, is extremely heterogeneous. In the 90s of the last century, it was possible to distinguish three groups of countries: industrialized countries with a market economy, which form, as it were, the framework of the world economy; developing countries(or third world countries); countries with economies in transition, represented mainly by the states of Eastern Europe, as well as by Russia, which are on the path of developing new forms of management.
Developed countries with market economies constitute the core, the core of the world economy, decisively determine the course of processes in the world market, in the international division of labor, in international monetary and credit relations, in scientific and technological progress. UN statistics place almost all countries in this group. Western Europe(except Malta), USA and Canada, Japan, Israel, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Despite all the differences, these states are of the same type in their economic structure, have a high level of economic and social development.
Developing states and territories with market economies are the largest, most diverse and complex group in the modern world economy. The UN statistics include most of the countries in Asia, Africa, Oceania, Latin America, Malta and the former Yugoslavia to it.
But it would be a mistake to draw too sharp a line between these groups. For example, today a whole group of developing countries in Southeast Asia, in particular South Korea, Hong Kong (since 1997 - the province of China, Xianggang) and Taiwan, as well as Brazil, Argentina for a number of economic indicators it is logical to refer to the number of industrially developed states of the world. However, in terms of the level of other important indicators (the depth of social contrasts, uneven regional development, etc.), they traditionally belong to the group of developing countries.
At the same time, some of the undoubtedly developed states seem to be lagging behind in the qualitative transformations of the national productive forces, which hinders the growth of social labor productivity. So, in the countries of Eastern Europe and Russia, it is only about 50% of the level of the countries of Western Europe.
Industrialized countries with market economies
This group consists of 25 states with a population of 1.2 billion people (23% of the total world population). They concentrate about 70% of world GDP, give 70-75% of world industrial production. The gross domestic product per capita in these countries ranges from 10 to 25 thousand dollars. They account for about 70% of the world foreign trade turnover.
Industrialized countries are the main producers of industrial and agricultural products, despite the emerging trend towards a slight decrease in their share in world production.
Developed countries are characterized by two main features - a relatively even distribution of income and a relatively even economic development of the territory. They are characterized by the social orientation of the economy, in particular, the support of low-income strata of the population (pensioners, students, disabled people, etc.). Large investments in science (2-3% of GNP) and the introduction of all achievements into production determine a high intellectual level of labor. Humanization of the economies of developed countries means high percent expenses for medicine, education, culture. Significant costs and security environment(3-4% of GNP), which confirms the high level of greening the economy.
In industrialized countries, there is a decline in the role of the "lower floors" of the industry (traditionally extractive industries) and, at the same time, an increase in production in the "upper floors" due to the development of industries high tech... Transfer of "low-skilled" industries to developing countries and keeping only the upper part industrial complex Is nothing more than a kind of tool to compete with low-level countries wages, with the import of cheap products from the countries of "new industrialization". Developed countries are exporters of not only industrial products, but also capital.
According to their role in world politics and economy, these countries can be conditionally subdivided into three groups.
The first is formed by the seven main countries: USA, Japan, Germany, France. UK, Italy and Canada. Their leadership is determined not only by the size of the territory and population, but also important role in world politics and economics, a high level of labor productivity, undeniable successes in the development of science and technology. Some of these countries were the metropolises of large colonial empires and derived considerable profits from them. Among these countries, of course, one can include Russia and talk about the G8.
The second group (14 countries) is formed by small European states characterized by a high level of socio-economic development (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, etc.). They often act as a link in economic and political relations between the countries of the first group. Individual countries of the group under consideration occupy very prominent positions in world trade and politics.
The third group includes the countries of "resettlement capitalism" (Australia, South Africa, Israel).
Developing countries
Most of the countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are developing countries or third world countries. They represent a special group of states that differ in their originality historical development, socio-economic and political specifics.
Speaking about their similarity, it is necessary to note the colonial past and the associated multi-structured economy, the rapid growth of the population, its poverty, and illiteracy. They are characterized by the agrarian-mineral-raw material specialization of the economy and, accordingly, the weak development of the manufacturing industry, the narrowness of the domestic market, and a subordinate place in the world economy. At the same time, these countries have their own characteristics.
In typology, it is important to take into account the level of development and structure of the state's productive forces and those features of socio-economic reality that most accurately reflect both the current situation and the country's immediate prospects. Using these criteria, one can distinguish five CFPs of developing countries.
The first group should include the most developed countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, Uruguay, etc.), as well as some of the "newly industrialized countries" in Asia (Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong).
The second group is made up of oil-exporting countries with unique resources, figuratively speaking, “stuffed their pockets” with petrodollars (Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, etc.). Their characteristic features are: high per capita income, solid natural resource potential for development, an important role in the energy raw materials market, and financial resources, favorable economic and geographical position. The relationship between oil revenues and population size creates specific conditions for the accumulation of gigantic wealth. Thus, oil revenues in Kuwait account for 95% of the budget revenues, and in Saudi Arabia- 80%. There were 7,000 petrodollars for every Kuwaiti citizen in 2005. For comparison: in the United States, on average, there are 90 petrodollars for every citizen, and in Russia - 11.3.
The third group, the most numerous, unites countries with an average level of general economic development for the liberated countries, an average size of GDP per capita (about $ 1,000). This includes Colombia, Guatemala, Paraguay, Tunisia and others.
The fourth group is worth highlighting India, Pakistan and Indonesia - countries with vast territories and populations, natural resource potential and opportunities for economic development. These states have occupied a prominent place in the system of international economic relations, have caused a powerful inflow of external resources in the form of investments of foreign capital. But low levels of production and consumption per capita (GDP per capita - about $ 300-500) noticeably slow down their socio-economic development.
The last, fifth group includes the least developed countries of the world (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Somalia, Chad, etc.). Some of them are landlocked, while others are poorly connected to the outside world. In this group of countries, per capita income is extremely low (for example, in Ethiopia - $ 120), pre-industrial forms of labor prevail everywhere, and agriculture dominates the economy. It is these countries that form the basis of the list of least developed countries approved by the UN.
Countries with economies in transition
Since the early 1990s, this group includes the countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR... They have significant economic potential and for the last 10-15 years they have been busy with the transition (transformation) from authoritarian political regimes to pluralism, a multi-party system and democracy, from a centrally controlled economy to a market economy.
A lot of common features can be traced in the paths of historical and socio-economic development of these countries, especially in the second half of the 20th century. After the end of World War II, they all embarked on the path of socialist transformations. In most of them, industrialization and agricultural cooperation were carried out. Their share in the world industrial production in the early 90s exceeded 10%. However, the administrative-command methods of managing the economy, the slow introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and huge military expenditures led to a slowdown in economic growth and an increase in labor productivity.
The consequence of this was the lagging behind the West in technical progress, the lack of competitiveness of most finished products in the world market, a drop in the standard of living of the population, and inflation. It became obvious that such a non-market model of organizing the economic and social order, which does not take into account the national characteristics of the development of the countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR, turned out to be ineffective and unacceptable for them.
Change of political and state leadership in Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania in 1989-1990. and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 led to a radical turn in the political, economic and social development these countries.
The group of countries with economies in transition consists of 27 countries and produces about 23% of world GDP. All these countries are developing along the path of catching-up development and, with varying degrees of success, carry out or complete the transition to market economy... Some of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) have practically reached the level of developed countries with market economies, joined the European Union, and introduced a single European currency, the euro. Other CEE countries such as Bulgaria and Romania, although they have joined the EU, are still far from developed industrialized countries in terms of their economic performance. The former republics of Yugoslavia are at different stages of transition due to the prevailing military events and civil unrest over the past 15 years.
In the CIS republics, the transition is also carried out at different speeds. The most lagging behind are Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. And Kazakhstan and Ukraine, on the contrary, are gradually carrying out economic reforms. At the same time, it is impossible not to take revenge on the decisive role of political influences on the course economic reforms in post-Soviet countries. The wave of so-called color revolutions that took place in Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan in connection with the struggle of national elites for power, sharply worsened the economic situation of these countries, slowed down the course of economic reforms, despite the active assistance of Western stakeholders.
Thus, in countries with economies in transition, systemic reforms are being carried out, the components of which are: liberalization of economic life (reducing the role of the state in the economy); institutional transformation (emergence and development private property, institutions of private property, institutions of competition); structural transformation (overflow of financial and other resources into those industries that, in the context of competition in the domestic and foreign markets, bring the greatest profit); reforming legislation and the social sphere.
Reforms began in the 1990s and led to financial crises and economic downturns in most transition economies. In most of the CIS countries, the volume of GDP over 10 years (from 1990 to 1999) declined by about 40%. The largest decline - up to 60% - was observed in countries with interregional conflicts and civil unrest: Moldova, Tajikistan, Armenia. In the CEE countries, the economic decline lasted no more than two to four years, the GDP contracted by about 15-20%.
Since the beginning of the XXI century. practically in all countries with economies in transition, the rate of economic growth has grown significantly and amounted to 6-8% per year, which exceeds the rate of GDP growth in developed industrial countries. During the transformation of the socio-economic system, the CIS countries laid the foundation for a market economy of a new political system. At the same time, significant differences remain in the economic situation of individual countries. The economies of these countries have become much more open, the share of foreign trade in the GDP of these countries, foreign investments on their territory increased, however, with the general growth in the volume of foreign economic relations, the volume of mutual trade of the CIS countries decreased.
At the end of the first decade of the XXI century. one can state the actual completion of the transition of the post-socialist countries of CEE, with the exception of Belarus and Turkmenistan, from a one-party system and a planned economy to a multi-party democracy and a market economy. Thus, the paradigm transition period practically implemented.
However, the processes of globalization of world economic relations, which received an impetus for their development at the end of the 20th century, substantially changed the approach to determining the place of the national economy in the world economy. Not socialist or capitalist countries, not developed industrial or developing countries, but the center and periphery of the world economy - this is how the question stands in early XXI v.
Russia's place in the world economy and international economic relations
The Russian economy is an integral part of the world economy, and its foreign economic relations form a link in international economic relations.
The peculiarity of Russia's participation in the world economy is that until 1992, all economic development was carried out within the framework of a single centralized planned economy of the Soviet Union, a single national economic complex with a high degree of integration and single management.
For a long time, the economy of the USSR developed in isolation from the world economy, on the principles of autarky; external economic ties, especially in the 30-50s, were minimal and did not correspond to a significant economic potential country. Since the 60s, the participation of the USSR in the world economy has been expanding - initially mainly within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and on the basis of ties with a number of developing states, and then with developed states Western Europe and Japan.
Until the mid-1980s, the USSR's inclusion in world economic relations was based largely on an ideological basis, on the basis of the confrontation between two socio-economic systems and the military confrontation between two superpowers (the USSR and the United States) and two military blocs (the Warsaw Pact and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO).
The isolation of the USSR economy from the world economy had a number of negative consequences... The main one is technical and technological lag. The scientific and technical revolution, which led to a radical restructuring of the economies of developed countries and the world economy as a whole in the 70s and 80s, somehow bypassed the economy of the USSR (with the exception of some branches of the military-industrial complex) and its CMEA partners. Meanwhile, the extensive factors and advantages of central planning, which played a positive role in certain stages economic development were exhausted, crisis phenomena were growing, economic growth slowed down or even stopped.
One of the goals of perestroika, announced in the mid-1980s, was to include the USSR in the system of world economic relations, which was supposed to accelerate economic development and overcome technical and technological backwardness.
Since 1992 Russia (Russian Federation) has been an independent subject of the world economy and international economic relations. The international community has recognized The Russian Federation the legal successor and successor of the disintegrated USSR. She took the place of the USSR in international organizations, including the UN and the Security Council, recognized all international treaties and agreements signed by the USSR, and assumed the rights and obligations established by them. Russia inherited the status of a great power, including from a military point of view, including the possession of nuclear weapons.
Russia's participation in international economic organizations as she joined the leading international financial institutions- International Monetary Fund and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and a number of others. Relations between Russia and interstate integration associations have been established, including The European Union, it has become a full-fledged member of the G8, and the process for joining the World Trade Organization is nearing completion.
At the same time, according to the most important economic indicators, Russia's place in the world economy is significantly lower than its potential provides.
Few people like to live in weak developed country, because this implies a low standard of living. Many times I myself wanted to go far away. The main thing is to make life sweeter and easier. But then the question arises: what will happen to the country if everyone leaves? Who will deal with the economy, the level of development of which is directly related to the development of the state?
The level of development of the economy - what a beast
There is nothing complicated in this matter, because we know very well what an economy is. This is the totality of all the wealth of the country (it does not matter, extracted from the bowels of the earth or created by human hands), which the population can use and uses for the benefit of the state, seeking to improve their life at home. But how to understand when the level of development is good, and when it fell below the plinth? Yes, the answer "to feel everything on your own skin" is to some extent correct, but it is not worth bringing the situation to this point, because there are certain indicators by which you can calculate the development of the economy in a separate area of the territory.
What indicators affect the development of the economy
The main indicator for the country is GDP, or gross domestic product. This is exactly the value that can be written in bold everywhere. It is considered most often per unit of population, and the higher the figure, the more developed the country is considered.
In addition, there are several more important indicators:
- labor productivity (determined by how much product is created in a certain unit of time, and the higher the value, the better);
- labor intensity (in simple terms, this is productivity on the contrary - the time spent on the production of one unit of output, ideally this indicator should be as low as possible);
- the value of the gross national product;
- the general standard of living of the country's population (in countries with a well-developed economy, it will be significantly higher).
The country's economy directly depends on how developed the economy is in the country, and on the latter, in turn, the standard of living of people. From the standard of living - the number of people capable of developing the economy. It turns out a vicious circle.
To assess the level of economic development of the country, to determine the place of the country in the international community, the method of comparisons is used, based on the comparison of the corresponding systems of indicators. Many countries use the US development level when comparing.
When comparing the level of economic development of countries, the following system of indicators is used: GDP, GNP and ND - their total volume and calculations per capita, the structure of the national economy, production of the main types of products per capita, the level and quality of life of the population, indicators economic efficiency... However, this system can change with the development of national economies.
The most important groups of indicators are as follows.
Total volume and calculations per capita population GDP, GNP and ND. When comparing them, the following conditions must be observed: first, the compared indicators must be reduced to one year or to the same period; secondly, they need to be brought to a single currency, taking into account purchasing power national currencies, i.e. by their purchasing power parities (PPP) and taking into account the commodity structure of GDP, i.e. taking into account consumer spending of families, capital investments (market, paid goods and services), social services of the state and other current government spending(military and civil, i.e. non-market goods and services). If these conditions are not met when comparing, then the real picture of the country's development is not reflected.
The sectoral structure of the national economy. Its analysis is based on GDP calculated by industry. When comparing the level of development by sectoral structure the relationship between material and non-material production, industries and large economic complexes is being studied. Here, the specific weight of mechanical engineering, chemical industry, i.e. industries providing scientific and technological progress, as well as the proportion of fuel and energy, agro-industrial, construction, defense and other complexes.
Production of the main types of products per capita. These indicators make it possible to judge the country's capabilities to meet the need for the main types of products that are most significant for the development of the national economy (for example, electricity production, steel smelting and the production of rolled products, metal-cutting machines, cars, mineral fertilizers, etc.) gt; as well as meeting the needs of the population in food products, durable goods (washing machines, televisions, refrigerators, etc.).
Standards of living. It is estimated according to such indicators as GDP per capita, the structure of GDP use, especially the structure of final consumption expenditures (personal consumption expenditures). To analyze the standard of living, the following indicators are used: consumer basket, cost of living, average life expectancy, educational level of the population, per capita consumption of basic food products in calories and protein content, skill level labor resources, the number of pupils and students per 10 thousand of the population, the share of education expenditures in GDP; as well as indicators characterizing the development of the service sector (the number of doctors per 10 thousand of the population, the number of hospital beds per 1,000 of the population, the provision of housing, etc.). V last years To determine the quality of life, the Human Development Index (HDI) is used, which is used as an alternative to GDP to measure the socio-economic development of a country. It allows one to assess the nature and priorities in the development of the country, to give a visual comparison of its achievements. HDI is an integral indicator of human development, consisting of three components: longevity, education and living standards. Longevity is measured by life expectancy, educational attainment is measured by a combination of adult literacy and average years of schooling, and living standards are measured by real GDP per capita adjusted for the local cost of living (PPP). The HDI value ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 is min, and 1 is check. If the HDI is 0.5 or less, it is assessed as low; 0.5 to 0.8 is medium and 0.8 to 1 is high.
Economic efficiency indicators to the greatest extent characterize the level of economic development of the country, directly or indirectly reflecting the quality, state and level of use of fixed and working capital, labor resources. These include: labor productivity, capital intensity of a unit of GDP and a specific type of product, capital productivity of a unit of fixed assets, material consumption of a unit of GDP or a unit of production, etc. Increasing production efficiency is the main requirement for state regulation of the economy and the most important qualitative characteristic of production, reflecting the level of development of productive forces and the degree of meeting the needs of society.
How economic category the efficiency of the functioning of the economy reflects the relationship regarding the achievement of the desired result and the costs incurred. It is efficiency that most characterizes the level of economic development of the country, directly or indirectly reflecting the quality, state and level of use of all types of resources involved in the production process.
Efficiency can be calculated at various levels: at the level of the national economy, individual regions, industries, enterprises, organizations, firms, households, as well as at the level of individual entrepreneurial projects. When assessing the effectiveness of the national economy as a whole as a macroeconomic system, one should proceed from two most important components: economic efficiency and social acceptability. This suggests that the choice of an effective strategy for sustainable economic development should be based on the real resource base of the Republic of Belarus and bring economic benefits to the entire society. Ultimately, the assessment of the effectiveness of the functioning of the Belarusian economy should be associated with the dynamics of the well-being of the people, based on a consistent rise in the republic's productive forces.
At the same time, the productive forces of the republic should be considered in their broad sense - not only as a labor force, means of labor and objects of labor, but as the entire production potential of the country, including scientific and creative potential, technological innovation, entrepreneurial resource, organizational and structural factors, etc. etc.
Reflecting quality characteristics social production, efficiency is expressed in quantitative indicators, for example, as the ratio of the achieved result to the corresponding costs or resources. Indicators can be presented in absolute and relative terms. The assessment of production efficiency must be carried out not by any one indicator, but by their complex, since a number of factors affect the production efficiency, and only the use of a system of complementary indicators allows us to draw correct conclusions about the level of efficiency.
The set of numerous indicators of the efficiency of social production can be represented through the corresponding groups of indicators.
First, they can be resource-intensive or costly. For example, labor productivity, capital productivity, profitability of production assets are resource indicators: their denominator reflects resources (number of employees, fixed production assets, fixed and circulating production assets). And such indicators as the cost per ruble of marketable products, material consumption of marketable products are cost indicators. Both groups of indicators are legitimate, but not equivalent and cannot be reduced to one another. Second, the indicators used can reflect total costs, for example, production costs per ruble of GDP, ND, or the use of a specific resource (energy intensity, metal consumption). Thirdly, they can differ from each other in the construction methodology: level, tempo, incremental. Fourth, they can be absolute and relative. And, fifthly, in kind and in value.
All these indicators are applied to the object under consideration - the national economy as a whole, industry, ministry, firm, enterprise. The choice of this or that indicator depends on the goals and tasks to be solved, as well as on the specific object, the effectiveness of which is calculated.
Increasing the efficiency of social production is aimed at obtaining a better end result at the level of the entire national economy. In the most generalized form, the final result of social production in quantitative and qualitative terms is characterized by the growth rate of GDP per capita.
The following indicators are of greatest importance in assessing the efficiency of social production:
- labor productivity (for the national economy as a whole, for individual industries, for types of production);
- return on assets;
- material consumption of GDP, produced goods and services.
Performance social labor(Fri) is the most important indicator of the efficiency of social production and reflects both the efficiency of living labor and
economy of social labor, embodied in the means of production. It is calculated as the ratio of the produced gross domestic product (GDP) to the number of workers employed in the sectors of the national economy (H):
I am
™ c
The growth of the productivity of social labor is the main factor in the growth of social production, national income, growth of the people's well-being, decisions social problems development of society. The index of growth (decline) in productivity is calculated as the ratio of GDP per one worker in the production of goods and services in the corresponding period compared to the previous one.
The share of the increase in gross domestic product (Gross Domestic Product) as a result of an increase in labor productivity is determined by the formula:
x 100
where АЧ is the growth rate of the number of employees; Hell is the pace
growth of gross domestic product.
At the level of industries (enterprises), labor productivity can be calculated as the ratio of gross value added to the average number of employees.
The dynamics of labor productivity is determined by the change in its two constituent elements - the volume of production and the number of industrial and production personnel. In turn, each of these elements is determined by the influence of a whole group of factors, acting, as a rule, in different directions. The following groups of factors have the greatest impact on performance:
- technical level of production (equipment, technology);
- organization of production and labor, quality of labor;
- Production Management;
- structural changes in production;
- redistribution of capital resources in the country;
- change in demand, etc.
Return on assets characterizes the efficiency of the use of fixed assets in the national economy as a whole and in its individual sectors, at enterprises and is calculated by the formula:
where Fo - capital productivity, V - gross domestic product (value added); F - average annual cost basic production assets.
Capital productivity is the weakest link in economic efficiency and the most significant part of the underutilized potential of social production in the Republic of Belarus. Over the course of a number of years, it has had a pronounced downward trend. Of course, increasing the return on assets is not always necessary and possible. Return on assets is formed under the influence of a number of factors of a multidirectional nature. For example, the rise in the cost of buildings, structures, equipment in order to create better working conditions and safety, the use of new progressive technological processes will always be a brake on the growth of capital productivity. However, the challenge here will be to seek its solution at the expense of other factors.
A relatively powerful production potential has formed in the republic, represented by basic production assets, but a significant part of it is physically and morally outdated. In this regard, the most important problem of the current stage of development of the national economy is to ensure the expanded reproduction of fixed assets on a new technical basis.
Material consumption, calculated at the national economic level, characterizes the level material costs(raw materials, fuel, energy), respectively, per unit of GDP, and at the level of individual industries or enterprises - the efficiency of using objects of labor.
The calculation of material consumption at the level of the national economy is carried out according to the formula:
where Me - material consumption; M - the cost of used raw materials and materials, fuel, energy, materials and semi-finished products, etc.
To assess the level of use of fuel and energy resources and metal costs, the indicators of energy intensity and metal consumption of GDP are used.
Energy intensity is an indicator characterizing the level of consumption of fuel and energy resources within the country per unit of GDP, respectively.
Metal consumption is an indicator that characterizes the level of metal consumption per unit of GDP, respectively.
The global economy of material resources is one of the most important signs of intensive economic development. This problem is very urgent for the Republic of Belarus. This is due to the fact that most of the republic's industries operate mainly on imported raw materials, materials, and fuel. Through imports, the industry provides 90% of its demand for oil, 100% for natural gas and coal, 100% for cotton, about 75% for rolled ferrous metals, up to 90% for steel pipes, 79% for cellulose. , about 60% - in cement, 89% - in vegetable oil, 69% - in sugar.
In these conditions, the provision of material resources to the branches of the national economy should develop in the following directions:
- the formation of economically effective ties both on the part of the CIS and other states of Europe and Asia;
- worldwide resource conservation;
- consistent structural restructuring of the economy.
To solve the problem of resource conservation at the state level, a set of measures has been developed aimed at ensuring and rational use of material resources. All-republican programs ("Energy saving", "Resource saving") combine measures to reduce the material consumption of products, rational use of waste, etc., and also provide for their organizational and economic support. They cover specific methods of management and promotion of material saving activities. So, in accordance with the "Resource Saving" program, it is planned to develop and master resource-saving technologies, release new products and materials based on the use of secondary resources and production wastes. Within the framework of the Energy Saving Program, it is planned to create new energy-saving technologies and equipment, to produce heat pump units for utilizing secondary energy resources and gas distribution equipment for drying with simultaneous utilization of waste gases.
Resource-saving activities should also be ensured government regulation consumption of the most important resources by limiting their unit costs, rational use of substitutes scarce resources, as well as stimulating resource conservation through preferential lending and taxation, through financing, a differentiated system of depreciation deductions, a pricing system, etc.
According to experts, the consumption of material and fuel and energy resources in the republic can be reduced by 20-25%, but this level can be achieved only in stages within 10-15 years. In accordance with the Program of socio-economic development of the Republic of Belarus for 2001-2005, it is planned to reduce the material consumption of goods and services over the five-year period by 6-7%, the energy intensity of GDP - by 20-25%. The basis for the reduction should be the development and implementation of material and energy-saving technologies focused on the optimal use of raw materials and materials.
A group of characteristics reflecting the features of the processes occurring in the state, they show the state of the economy in different time intervals - past, present and future.
Economic indicators of the country
Various indicators of the economy help to recognize the approach of negative changes in the country's financial sector. Depending on the type, their calculation is carried out weekly, monthly, every quarter and year. Among the many economic characteristics, the most common are worth considering:- National income. This value, which is a macroeconomic parameter, reflects the income of the citizens of the country for a certain period of time.
- GNP. Gross National Product - the value of the volume of products and services rendered related to the national economy (both within the state and abroad).
- Competitiveness Index. It serves to determine the prospects for the national economy.
- GDP (gross domestic product). It shows the total cost of all services and goods produced in the country for a certain period of time.
- Economic growth rate. The calculation of this figure, which is published monthly, is based on GDP. It displays the growth or deceleration of the economy.
- Unemployment rate. This indicator is not always reliable. After all, part of the country's population is employed unofficially.
- Housing construction, real estate sales. The larger this value, the better for the country. In Russia, the pace of construction of new facilities has been increasing in recent years. This situation has a beneficial effect on the national economy.
- National wealth. This value for a certain period of time reflects all the benefits of society and the country as a whole. When calculating the indicator, human and Natural resources, social and productive capital.
Types of economic indicators
Experts divide the indicators of the economy into several broad groups. Depending on the scale of the assessment, the values are: local, that is, they relate to a separate economic entity and sectoral (reflect the state of a certain field of activity). The same group includes world economic indicators and characteristics state level(GDP, GNP, national income etc.).The second category is relative and absolute indicators that allow you to analyze changes in the economy, make forecasts using different values. Depending on the type, economic indicators are divided into aggregated and simple ones.
