History of the economy. Textbook. Industrial revolution in Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries Gradual improvement in people's lives

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

GOUNPO Vocational School No.

abstract

on the topic: Industrial revolution in Russia in the 19th century: stages, features.

Completed:

Checked:

Sterlitamak 2006

Introduction 3

Chapter 1: "The beginning of the industrial revolution, its features" 5

Chapter 2: The Stages of the Industrial Revolution 11

Conclusion 17

References 19

Introduction

Industry in the general system of the economy in the first half of the 19th century. played a subordinate role. However, in terms of growth rates, industrial production significantly outpaced agricultural production. In the structure of Russian industry, its location, organization, technical equipment, and the composition of workers at that time, phenomena were observed that were unknown or almost unknown in the previous century.

A distinctive feature of the pre-reform economy was the uneven distribution of industrial production throughout the country. The main industrial provinces were the central non-chernozem and northwestern ones. To their share in the early 60s. 19th century accounted for 70% of the cost of all industrial production. Three provinces - St. Petersburg, Moscow and Vladimir - were distinguished by the highest level. The general level of industrial development of other regions was much lower: the Chernozem center - 6.6%, Ukraine - 5.1%, Urals - 4.4%.

Among the industries, the manufacturing industry occupied a dominant position. Within this industry, the main ones were textile (cotton, linen, woolen, silk) and distillation. Heavy industry was dominated by metallurgy (ferrous) and metalworking.

A characteristic phenomenon for the industry of Russia at that time was the parallel and interconnected development of all three forms of industrial production organization: crafts, manufactories and factories. Along with the general intensive growth of peasant crafts, small-scale urban industry, and manufactories, the process of growing small-scale production into manufactory, the transition from manufactory to factory mechanical production, intensified.

Small-scale commodity production in the manufacturing industry surpassed large-scale industry in terms of the number of workers and the size of output. It produced goods for the mass consumption of the peasantry and the lower classes of the urban population (fabrics, shoes, clothes, dishes, household utensils, agricultural implements, construction details, etc.). At the same time, new types of crafts arose that served the interests of the nobility and the urban elite (silk weaving, the manufacture of galloons and braids, lace making), as well as art crafts (the manufacture of carpets, popular prints, toys, icons). In the first half of the XIX century. the development of small-scale production is characterized by a deepening of the economic specialization of individual regions, an increase in exchange between them, and an increase in the role of intermediary buyers of finished products.

Small-scale, predominantly peasant, production grew into a manufactory of various types - scattered, mixed and centralized. The most massive was the manufactory with a distributing system, lighthouses (special weaving huts in the villages), a buyer and other attributes of early capitalist relations. Capitalist manufactory, including the one that grew out of small-scale trades, clearly supplanted manufactory based on forced labor, which, nevertheless, continued to exist until the very reform of 1861.

Chapter 1. "The beginning of the industrial revolution, its features"

The set of economic, social and political changes that occurred as a result of the transition from manufacture to the factory stage of capitalist production is commonly called the industrial revolution. This process had two sides - technical (transition from manual to machine labor) and social (formation of the industrial bourgeoisie and industrial wage workers). Most historians and economists attribute the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia to the turn of the 30-40s, and its completion to the 80s-90s. 19th century First of all, this process began in the textile industry (primarily cotton), later in mining. In connection with the transition to machine technology, labor productivity increases (three times by the middle of the century), the pace of economic development accelerates, and the sectoral structure of industry is gradually changing.

A number of changes are associated with the initial stage of the industrial revolution in Russia. These include the systematic technical transformations that have begun in certain branches of production: the installation of steam boilers and steam engines, the use of mechanical spindles in paper spinning, mechanical looms in weaving, cylinder machines and perrotin in calico printing, mechanical dressing of paper in stationery enterprises, puddling in metallurgy and etc.

Metallurgical industry.

The leading place of Russia in the supply of iron to the international market was quickly lost. Based on serf labor and backward technology, the mining industry proved uncompetitive, and its products were replaced by English, much cheaper iron, produced by the puddling method. The main role in the mining industry was still played by the Urals, which produced about 4/5 of the output. Individual Siberian factories continued to operate, as well as the so-called out-of-Moscow factories located in the central provinces of European Russia. The southern metallurgical center, which belonged to the future, had not yet taken shape: the state-owned Lugansk plant, created in the 18th century, remained ineffective so far. He, however, played at that time a significant role in the development of coal mining in the Donets Basin.

In the metallurgical industry, the construction of factories and the growth of output slowed down extremely. The use of puddling began in the Urals. The stagnation in the mining industry made itself felt during the years of construction of the country's first railway between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoye Selo. Rails for her in 1837-1838. were imported from abroad: Russian factories were able to provide construction with metal less than one percent.

The leading place in the smelting of pig iron, the production of iron, and also in the extraction of copper belonged to private - patrimonial and property factories.

A special place in the mining industry in the pre-reform decades was occupied by gold mining in the Urals, Siberia, and also in Kazakhstan, where private capital also rushed. Since the end of the 40s. when washing the gold-bearing sands, machines are beginning to be used more and more widely.

Manufacturing industry.

The most significant changes have taken place in the manufacturing industry. Cotton production in Russia began with the last stage of the production process - with a heel on calico imported from abroad. Then cotton weaving from imported yarn appeared, and only then did our own paper spinning from cotton imported into the country. The spread of weaving in this industry proceeded not only and even not so much through the founding of manufacturing enterprises at once, but in the form of scattered manufactory, the development of small-scale, mainly domestic peasant production into manufactory. As for paper spinning, it began in Russia immediately from the stage of mechanized production.

In the first decades, the main centers of cotton production were also determined - the Shuisky district of the Vladimir province, and especially the village of Ivanovo, and Moscow with some districts of the Moscow province. During the first two decades of the nineteenth century the growing needs of the army in soldier's cloth and lining fabric - karazee - provided the cloth industry with a permanent customer - the treasury. But at the same time, this limited the development of the industry: cloth manufactories, overwhelmingly sessional, were obliged to make only those cloths that the army needed, and in the quantity that was assigned to them. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the forced supply of cloth to the treasury was abolished and replaced by a trading system. At the same time, merchant manufactories began to spread, working for the market and producing fine cloth.

In the mid 40s. a number of enterprises installed various machines for finishing operations, while weaving was carried out mainly on manual looms. Steam engines were a rarity.

The sailing and linen industry, which flourished in the 18th century thanks to the foreign market and supplies to the treasury, lost its position with the development of the production of cheaper cotton fabric.

Steamboats, which forced out the sailing fleet, cheaper machine-made production of linen in England, more and more decisively reduced its export from Russia. However, work for the treasury remained. At the same time, the export of raw materials increased, which was caused by the demand of English flax mills. One of the reasons for the non-competitiveness of sailing and linen enterprises in comparison with cotton enterprises was also a weaker degree of their mechanization.

But at the same time, in this industry, there was a steady growth of merchant and peasant enterprises based on wage labor. In the stationery industry, which operated at the turn of the century almost exclusively on the basis of serf labor from the second half of the 30s. machine production began to spread, and in 1850 already 40% of the production was produced by machines.

New industries.

Of the new industries that developed in the second quarter of the 19th century, it should be noted the sugar beet industry, machine building and coal mining. For a long time, Russia consumed cane sugar imported from abroad. The existing sugar refineries in St. Petersburg and some other cities used imported granulated sugar. At the beginning of the XIX century. there is own beet sugar production, which began to grow noticeably from the 30s and 40s.

The industrial revolution is a general historical phenomenon that characterizes a certain stage in the development of capitalism. Initially, the industrial revolution was understood as a series of technical inventions of 1760-1830 that changed the conditions of production in many industries. In 1884, the English scientist A. Toynbee introduced the term "industrial revolution" into scientific circulation, denoting a qualitative leap in the development of productive forces. It begins in industrial production and spreads to all spheres of labor and production (including agriculture), causing the growth of cities and influencing all aspects of life and life of society. The end result of this process was the emergence of modern industrial civilization (Table 8).

industrial revolution(industrial technical revolution) - a system of economic and socio-political changes based on the transition from manual to machine labor.

The industrial revolution, therefore, meant a fundamental change in the organizational and economic level of the structure of the economy of developed countries, since it was associated with the transition from manufactory to factory.

Factory- a form of organization of large-scale production, based on the use of a system of machines and complex labor cooperation in terms of node specialization of part-time workers.

Table 8

Background, sources and consequences of the industrial revolution

The end of the table. eight

In general, the industrial revolution affected 1.5 Kondratiev cycles: 1790-1840/50. - the period of the formation of the actual factory production (the cycle of the industrial industrial revolution Kondratiev); 1840/50-1890 - "bourgeois cycle" Kondratiev. These are the first cycles of the endogenous type, associated with basic technological innovations, the successful implementation of which was accompanied by changes in other parameters of the economic system. The removal of technological restrictions on manual labor, and then the elimination of the limits on the productivity of water and steam engines, deepened the process of rationalizing production. The industrial revolution became the starting point of industrialization.

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all sectors of the national economy and, above all, in industry.

In Western economic theory, it is customary to distinguish three main models of industrialization: traditional, command and market. The traditional model corresponds to relatively undeveloped societies based on rural structures and characterized by isolation, stable customs and subsistence production. Its prerequisite is not only the inevitable shortage of resources, but also "zero growth", that is, in conditions where resources are limited, there is only one way to generate income - at the expense of other classes, industries or sectors of the economy. As a result, communal or state power takes over the functions of redistribution. In contrast, the command model can be characterized by economic growth, although it has to reckon with a lack of resources. It is aimed at solving the priority political tasks set by the state. The market model assumes “super-zero growth” as its premise. It is determined by the minimum redistributive functions of the state and the market regulation of the price system to provide incentives for production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each model ultimately reflects differences in the perception of the world, due to the dissimilarity of human capabilities, ethical attitudes, social or political priorities. In the history of the economy, various combinations of these factors determined the path of industrialization of different states.

Necessary prerequisites for successful industrialization:

presence of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurial culture;

· the existence of legal and political institutions that encourage entrepreneurship in a free market and private property.

6.2. Features of the industrialization of the Western world

England is the first country to start and complete the industrial revolution, becoming the "workshop of the world". Favorable conditions contributed to this:

· long-term development of commodity-money relations has led to the formation of industrial demand for finished products and goods;

· a significant concentration of capital in private hands (by 1750 - income from state rent reached only 3%);

· the completion of the agrarian revolution, which contributed to the formation of the labor market and the concentration of land;

Changes in agriculture (the three-field system was replaced by crop rotation (cereals, turnips and clover), which led to an increase in productivity;

· the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which stimulated the development of capitalism;

· geopolitical factor, characterized by the absence of foreign invasions;

· resource base: a small amount of forests has led to attempts to replace wood with other types of fuel.

Table 9

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in England

The English model of industrialization, which began with an industrial revolution in light industry, then spread to the basic industries and ended with the appearance of machine production itself, was called the “towards the mouth” model. .

The development of the industrial revolution and industrialization led to significant changes in the structure of the English economy. In the middle of the nineteenth century. imports of agricultural products put an end to the development of the country's agriculture. Export-oriented heavy industry is especially developed. The demographic structure is changing: the share of the urban population by the end of the nineteenth century. is 75%. However, after the industrial revolution, the English economy begins to develop cyclically, increasingly experiencing crises, the first of which were noted as early as 1815-1816 and 1819. (Table 9).

In France, the industrial revolution developed at a slower pace. The first machines appeared in industry at the end of the 18th century, but the industrial revolution came only in 1815-1830, and ended in the 50s-60s. nineteenth century Features of the industrial revolution in France:

unfavorable factors;

· incompleteness of the agrarian revolution, small capacity of the domestic market: weak financial incentives, wars and revolutions;

large population, developed foreign trade;

favorable factors.

Table 10

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in France

Thus, the industrial revolution in France is characterized by the initial rise of manufacturing industries using labor-intensive methods, and the subsequent development of basic industries with their capital-intensive technologies. Such a model was called "toward the source" in contrast to the English one. An important feature of French industrialization was its duality: the existence, along with new large enterprises capable of providing mass production of standard products, a decentralized system of small and medium-sized enterprises specializing in the production of piece products. In addition, more than half of the national income was created in agriculture, that is, France became an agro-industrial country. However, the conclusion about the inefficiency of the French model of industrialization is not supported by the latest research. A system based on labor-consuming manufacturing and integration back to the source was well adapted to the country's capabilities. This allowed France to become one of the original leaders of the industrialization process, which, as F. Caron wrote, “was neither completely victorious nor completely defeated” (Table 10).

The emergence of large-scale machine production in Germany occurs only in the second half of the 19th century. The main reason for this situation was the preservation of political fragmentation and the feudal regime in agriculture and handicrafts. The prerequisites for the process of industrialization were created by the French Revolution of 1789-1794, the Napoleonic Wars, which led to the partial abolition of feudal duties in the occupied territories, and the agrarian reforms of the early 19th century, which resulted in a special Prussian path for the development of capitalism in agriculture.

The Prussian way of development of capitalism in agriculture is the process of dispossession of the peasantry, which received personal freedom, and the creation of large Junker farms.

Of particular importance for the industrial revolution was the beginning of the economic unification of the German principalities within the framework of the Customs Union, which strengthened their internal ties and international positions.

Table 11

Stages of the Industrial Revolution in Germany

Economic backwardness of Germany in the first half of the XIX century. led to a much stronger role for the state.

Command economy methods in Germany:

· provision of protective tariffs;

· provision of state orders for heavy industry;

· Encouraging innovative banks to increase investment;

· the formation of a dual system of prices - low export and high domestic.

Germany was also able to take advantage of the late industrial revolution. Using technological equipment from more developed countries, German industry had the opportunity to more quickly create domestic engineering (especially in the military field). The change in the structure of production allowed Germany to take a leading position in many industrial indicators, including the concentration of production, labor and capital (Table 11).

The development of the industrial revolution in the United States proceeded in conditions different from European countries:

1) a huge sparsely populated area (25 people per 1 sq. km, for comparison: in France - 100 people);

2) rapid population growth (1790 - 4 million; 1840 - 17 million; 1850 - 50 million), which contributed to the rapid creation of new markets;

3) the organizational and economic level of the structure of the economy is represented by handicraft production, mainly metalworking;

4) cheap labor associated with the preservation of slavery;

5) non-equivalent trade with the UK;

6) a clearly defined agricultural orientation of the economy.

The formation of the state (1776) played a special role in creating favorable conditions for the industrial revolution. The War of Independence eliminated both the tendency to impose feudal orders on the part of the metropolis and the real elements of feudalism in the field of agrarian relations. The final formation of the so-called "American way" of the development of capitalism in agriculture was secured by the Homestead Act in 1862.

American way of development of capitalism in agriculture- the development of the economy of farmers who received land from the state and are free from paying absolute land rent.

the revolution destroyed numerous obstacles to the development of industry and trade, introduced by England at one time (“iron”, “corn” and “money” laws), and control over natural resources passed from the English king to a private entrepreneur. the creation of the state contributed to the formation of a unified transport and monetary system, the formation of an internal market and the expansion of foreign economic relations. However, the consequences of the War of Independence 1775-1783. affected mainly the northern and central states. The change in the agrarian economy of the southern United States began after the Civil War of 1861-1865. and the abolition of slavery abolitionism.

Table 12

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in the United States

The exceptionally fast growth rates of industrial production in the USA were accompanied by processes of its concentration. The share of the country in world production also increased at an unprecedented pace. So, in 1860, the United States provided 17% of world industrial output, in 1870 - 23%, and in 1880 - already 28%, overtaking all countries of the world and practically catching up with England (Table 12).

Japan back in the 60s. 19th century remained a feudal country. The development of the industrial revolution here begins after the Meiji Isin Revolution - the unfinished bourgeois revolution of 1867-1868. Taking into account the weak readiness for the industrialization of the country, the government embarked on the path of planting "state capitalism". The state at the expense of budgetary appropriations with the use of foreign experience created a national industry. In the 80s. the government decided to reorient its policy towards the all-round development of private capitalist industry with the implementation of denationalization measures. To do this, state-owned enterprises began to be sold on preferential terms or leased out to privileged representatives of the bourgeoisie and people from the high nobility. Among them were the so-called demonstration enterprises - the firms of Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Furukawa, Yasuda, Asodo, Kawasaki and others. an influx of cheap foreign goods. At the same time, the government subsidized primarily the development of enterprises that worked for the army and navy, as well as for communications and transport. Among the main branches of Japanese industry, light, primarily textile, excelled. The industry was dominated by small enterprises. A distinctive feature of the Japanese economy was the existence of a special system of zaibatsu, a kind of holding company, operating under the control of several influential families. The latter were shareholders in numerous companies that employed a large number of contractors. Such relations made it possible to maintain the hierarchy inherited from the feudal system. At the beginning of the XX century. protectionist government policies prompted a restructuring of the Mitsui and Mitsubishi family businesses, which gradually evolved to the group model.

In 1905-1907. In Japan, the industrial revolution is coming to an end, which is reflected in the structure of the economy.

Features of the structure of the economy in Japan at the beginning of the 20th century:

metallurgy, textiles, shipbuilding, large enterprises with machinery;

handicraft and home industries, craft workshops and manufactories.

6.3. Development of the financial system

The era of the industrial revolution was accompanied by the reorganization of the financial system, due to the rapid development of credit institutions. The need for capital, experienced by both the state and private entrepreneurs, stimulated the development of the process of centralization of temporarily free funds and demand for them in banks. Their most important functions at that time were mediation in settlements and the provision of loans, the implementation of which led to the creation of specific credit means of circulation: banknotes and checks. The complication of banking functions in the XIX century. affected the structure of the banking system. If from the seventeenth century until the middle of the nineteenth century. in every developed country there were several issuing institutions that received from the government the privileged right to issue money, then in the 50s. a single bank is vested with the monopoly right to issue. This is determined by the need to concentrate in a single place gold reserves, which at that time provided coverage for the issue of banknotes and were used in international payments. Thus, the Bank of England (established in 1694) received a monopoly right to issue in 1844 on the basis of Peel's law. The French bank (founded in January 1800) receives for a period of 15 years the privilege to issue only in Paris, then after the Restoration this right extends to branches. In the USA, Germany, Italy, Japan, such transformations occur much later.

Initially, the functions of issuing banks coincided with those of deposit banks: banknotes were certificates of deposited metallic money. However, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. issuing banks were able to issue paper money on three occasions:

banknotes were issued in exchange for metal coming from private individuals;

· when rediscounting commercial bills previously discounted by deposit banks;

· when conducting open market operations (purchase and sale of securities on the money market).

The most important outcome of the era of the industrial revolution was the emergence in many developed countries of a nationwide fund of funds - the budget. In their revenue part, the main place (from 80 to 90%) was occupied by taxes.

Reasons for the reorganization of the tax system in the XVIII-XIX centuries:

Expansion of the sphere of commodity-money circulation;

· the policy of stimulating the economy;

an increase in government spending.

The main part of the existing taxes are indirect, included in the prices of consumer goods. For example, at the end of the eighteenth century in England, the only country with an extensive but homogeneous system of taxation, direct tax was 1/4 of government revenue. The main taxes were excise and local taxes on the maintenance of the poor. In France, among the main taxes were the excise tax on luxury goods and drinks, as well as a direct tax on peasants (taglia), traditional duties, including the billeting of soldiers, a salt tax and a tax on silver processing. In the German principalities there were excise duties levied on imported and exported goods at rates ranging from 5 to 25%. In state budget expenditures, the main place (up to 2/3) was occupied by the army. The needs of the state apparatus were also significant, for example, in the middle of the 19th century. for these purposes allocated in the budget of England - 1.05%, France - 2.01%, Prussia - 3.9%.

6.4. Leading countries and their economic role in the world

Thanks to the creation of the first factory industry in the history of mankind, England in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. occupied an exceptional place in the world economy and international politics. Although the rate of its economic growth was low and amounted to about 0.5% per year, this figure is higher than that of other European countries. In 1820-1870, the growth rate of English industry already reached 1.5% per year. England mined 2/3 of all coal, produced more than half of the metal and canvas. By 1870, it had 31.9% of the world's industrial potential (the trade turnover is greater than that of France, Germany, Italy combined, 3 times higher than that of the United States). England acts not only as a producer, but also as a major consumer of raw materials and foodstuffs. This stimulates the development of trade and the merchant fleet, the tonnage of which is 10 million (For comparison, in France and Germany this figure reached 1 million, in Germany - 2 million). Due to the peculiarities of its development, England also acts as a world creditor, playing the role of the conductor of the international orchestra of the gold standard.

Industrial and commercial hegemony was promoted by the economic policy of the state. Until the 40s. nineteenth century it proceeds within the framework of protectionism, accompanied by high customs duties on foreign goods. With the strengthening of the dominant position, in need of markets for its products, England is moving to a policy of free trade, which manifested itself, among other things, in the abolition of the Corn Laws (1846) and the Navigation Act (1860). The development of relations with France became a striking manifestation of the new priorities in the foreign economic activity of enterprises. So, under the treaty of 1860, England abolished duties on French silks and food, and France - on English cars, hardware, coal, wool. Such agreements were not equal, since the cheapness of British goods led to the displacement of national French goods from the domestic market.

Until the mid-60s of the nineteenth century. England has a positive trade balance, then the trade balance becomes passive, but the overall estimated balance remains active (the passive balance was offset by "invisible exports": transport services and capital movements). However, the lack of competition in the domestic and colonial markets, as well as the stereotypes of the behavior of the leading country, led to stagnation in development and, ultimately, the loss of England's position in the world market, where from the 80s. championship is contested by the USA, Germany and Japan.

6.5. Economic development of Russia in the era of the industrial revolution

The peculiarity of the development of the industrial revolution in Russia was determined by the action of a combination of factors:

1) poverty and illiteracy of the population;

2) the need for large initial investments for the organization of production;

3) the preservation of serfdom;

4) the special role of the state (industrialization takes place within the framework of the mobilization path);

5) British competition both in its weak market and in a potential foreign one.

The state sought to develop industry, guided primarily by military goals, so the growth of capital investment in heavy industry occurred at the expense of the more widespread light industry and agriculture, which used labor-intensive methods. Russia was the only country among the major industrial countries that undertook industrialization without having a strong agricultural sector.

Stages of development of the industrial revolution in Russia

From 1804 to 1864, the productivity of labor in domestic industry increased almost fivefold, despite the presence of serf labor. However, overcoming the technological backwardness of the country rested on social backwardness, which was reflected in the peculiarities of the course of the process under consideration.

Features of industrialization in Russia:

the predominance of free-lance labor in the form of otkhodnichestvo;

disinterest in the use of new technologies;

the cheapness of serf labor;

narrowness of the internal and external markets;

lack of necessary capital in the country;

· continuation of the initial capital process;

· strong role of the state in stimulating the development of production.

Changes in the economy had an impact on determining the course of foreign economic policy. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The government repeatedly takes measures to intensify industrial and commercial activities, while pursuing the goals of replenishing the treasury and protecting Russian industry. State policy takes on a pronounced prohibitive-protectionist character. This is confirmed by the adoption of a number of customs tariffs in 1810, 1816, 1819, 1850 and 1857, in accordance with which customs duties on imported and exported raw materials were increased and the import of equipment and the export of finished products were encouraged. But the protectionist nature of the customs legislation did not meet the needs of a developing state, because, unlike the developed countries in Russia, the income from foreign trade went mainly to military needs and to the unproductive consumption of the ruling circles. Only in the 60s. a policy reorientation begins, characterized by the expansion of the internal market by stimulating investment in industry and railway construction, as well as by providing assistance to agriculture. Economic support for agriculture was carried out mainly through fiscal policy (reducing taxes on production due to the even distribution of the burden among all classes). Thus, the development of the national domestic market was hampered by the underdevelopment of agriculture. In addition, all European countries solved the problem of agrarian overpopulation as a problem of land shortage, while in Russia the availability of free land retained the basis for an extensive type of development. By the middle of the XIX century. in Russia, a general structural crisis of the feudal-serf system was objectively ripe. The main indicator of this was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. At the end of the 1950s, Russia found itself in the state of a virtually insolvent debtor. The state debt reached 1 billion rubles, and the budget deficit increased six times - from 52 to 307 million rubles. The credit system was also in a difficult state. Back in 1839, the Minister of Finance E. Kankrin carried out a monetary reform. It was found that 350 rubles. paper money equals 100 rubles. silver, which meant the devaluation of banknotes. They were completely withdrawn from circulation and replaced by banknotes, which were freely exchanged for silver. But during the Crimean War, the government repeatedly resorted to money emission, the credit ruble exchange rate was constantly declining, so free exchange was canceled.

Under such conditions, the state still acted as the initiator of the transformations, which was reflected in the spread of the exogenous economic cycle of the 1950s - mid-1990s. At the same time, the transformations carried out during this period played a special role, because. for the first time in the conditions of the country, conditions arose for the development of a mass free owner and the creation of prerequisites for the transition from a mobilization type of development to an innovative one, that is, a process similar to that taking place at that time in developed countries.

The innovative type of economic growth represents a stable, recurring trend in the development of society based on a continuous and purposeful process of searching, preparing and implementing innovations that make it possible to increase the efficiency of the functioning of social production, to increase the degree of realization of the needs of society and its members.

However, the transition to an innovative type of economic growth proceeded under the conditions of a traditional "revolution from above".

The most important link in the reform of the 60-70s. was the abolition of serfdom. The content of this reform, set out in the Regulations of February 19, 1861 ., It boiled down to the following: serfs were declared personally free without any ransom, they received allotment from the landowner, for which they continued to serve corvée or dues, that is, they became temporarily obliged. Peasants could redeem not only the estate, but also by mutual agreement with the landowner and field land, using a government loan for this. Upon completion of the redemption, the patrimonial supervision of the landowner over the peasants ceased, their status as temporarily indebted ended, the peasants passed into the position of free owners. Relations between the landlord and the peasants were mediated by the community, which, in particular, collectively paid for the redemption loan provided by the state for 49 years. Coming out of serfdom, the peasants remained in the community, received a certain amount of self-government, and shared their obligations to the state. In other words, the reform was based on the extension and conservation of semi-feudal relations. Ransom was a kind of feudal rent. It was even formally calculated from the amount of the quitrent: for the allotment it was necessary to pay such an amount that, when deposited in the bank, gives the landowner a quitrent payment in the form of interest. Therefore, in the central regions of Russia, where a tithe cost 25 rubles in a normal purchase, it cost the peasant a ransom of 60 rubles. The difference between the market value was feudal (essentially) rent. Along with redemption payments, peasants paid taxes to local and central authorities. Numerous segments from the pre-reform allotment forced the lease of additional plots of land. The financial burden paralyzed the possibility of accumulation, and the frequent communal redistribution of land - entrepreneurship, especially among wealthy peasants.

In the bourgeoisization of the agrarian sector, which was the main consequence of the peasant reform, the similarity with the Prussian path of agricultural development is often noted. There were indeed similarities, but there were differences.

Starting with innovations in the sphere of state life, which is decisive for agrarian Russia, the reforms carried out according to a single plan have spread to many spheres of public life, taking on a complex character. Of particular importance for the development of the domestic economy was the zemstvo reform of 1864, which contributed to the revitalization of the activities of the main producers of industrial goods for the population - handicraft peasants. Research carried out by the zemstvo showed that among the most intractable problems of handicrafts were their supply with raw materials, the provision of credit and the sale of products, and the poor technical training of handicraftsmen. A way out was found first in workshops and sales points organized by handicraft museums, then in the transition to a system of artels that satisfy the need for short-term credit in the network of provincial and zemstvo cash desks, as well as at the expense of the private fund named after. S. T. Morozova.

Financial reform also played an important role. Until 1861, the country's credit system was represented by state-owned noble banks, which provided loans to landlords secured by estates, and by private banking houses, lending to industry. In 1860, the State Bank was established, which until the end of the century did not have the right to independently issue banknotes, but could only replace old banknotes with new ones, accept deposits and issue loans, buy and sell gold, silver, foreign currency and securities. This led to the fact that, figuratively speaking, the country's banking system played the role of a horse-drawn car. After the reform of 1861, state-owned banks were merged with the State Bank. During this period, the activity of commercial banks begins. The first joint-stock commercial bank (St. Petersburg) was opened on November 1, 1864, then a number of commercial banking offices appeared in the capital, in 1870 the Volga-Kama, and then the Azov-Don banks were formed. In addition, reforms of a more specific nature were carried out in the economy: the abolition of wine leases and their replacement with a unified system of excises and patent fees (1863), attempts to restore the value of the ruble in cash (1862-1863) and others.

The fundamental difference between the reforms of 60-70 years. from all the previous ones was the creation of legal guarantees to entrepreneurs from the state. They were enshrined in the "Regulations on duties for the right to trade and other crafts" of January 8, 1863, which put an end to the inequality of classes in the rights to engage in private business activities. Restrictions that existed until 1917 were imposed on Jews, civil servants, Orthodox priests, Protestant pastors, their wives and minor children. The military, both soldiers and officers, could engage in commercial activities only through authorized representatives. The situation left two merchant guilds, abolishing the category of "trading peasants". A serious step forward was the introduction of an economic sign of the division of industrial establishments according to technical equipment and the number of workers. Guild certificates of the second category were taken by the owners of industrial establishments in which there were machines with a steam or water engine or more than 16 workers, as well as various sellers operating within the city or county. Guild certificates of the first category were purchased by wholesalers operating throughout Russia. In addition to these guilds, there was a category of "petty bargaining", as well as "delivering", "peddling".

All these transformations were not consistent, but they turned out to be very significant for the economy, because marked the beginning of the stage of market recovery and the breaking of discontinuities in the model of the country's economic development. The liberation from serfdom of almost 2/5 of the country's population gave a serious impetus to the growth of the population, which from 1860 to 1897. increased by 52 million people, mainly due to natural increase. The collection of basic agricultural crops has been constantly increasing. Their productivity increased by an average of 50%, for comparison, during this period in European countries it increased by 2-4 times. The changes taking place in agriculture contributed to a shift in the structure of the economy, characteristic of the stage of transition of a traditional agrarian society to an industrial type of development and associated with a gradual decrease in the share of the agricultural sector in the total national product. The abolition of serfdom led, on the one hand, to the transition of industry to civilian labor, on the other, to the formation of a labor market. This was one of the reasons for the temporary decline, especially in industries that used the labor of serfs. The acceleration of industrial growth occurred after 1875, and then after a break at the end of the 80s. 19th century At the same time, the fate of the progressive transformations of Alexander II turned out to be rather complicated. After his death on March 1, 1881, Alexander III, fearing the escalation of the revolutionary movement, carried out the so-called "reforms inside out."

additional literature

Abrams R.M. On the issue of studying the history of industrialization // Economic history: research, historiography, polemics. – M.: Nauka, 1992.

Amosov A. Economic and evolutionary aspect of national-state interests // Vopr. economy. 1994. No. 2.

Semenev L.S. Customs policy of Russia in 40-50s. nineteenth century and industrial revolution // Vopr. history of Russia XIX-beginning

20th century – L.: LGU, 1983.

The introduction of machines in enterprises, the replacement of a water engine by a steam engine meant a change from the manufacturing period of capitalism, which was based on manual technology with a large division of labor, to a new, higher stage in the development of capitalism: the stage of large-scale industry, which is characterized by machine technology and division of labor.
The widespread introduction of machinery, possible only in combination with wage labor and the capitalist form of production, leads to an industrial revolution.
In England, where machines were widely used before other countries, the industrial revolution took place in the last decades of the 18th century.
In Russia, due to the dominance of serfdom, which caused her economic backwardness, the industrial revolution took place much later. It began in the pre-reform period, in the 30s and 40s of the 19th century, when steam engines began to be used and machines were introduced in many, but still far from all, industries, and it ended already in the post-reform period, in the 70s and partly in the 80s of the XIX century.
Some Soviet historians, referring to isolated facts of the use of machines, wrote that the manufacturing period of capitalism ends in Russia in the 90s of the 18th century. on the grounds that in 1795 the first steam engine was installed at Byrd's machine-building plant. However, this argument is not at all convincing. One machine does not revolutionize the technology of all other enterprises. It is no coincidence, of course, that the steam engine invented by Polzunov perished, as well as many other inventions buried under the serf economy, made then and later in Russia, since capitalist manufactories in Russia at that time did not have sufficient conditions for developing into a capitalist factory. But not only the use of one machine, but also the use of them in a larger, but still single number, "sporadically", did not yet mean the beginning in the first quarter of the 19th century. industrial revolution in Russia. More serious shifts in the use of machines in Russia have been observed since the 30s and even from the 40s of the 19th century. At this time, steam is used to a greater extent as a motive force and various machines (spinning, mechanical, weaving machines, etc.) are used.
So, in 1846 in Russia there were 700 thousand spinning spindles powered by steam, and in 1859 - about 1600 thousand, and before the reform of 1861 - 2 million spindles. Spinning mills use spinning machines, which since 1842 have been allowed to be exported from England.
Before the reform of 1861, several thousand mechanical looms were used in Russia, calico-printing and calico-printing machines were used. But along with this, it must also be pointed out that Russia, due to the dominance of serfdom, lagged far behind England, which was then an advanced capitalist country, where at that time there were already 30 million mechanical spindles and 400 thousand steam looms.
Of the other industries in which mechanical energy is relatively widely used, beet sugar should be noted. In the sugar beet industry in 1848-1849. factories using steam power produced 44% of all products, and in 1860-1861 - 85%. Even in the metallurgical industry, which is the most backward, rolling mills for iron smelting appear, puddling is used, and experiments are being made on the Bessemer method of blowing iron. Puddling was used in 1837 at the state-owned Kamsko-Votkinsk plant, in the 40s at eleven plants in the Urals, at two Moscow plants, etc. According to S. G. Strumilin, before the reform of 1861, puddling ovens gave about half metal. The replacement of water energy with steam at the Ural factories was slow, however, even here, before the reform, steam engines and water turbines provided 18% of motor energy.
The industrial revolution that had begun found its expression in the field of transport, where steam engines began to be used on steamboats, and the first railways were built. In this regard, Russian engineers and craftsmen with their inventions are in many cases ahead of Western inventors, but due to the inertia of the serfdom, which hampered progress in Russia in the field of technology, many Russian inventions remained hidden and were not used. An example is the construction in 1833 of the first steam locomotive by the father and son Cherepanovs. However, their invention was not realized and in 1837 steam locomotives were ordered to Russia from England. An example of the inertia of the feudal lords and the inhibitory role of the feudal-serf superstructure can be the fact that despite the construction of a steam engine for the Hercules steamship in 1832, which was invented in England later, only at the end of the 30s, the Russian navy went to war 1855 was sailing, and English and French at its core was steam. In 1840, there were 16 steamships in Russia, in 1850 - 99, and in 1860 - 339.
The existing feudal-serf superstructure hindered the development of productive forces, in particular, hindered the development of technology, and therefore the industrial revolution in Russia dragged on for such a long time and ended only in the post-reform period - in the 60-70s and partly in the 80s of the XIX century. But despite the obstruction of outdated production relations, the productive forces steadily made their way, and in Russia the production of machines within the country increased. An indicator of the technical shifts that took place in the second quarter of the 19th century is the emergence in Russia of machine-building workshops and factories, the number of which in 1851 was 29, with a cost of their production of 478 thousand rubles, and in 1860 - 99 enterprises, with the cost of production is 7954 thousand rubles.
But these factories could not meet the needs that grew in connection with the use of machines in the 30-50s, especially in the textile industry, and therefore the import of tools and machines from abroad plays an increasingly important role.
All these data show that in the 30-50s of the 19th century, compared with the first quarter of the 19th century. there is a significant growth of Russian industry.
This growth took place on the basis of the strengthening of capitalist manufactory and factories, the further development of which required the abolition of serfdom. Along with this, in the 30-50s of the XIX century. the crisis and decomposition of the serf corvee and quitrent economy became extremely aggravated.

Popular site articles from the section "Dreams and Magic"

They began to move from manufactories to machine production. The industrial revolution changed the economic face of Europe, it became developed and inaccessible to serf Russia. Nevertheless, progress is a process that sooner or later affects any state. A comprehensive industrial revolution in Russia began only at the end of the 19th century.

Industrial thaw in Russia: causes, prerequisites, lagging factors

The beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia remains a controversial issue today. There are several opinions regarding the beginning of this historical process.

Historian-economist Stanislav Gustavovich Strumilin was the first to name the chronology of the modernization of Russian industry. He designated it within the framework of 1830-1860.

Modern historiography considers the time period from 1850 to 1880 more reasonable.

Prerequisites for a coup:

1. Scientific and technological progress - the invention of steam engines, machine tools and machines that minimize manual labor.
2. The gradual introduction of capitalist relations - the use of civilian workers, the accumulation of capital.

Only by the middle of the 19th century did Russia begin to move onto capitalist lines. But there were many factors that slowed down the industrial revolution. The main and most significant was serfdom. The cheapness of serf labor caused the reluctance of large industrialists to introduce new technologies. Voluntary labor was more a necessity than an aspiration. The internal and external markets were amorphous and not very dynamic. The state stimulated the development of production. The agricultural sector was underdeveloped, which, in turn, affected the dynamics of the domestic national market.

Despite the fact that the industrial revolution in Russia began much later than in Europe and the United States, it led to an innovative type of economic development and the formation of new social strata of the population.

Characteristics of the industrial revolution

Despite significant pressure from the state, the industrial revolution started, although it was sluggish.

The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to the formation of new social classes - the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie. Freelance workers, formerly serfs, rushed to the cities to get work in large factories and factories, albeit for meager wages. The huge resources of the state and cheap labor gave such enterprises multimillion-dollar profits, which in the best possible way contributed to the development of production and its relative industrialization.

The government is starting to take measures to activate such sectors of the economy as industry and trade. Customs duties on raw materials were repeatedly raised. The import of innovative equipment and the export of finished products were encouraged.

Since 1861, industries such as:

• coal mining;
• metallurgy;
• shipbuilding;
• construction of railways;
• light industry: textile and cotton industries.

The banking and credit sector, after a long decline, has entered a positive direction. More than 40 banks, more than 200 insurance and credit enterprises were created. In addition, the contributions of state banks to the economy have increased several times. In such favorable conditions, an intensive influx of foreign capital begins.

Reforming Russia

Historians associate the beginning of the industrial revolution in Russia not only with the elimination of serfdom, but also with the widespread reform of the state.

• The financial reform of 1860 - the creation of a state bank.
• Tax reform, 1863 - introduction of a unified system of excises and patents.
• Zemstvo reform of 1864 - the activation of handicrafts through the organization of artels.
• "Regulations on duties on the right to trade and crafts" led to the equalization of the estates in the possibility of engaging in private business.

Stages of the industrial revolution

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century and took place in three stages:

1861-1881 the birth of capitalism, the reform of the state, the leap in light and heavy industries.

80-90s of the XIX century - the peak of the industrial "spring".

1890s of the 19th century - 1905 - the crisis of capitalism, social and economic life, the completion of the industrial revolution in Russia.

The results of the industrial "boom"

The industrial revolution in Russia began in the middle of the 19th century, brought the serf state with a backward economy to a new stage of development. Russia has entered into a world-historical process, which led to a leap not only in the economy, industry, social sphere, but also significantly changed the worldview of the population of the state. The formation of capitalist relations in one way or another led to a revolution, the overthrow of the monarchy as one of the remnants of the old system.

Nevertheless, the industrial "spring" in the serf state had its own specifics. Features of the industrial revolution in Russia consisted in its "lightning" pace. In a monarchical state, the transition to a machine type of production was not accompanied by a transition to an industrial or agro-industrial type of economy. Despite the leap in industry that took place, it did not lead to the rapid development of mechanical engineering.

Where large factories and factories were built, with the onset of the industrial revolution, cities began to quickly arise and grow, in which the workers lived. Being heavily overpopulated and unsettled, these factory towns created serious problems in the life of the country. Houses in such cities, especially those built in the north of England, were of the cheapest construction and stood in rows, "back" to each other, closely closing the side walls. Most of the houses had no sewerage or running water. The streets were dirty, and all the water bodies were polluted with factory smoke and waste. Not surprisingly, infections and diseases spread in these cities at an alarming rate. Until the availability of cheap means of transportation, factory workers were forced to settle around their factories, which in turn were often built near coal mines and iron foundries.

Gradual improvement of people's lives

As a result of the agrarian and industrial revolution, many people were left without work and livelihood. To get any help, they had to go to the so-called workhouses, where they had to live and work. The conditions in the workhouses were very harsh in order to scare away those who, not wanting to work, would go there just for a roof over their heads and a piece of bread. Men and women were settled in different halves of the house, so the families that got there, willy-nilly, turned out to be broken.

Some of the doctors or rich people tried to do something to alleviate the plight of the poor. For example, a certain Doctor Barnardo organized orphanages. Another such person was General Booth, who founded a Christian organization called the Salvation Army. In the 19th century some laws were passed with the aim of making life easier for people in industrial cities. Among them were laws obliging the city authorities to keep the city clean, build more comfortable houses and open free schools. Since 1909, old-age pensions have appeared. These people receive their pension at the post office. In 1911, a law was passed to insure workers in case of illness or unemployment.

Workers began to unite and create trade unions (trade unions) to defend their interests - for example, to seek higher wages or better working conditions, threatening to strike in case of refusal. At first unions were illegal, but eventually laws were passed that recognized their existence and allowed them to organize pickets (i.e., stand near a factory fence and try to convince workers not to go to work). Some trade unionists, as well as those who supported their views, united in an organization that was called the Labor Party (in English labor party, hence the name Labor). In the 1906 general election, 29 Labor members won seats in Parliament.