Introduction
Main part
Chapter 1. General characteristics of the classical direction:
1.1 Definition of classical political economy
1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy
1.3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy
Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy
2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty
2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera
2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene
Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy
3.1. Economic Teaching A. Smith
Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy
4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
4.2. Economic teaching J.B. Say
4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus
Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy
5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
5.2. Economic doctrine K. Marx
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
This work characterizes the classic direction in the history of economic exercises. It addresses the following range of issues: what caused the displacement of the concept of mercantilism and two hundred years of the domination of the classical political economy; As in economic science, the term "classical political economy" is interpreted; What stages covers classical political economy in their development; What are the features of the subject and method of studying the "classical school", as well as the main economic theories at the four stages of the development of the classical school of political economy.
Chapter 1. General characteristics of the classical direction
1.1. Determination of classical political economy
Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.
The specified period marked the beginning of a truly new school of political economy, which is classically called primarily for the scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science.
As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and strengthening the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activity of "pre-industrial conditions" have lost their former significance and "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed. The last one, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of complete Laissez Faire (i.e., the absolute non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. Almost in all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state. "
In fact, the principle of "complete Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives promoted mercantilism and promoted to them the protectionist policies in the economy, having put forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism. At the same time, the classics have enriched economic science with many fundamental provisions, in many respects who did not lose their relevance and at present.
It should be noted that for the first time the term "classical political economy" used one of its trips to Marks in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy". And it consists of specifics, according to Marx, in the fact that from W.Petti to D.Rikardo in England and from P. Baagilbera to S. Sismondi in France the classical political economy "investigated the actual production relations of the bourgeois society."
In modern foreign economic literature, giving tribute to the achievements of classical political economy, they do not idealize them. At the same time, in the system of economic education of most countries of the world, the allocation of the "classical school" as an appropriate section of the course of the history of economic exercises is carried out primarily from the point of view of its writings of its authors of common characteristic signs And damn. This position allows us to attribute to the number of representatives of the classical political economy a number of scientists of the XIX century - followers of the famous A. Smita.
For example, one of the leading economists of our time Professor Harvard University J.K.Galbreit in his book "Economic theories and goals of society" believes that "the ideas of A. Smita were subjected to further development of David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus and in particular John Stewart Millem and got a name classic system. In the widespread textbook "Economics" of the American scientist in many countries, one of the first laureates of the Nobel Prize in the economy P. Samuelson is also argued that D. Ricardo and J.S. Mill, being "the main representatives of the classical school ... developed and improved Ideas Smith. "
1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy
According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them is Marxist - indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century, and English scientists A. Smita and D. Ricardo are considered completes of the school. On the other, the most common in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J.S. Mill.
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
First stage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is the stage of a substantial expansion of the sphere market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W.Petti and P. Baagilber, regardless of each other, first in the history of economic thought, put forward a labor theory of value, in accordance with which the source and measure of the cost is the amount of labor spent on the production of one or another commercial product or good. Condeming mercantilism and based on the causal dependence of economic phenomena, the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state, they saw not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.
The first stage of the classical political economy has completed the so-called school of physiocrats, which is distributed in France in the middle and early two half of the XVIII century. The leading authors of this school F.Kene and A.Turgo in search of a source of pure product (national income), the land with difficulty gave the land. Criticizing mercantilism, physiocrats were even more delighted in the analysis of the spheres of production and market relations, although mainly in the field of agriculture, illegally moving away from the scope of treatment.
Second phase The development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. And undoubtedly associated with the name and works of A. Smita - the central figure among all its representatives. His "Economic Man" and "Invisible Hand" Providence convinced not one generation of economists about natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective economic laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. The XX century was considered an irrefutable Regulations on the complete non-interference of government prescriptions in free competition. And this about him, as a rule, they say that "... No Western student, a scientist cannot consider himself an economist without knowing it (A. Smita. - Ya.) Labor."
According to N. Kondratieva, under the influence of the views of A. Smita in the classics, all their teachings are a preaching of the economic system based on the principle of freedom of individual economic activity as an ideal. " The authors of one of the popular books of the beginning of the XX century. "HISTORY OF ECONOMICS" S. L and S. Rist noted that mainly the authority of A. Smita turned the money to the "goods, even less necessary than any other product, the burdensome product, which is necessary to avoid if possible. This tendency to discredit money shown by Smith in the fight against mercantilism, they write, "then his followers will pick up, and exaggerating it, you will miss some of the features of the money circulation" .. Something like says Schumpeter, saying that A. Smitter and His followers "are trying to prove that money is not important, but at the same time they themselves are not able to consistently adhere to this thesis." And only some condescension of this omission of classics (first of all A. Smita and D.Rikardo) makes M. Blaug, believing that "their skepticism in relation to cash panaceans was quite appropriate in the conditions of the economy suffering from lack of capital and chronic Structural unemployment. "
It should be noted that A. Smitt (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory), the laws of division of labor and the growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. On its theoretical surveys are largely based also modern concepts About the product and its properties, income (salary, profits), capital, productive and non-productive work and others.
Third stage The evolution of the classical school of political economy falls on the first half of the XIX century, when an industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, followers and including students of A. Smita (many of them called themselves) were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage should be especially highlighted by the French, the British D.Rikardo, T.Maltus and N. Senior, Americans, and others. Although these authors, following how they claimed, and .Smit, the origin of the value of goods and services was seen either in the amount of labor spent either in production costs (but such a cost approach remained unappreciable), yet each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of market relations a rather noticeable trace.
So, J.B. Say in his dogmatic from the standpoint of the modern economic theory of the "Law of Markets" first introduced into the framework of economic research the problems of equilibrium between supply and proposal, the implementation of the aggregate social product depending on the market conjuncture. The basis of this "law", as obvious, and J.B. Say, and other classics contributed to the provision that when flexible wages and movable prices interest rate will balance the demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.
D. Ricardo more than other contemporaries pampered with A. Smita. But, dividing the entiremost views of the latter about the income of the "main classes of society", he first revealed the pattern of the trend of the norm of profit to a decrease, developed a complete theory of forms land rent. It is also necessary to include one of the best justifications of the pattern of changing the value of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
Fourth stage The development of classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which the above-mentioned J.S. Mille and K. Marks summarized the best achievements of the school, on the other hand, by this time have already gained independent importance to new, more progressive areas of economic thought, Received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century). As for the innovation of the ideas of the Englishman J.S. Millya and K. Marks, who wrote his works in exile from his native Germany, then these authors of the classical school, being strictly committed to the provision on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought All the same sympathized with the working class were addressed to socialism and reforms. K. Marks, in addition, emphasized the increasing operation of labor capital, which, exacerbating the class struggle, should, in his opinion, inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat, "death of the state" and the equilibrium economy of a classless society.
1 .3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy
Studying overall characteristics History of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends in part of the subject and method of study and give them an assessment.
Firstly, PRESENTAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS OF PRODUCTION OF PRODUCTION IN OPERATION OF CONDUCTURE, EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATION OF PROGRESSIVE METHODOLOGICAL RECEPTIONS OF RESEARCH, including causal, deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, an approach from class positions on the observed "production laws" and "productive work" was removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the peculiarities of the production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor inherent in the classics, it was the reason for the underestimation of the pattern of economic entities of these areas ("human factor"), the opposite influence on the sphere of monetary, credit and credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Classics when solving practical tasks The answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, as N. Kontrayev expressed, "an estimated". This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequence of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.
Secondly, Relying on the causal analysis, calculations of medium and summary values economic indicators, Classics tried to identify the mechanism of origin of the cost of goods and fluctuations in the price level in the market not due to the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country, but in connection with the costs of production.
However, the cost principle of determining the price level of the classic school was not linked to another an important aspect Market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need in one or another good with the addition of such good to it.
Thirdly The category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only source category of economic analysis, from which, as in the scheme of the genealogical tree, they are budding (grow) other derivatives inherently. In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. The search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society is excluding psychological, moral, legal and other social environmental factors.
Fourth , Exploring the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), but they tried to substantiate the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy. However, with it, they were without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems, allowing you to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation.
Fifth, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention of people, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the goods world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics is the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Bagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite effect on the sphere of monetary factors.
Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy
2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty
William Petty (1623-1687) - the founder of the classical political economy in England, which has stated his economic views in the works published in the 60-80s ... XVII in ..
In the works of W. Petty, the subject of studying economic science (political economy) is the analysis of the problems of production. This is particularly obvious from the conjunction of this scientist in the fact that the creation and increase in wealth occurs only exclusively in the field of material production, and without any participation in this process of trade and commercial capital.
His views were transitional from mercantilism to classic political economy. He explained such economic phenomena as the price of goods, wages, the price of land and others. Petty delimited the "natural price" of the goods (the cost determined by the work) and the market price. They were first formulated by the root of the theory of labor value. A direct source of value, he considered only one type of labor - mining of gold and silver (i.e. money material).
With the theory of the cost of Petty directly related to its wage and rental doctrine. He reasoned like this: the goods are not working force, but labor, and the salary - the labor price, you only need to determine its value.
The rent, according to Petty, is the cost of a crop (it depends on the quality of the site) excluding production costs, i.e. Created by difficulty excess cost over wages. Petty's profit does not consider separately. Interestingly, the doctrine of Petty about the price of the Earth: the sale of land is the sale of the right to receive rent and must be calculated from the sum of the annual reven (without a loan percent).
2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera
Pierre Buagilber (1646-1714) - the height of the classical political economy in France. As the founder of a similar school of economic thought in England, W. Petty, he was not a professional scientist - an economist.
P. Buagilber, like W. Petty, opposing the mercantilists his own vision of the essence of wealth, came to the so-called concept of public wealth, the latter, in his opinion, manifest itself not in the physical mass of money, and in all the variety of useful benefits and things.
Thus, according to Buagilbera, not the increase in the money, but, on the contrary, the growth of production "food and clothing" is the main task of economic science. Like W. Petty, the subject of studying the political economy of Buagilber considers the analysis of the problems of the production sphere, recognizing this sphere the most significant and priority in comparison with the sphere of treatment.
2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene
The formation of the economic thought of France of this period is associated with the ideas of Pierre Buagilbera and Francois Kene (1694-1774).
French Kene in 1758 created his "economic table", which became the basis for physiocrats, which turned to the sphere of production, looking for a source of surplus value. They limited this sphere only by agriculture.
In his famous "economic table", F.Kena performed the first scientific analysis Circuit of economic life, i.e. Public reproduction process. The ideas of this work indicate the need to comply with and reasonable forecasting certain national economic proportions in the structure of the economy. They identified the relationship, which he characterized like this: "Reproduction is constantly resumed by costs, and the costs are renewed by reproduction"
Next, Kene put forward the concept of "natural order", under which he understood the economy with free competition, a natural game of market prices without state intervention. Kene also argued that when exchanging equal things, wealth is not created and the profit does not arise, so he was looking for a profit outside the sphere of circulation.
Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy
3.1. Economic Teaching Adam Smith
In the second half of 18 in England, favorable conditions for the take-off of economic thought were. His higher development, classical political economy reached in the works of British scientists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Like their predecessors, the founders of the classical school considered economic science as the doctrine of wealth and ways to increase it.
The main labor of Adam Smith on political economy is fundamental work - "Study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." Smith's book consists of five parts. In the first, he analyzes the issues of value and income, in the second - nature of capital and its accumulation. In them, he outlined the foundations of his teaching. In other parts, he considers the development of Europe's economy in the era of feudalism and the formation of capitalism, the history of economic thoughts and government finances.
Adam Smith explains that the main theme of his work is economic development: Forces acting temporarily and managing the wealth of peoples.
"Study of the nature and causes of wealth" is the first in economic science of full-fledged work, sets out the general basis of science - the theory of production and distribution. Then an analysis of the action of these abstract principles on historical material and, finally, a number of examples of their application in economic policies. Moreover, all this work will penetrate the high idea of \u200b\u200bthe "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", to which, as he seemed to Adam Smith, the whole world goes. The central motive is the soul of the "wealth of peoples" - this is the action of the "invisible hand"; We get our bread not by the grace of the baker, but from its selfish interest. Smith managed to guess the fruitful idea that under certain social conditions, which we are described by the term "working competition" today, private interests can really be harmoniously combined with the interests of society. A market economy, not managed by collective will, not subordinate to a single plan, nevertheless, follows the strict rules of conduct. The impact on the market situation of the actions of one individual person, one of the set, may be imperceptibly. And in fact, he pays those prices that are requested from it, and can choose the amount of goods at these prices, based on its greatest benefit. But the totality of these individuals establishes prices; Each individual buyer is subject to prices, and the prices themselves are subject to the totality of all individual reactions. Thus, the "invisible hand" of the market provides a result that does not depend on the will and intention of the individual.
Moreover, this market automatism may well in a certain sense to optimize the distribution of resources. Smith removed the burden of evidence and created the postulate: decentralized, and atomistic competition in a certain sense ensures "maximum satisfaction of needs". Undoubtedly, Smith gave a deep meaning of his doctrine "maximum satisfaction of needs". He showed that:
· Free competition to strive to equate prices to production costs, optimizing the distribution of resources within these industries;
· Free competition in the markets of production factors tends to equalize the net advantages of these factors in all sectors and thereby establishes the optimal allocation of resources between the industries.
He did not say that various factors will be in the optimal proportions to be combined in production or that the goods will be optimally distributed among consumers. He did not say that saving from the scale and side effects of production are often interfere with the achievement of a competitive optimum, although the being of this phenomenon is reflected in his arguments about public works. But he really took the first step towards the theory of optimal distribution of these resources in the context of competing.
For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that his own faith in the advantage of the "invisible hand" is less related to considerations about the effectiveness of resource allocation in the static conditions of perfect competition. The decentralized price system, he considered desired because it gives results in dynamics: expands the scale of the market, multiplies the benefits associated with the division of labor - in one word, works like a powerful motor that provides capital accumulation and income growth.
Smith was not satisfied with the declaration that the free market economy provides the best life of life. It pays a lot of attention to the exact definition of the institutional structure, which would guarantee the best work of market forces.
He understands that:
· personal interests may equally impede, and contribute to the growth of the welfare of society;
· the market mechanism will establish harmony only when it is included in the relevant legal and institutional framework.
Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy
4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
All economic system Ricardo arose as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classic school.
The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.
In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.
That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.
The theory of profit Ricardo is inherent in two most important contradictions:
· Contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of the surplus value from the point of view of the law of value;
· The contradiction between the law of value and the average profit law, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and the price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.
The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.
By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.
David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became all more than socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.
4.2. Economic Teaching Jean Batista Say
Official economic science in France in the first half of the XIX century. Represents School School. School School praised the capitalist entrepreneur, preached harmony of class interests, opposed the work movement.
In 1803, an essay of SEA was called "the treatise of political economy, or a simple statement of the method, which are formed, are distributed and wealth is distributed." This book, which Say subsequently reworked repeatedly and complemented for new editions (with all his life there were only five), and it remained its main work. The laborory of the cost, which, although not quite consistent, followed the Scot, was inferior to the "pluralistic" interpretation, where the cost was addressed to a number of factors: subjective utility of goods, costs of its production, supply and demand. The ideas of Smith on the operation of hired labor with capital (i.e., elements of the theory of surplus value) completely disappeared at SEI, giving way to the theory of production factors. Say followed Smith in its economic liberalism. He demanded a "cheap state" and advocated a minimum of its intervention in the economy. In this regard, he also adjoined the physiocratic tradition. In 1812, Say released the second edition of the "Treatise". In 1828-1930 Say issued a 6-Tomny "full course of practical political economy", in which, however, did not give anything new compared to the "Treatise".
In the first edition of the "TRATICAT", Say wrote four sales pages. On them in fuzzy form was the idea that the overall overproduction of goods in the economy and economic crises In principle, impossible. Every production itself generates income on which goods relevant value are bought. Cumulative demand in the economy is always equal to the cumulative offer. In his opinion, only partial imbalances may arise: one product is produced too much, too little. But it is straightened without a universal crisis. In 1803, Say formulated the law, according to which the supply of goods always gives rise to appropriate demand. Those. It most excludes the possibility of a universal overproduction crisis, and also believes that free pricing and minimizing state intervention in the market economy will cause automatic regulation of the market.
Production not only increases the supply of goods, but also due to the necessary coating costs of production generates the demand for these goods. "Products are paid for the products" - this is the essence of the law of the markets of SEI.
The demand for the products of any industry should increase in real terms when the offer of all industries is growing, because it is the proposal that creates demand for the products of this industry. SEA's law, he consequently warns us from applying to macroeconomic indicators of judgments derived in microeconomic analysis. Separate goods can be made in excess relative to all other goods, the relative overproduction of at once all goods can not happen.
If it is said about the application of the SEI law real worldThis states the unreality of excessive demand for money. "Unreality" in this case can hardly mean the logical inability. It should be understood that the demand for money can not be redundant, because it corresponds to the situation of non-equilibrium.
Using SEA arguments, the bourgeoisie put forward progressive requirements for reducing the bureaucratic state office, freedom of entrepreneurship and trade.
4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus
A bright, peculiar contribution to economic science was made by the representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to- "anti-science nonsense".
T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problemsBut, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in the population. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.
As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.
From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.
Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only due to extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each of the next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore the overall level of fertility of the entire land fund as a whole tends to reducing . Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.
Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.
Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.
Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy
5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
John Stewart Mill is one of the completes of classical political economy and "recognized authority in scientific circles whose research go beyond the technical economy."
The first "experiments" on political economy J.S. Mill published when he was 23 years old, i.e. In 1829, in 1843 his philosophical work "Logic System" appeared, which brought him fame. The main work (in five books, like A. Smita) entitled "The foundations of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" was published in 1848
J.S. Mill adopted a Ricardian view on the subject of political economy, putting forward to the fore "laws of production" and "distribution laws".
To the theory of the value of J.S. Mille considered the concept of "exchange value", "consumer value", "cost" and some others, he draws attention to the fact that the cost (value) cannot increase in all goods at the same time, since the cost represents The concept is relative.
The wealth, according to Mill, consists of goods with exchange costs as a characteristic property. "The thing for which nothing can be obtained instead, no matter how helpful or necessary, it is not wealth ... For example, air, although it is an absolute need for a person, no price has no price on the market, since it can be obtained practically free. " But as soon as the restriction becomes tangible, the thing immediately acquires the change value. The cash expression of the value of the goods is its price.
The cost of money is measured by the number of goods which you can buy them. "For other things being equal, the cost of money changes inversely proportional to the amount of money: any increase in the amount reduces their cost, and any decrease increases it in a completely identical proportion ... This is a specific property of money." We begin to understand the importance of money in the economy only when the monetary mechanism fails.
Directly prices are established by competition, which arises due to the fact that the buyer tries to buy cheaper, and sellers - sell more expensive. With free competition, the market price corresponds to equality of supply and demand. On the contrary, "the monopolist may, at its discretion, appoint any high price, if only she did not exceed the consumer, or does not want to pay; But this can not, only limit the proposal. "
On a long period of time, the price of goods cannot be lower than its production costs, since no one wants to produce himself at a loss. Therefore, the state of sustainable equilibrium between supply and supply "comes only when the items exchange each other commensurate their production costs."
Mill's capital calls the accumulated stock of labor products, resulting from savings and the existing "way of its constant reproduction." The savings themselves are understood as "abstaining from current consumption for the sake of future benefits." Therefore, savings are growing along with the rate of interest.
Production activities are limited by capital size. However, "every increase in capital conducts or can lead to a new increase in production, and without a certain limit ... If there are people and food capable of work for their feed, they can always be used in any production." This is one of the main provisions that distinguish the classical economic science from later.
Mille recognizes, however, that other restrictions are inherent in the development of capital. One of them is a reduction in capital income, which he explains the fall in the limit productivity of capital. So, increase production agriculture "Never achieve differently than by increasing labor costs in proportion that increases the volume in which the volume of agricultural products increases."
In general, when presenting a question about Mill's profits, seeks to adhere to Ricardo's views. The emergence of the average rate of profit leads to the fact that the profit becomes proportional to the capital used, and the prices are proportional costs. "That profit can be equal where costs are equal, i.e. Costs of production, things should exchange each other in proportion to the costs of their production: things whose costs of production are the same, must have the same cost, because only in this way the same costs will bring the same income. "
Mill's essence is analyzed, based on a simple quantitative theory of money and the theory of market percentage.
Mill's creativity meant the completion of the formation of classical economic science, the beginning of which was put by Adam Smith.
5.2. Economic doctrine of Karl Marx
One of the fundamental economic exercises of the 19th century is Marxism. The ideas of Marx and Engels were set forth in many works, but the main of them, containing the economic concept of Marxism in the most detailed form, is considered "capital".
The first volume of "capital" Contributes to the definition of the concepts of value, exchange value, forms of value and their development. Study of value forms, starting with simple, ending with money, was essential for the study of the essence and origin of money. An important conclusion of Marx was the provision that in the conditions of the elementary trade production, the economic relations of people are manifested through the relationship of things. This generates commodity fetishism.
Next, Marx analyzes the process of exploitation of the hired labor force, formulates the doctrine of the surplus value, which reveals the essence of labor as a product, the common features with the usual product and the specific features of the product of a special kind. In addition, Marx considers the process of production of surplus value. Of particular importance in the study of the Marks mechanism for the creation of surplus value is the analysis of continuous and variable capital as well as two main ways to increase surplus value: by elongating the working day and by reducing the necessary working time. The main conclusion of the first volume of "Capital" is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe historical trend of the capitalist direction.
In the second volume of "capital" Marx examines the process of circulation of capital. He considers capital metamorphosis and their circulation, capital turnover, reproduction and treatment of all social capital. Important In the development of Marxist teaching on capital and its structure, the division of capital on the main and revolving.
The basis for the analysis of the reproduction of all public capital Marx puts its division into two divisions - the production of means of production and production of consumption. Using this separation, Marx designs its simple and expanded reproduction schemes. Based on the analysis of these schemes, the movement of the social product is investigated both within each unit and between them.
Third Tom "Capital" It contains the study of the process of capitalist production, taken as a whole. It discloses the dialectical unity of the process of reproduction and capital circulation, the transformation of the surplus value into profits is discussed, profits - in high profit, and cost - in the price of production. In addition, a loan captal and percentage are investigated. Marx shows that loan capital is the urban part of industrial capital, which, in a loan percentage, the feetchization of production relations reaches its highest level. The study of the transformed forms of surplus value is completed by an analysis of land rent.
Generally, economic theory Marxism had a great influence on the development of European, and in the particular Russian economic science.
Conclusion
The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. Economic ideas The classic school did not lose their meaning to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a prostode ideas economic freedom, liberal direction in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.
The main ideas of classical political economy are:
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The classic political economy school has arisen in the period of origin and approval of the capitalist production method. In the 16th century in England, new, capitalist relations begin to develop in the depths of the feudal system. Gradually, with the development of manufactory, commercial capital is subject to industrial. However, mercantilism, who studied the problems of circulation, is inferior to a classic school that has undergone research on the sphere of production. With the works of the classic school began political savings as a science. It was the classics that an attempt was made - and not unsuccessfully - to present all the diversity of the economic world as a single whole, to reduce individual provisions, guesses, observations, conclusions, to identify and coordinate categories and concepts.
Appeal to the works of the founders of economic theory, as a rule, does not have direct, narrow utilitarian significance. However, it is not interesting that some modern authors using programming apparatus are trying to mathematically check the correctness of the main postulates of A. Smith, the coherence of the most important provisions of his labor.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) -chenial English economist, founder of classical political economy. In 1776 The famous scientist's work "Research on the nature and the causes of the wealth of peoples" was published. Since the appearance of this book, political economics appeared as an independent economic science.
Smith's idea about the invisible hand is one of the main ideas of the "wealth of peoples". The meaning of this aphoristic expression is as follows.
Smith comes from the fact that the desire of everyone to their own gain, the multiplication of personal wealth serves as the most important motive motive of human activity. This is the driving force of actions. And this is the prerequisite for creating a fair and rational order in society.
Each member of economic activities is guided by his own interest, pursues personal goals. The influence of a separate person on the realization of the needs of society is practically immatimate. But, pursuing its own benefit, a person in the end contributes to an increase in the social product, an increase in the common good. The "invisible hand" of market laws sends to the goal, which was not at all in the intention of a separate person. Smith showed the motivating strength and significance of personal interest as the inner spring of competition and the economic mechanism.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) is one of the bright personalities of the classical political economy of England, a follower and an active opponent of the individual theoretical provisions of Adam Smith. The Riccardo's economic theory is the first scientific system of political economy of the period of industrial capitalism. Ricardo was a follower of Smith in an attempt to systematics of economic knowledge and the search for the methods of theoretical explanation of the economy.
As you know, D. Ricardo consistently adhered to the labor theory of value. Labor has its price, which, in his opinion, is determined by the value of the vital funds required for the content of the worker and his family. Changing wages does not affect the cost (and the price) of products produced. Only the ratio between the size of wages and the profit received by the entrepreneur: "All that increases wages, it is necessary to reduce profits. " Thus, wages and profits are in the reverse relationship.
According to D. Ricardo, the cost of the goods or the number of any other goods to which it exchanges depends on the relative amount of labor, which is necessary for its production, and not from greater or less remuneration, which is paid for this work.
Wealth growth background - labor separation. Since the analysis of the division of labor, Smith begins its research. The division of labor increases the dexterity of each employee, ensures the savings of time during the transition from the operation to the operation. It contributes to the use of more advanced machines and mechanisms, more efficient techniques that make it easier to work more efficiently.
The famous example of Smith with the work of the pin manufactory is mentioned in many textbooks. If everyone, working alone, performs all operations, then during the day it is capable of producing 20 pins. If 10 workers are employed in the workshop, each of which specializes in one operation, together they will produce 48,000 pins. As a result of the manufactory of labor, its productivity increases 240 times.
Among other factors multiplying the wealth of Smith allocates the growth of the population, an increase in the share of the population participating in production, the transition from manufactory to the factory, freedom of competition, the abolition of customs barriers.
In the work of D. Ricardo "The beginning of political economy and taxation" there is a special chapter "Cost and wealth, their distinctive properties." Ricardo believes that it would be incorrect to identify an increase in the cost with an increase in wealth. Unlike Smith, he carries out a distinction between the cost and material wealth. The size of wealth, its increase depends on the presence of objects of urgent need and luxury at the disposal of people. No matter how much the cost of these items change, they will equally will deliver their owner's satisfaction. The cost is different from wealth, it "depends not from abundance, but from the difficulty or ease of production."
The prerequisite for increasing wealth, Ricardo notes, is the growth of labor productivity. The less costs for the production of a unit of goods, the higher the results of labor efforts, the more significant the size of wealth. Category Capital Ricardo considered as part of the country's wealth, which is used in production and consists of food, clothing, tools, raw materials, machines needed to lead to work.
John Stewart Mill (1806-1873) is the last representative of the English classical political economy. Its main composition on the economic theory - "the basis of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" - came out in 1848.
In his work, "principles of political economy", he sought to connect, agree on the ideas and positions of its predecessors and colleagues, although there were many differences in their approaches to the analysis of economic reality. Mill performs not only as a systematic and popularizer of economic knowledge. He managed to deepen or clarify a number of provisions, to find more comprehensive formulations, fully argued the conclusions and conclusions.
The theory of population is the only means to ensure complete employment and high wages due to voluntary restriction of population growth:
- 1. The theory of productive work: only a productive work, the results of which are tangible, creates wealth. New is labor protection and qualifications
- 2. Wages - fee for work and depends on the demand and suggestions for labor. Wages, with other things being equal, below, if the work is less attractive?
- 3. Rent theory - Compensation paid for the use of land
- 4. Cost Relative: Creation of value by labor, demarcation of exchange and consumer value
- 5. Changing the amount of money affects the change in the relative prices of goods (quantitative theory of money)
Mill set the task to write an updated version of the "wealth of peoples" by A. Smith. And he succeeded in a certain extent. The whole second half of the nineteenth century the book of Mill (1848) was an undisputed Bible of economists.
So, Mille systematized, deepened ideas, provisions, classic methodology. His "principles of political economy" is not new system, And the development of the former concept of classical school, its updated option.
The processes occurring in the economy, "classics" presented in the most generalized form as the sphere of interrelated laws and categories, as a logically slender system of relations.
A. Smith and D. Ricardo showed that the source of wealth is not an external trade (mercantleists), not nature as such (physiocrats), but the sphere of production, labor activity In its diverse forms. Labor theory of value (value) that does not disprove the usefulness of the product, served as one of the initial provisions of political economy.
The founders of the first really scientific school have tried to answer the question that is a measure of labor. The interconnectedness of the main factors of production was demonstrated; The problems that did not fit into the strict framework of classical theory are indicated.
From the search for external forces or appeal to the "mind" of the power structures Smith and Ricardo turned an analysis in the sphere of identifying the internal causes underlying the functioning market economy. It is not easy to multiple the analytical conclusions of classics, but in their logic and sequence. Provisions and conclusions to which "Classics" came, received a more complete and detailed disclosure in the writings of followers and opponents.
The classic school is not just a combination of principles and postulates. Such an assessment of the school would be too general, largely formal. Classical theory - These are "scaffolding" and at the same time the fundamental basis of science, open to the development and deepening, clarification and expansion of the subject, improvement of the methodology, substantiation of new conclusions and conclusions. Proceedings of these greatest representatives of the school of classical political economy still remain relevant, because world economy Developed according to their postulates.
As the foundation of market economic relations in developed countries continued in developed countries, the fact that state intervention in economic activities It is not a panacea in overcoming the obstacles in the increase in national wealth and achieve consistency in the relationship between business entities both internal and in foreign markets. Therefore, as P. Samuelson noted, the displacement of "pre-industrial conditions" by the system of "free private entrepreneurship", contributing to the decomposition of mercantilism, has become simultaneously the initial point of the onset of conditions "Full Laissez Faire".
The last phrase means the requirement of full non-interference of the state in the economy, a business life or, speaking differently - Economic liberalism. And from the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. This idea has become a kind of motto of market liberal economic policies. And since that time, a new theoretical school of economic thought is born, which will later be called classical political economy.
The "Classical School" led a decisive struggle against the protectionist ideology of mercantilists, contacting the most new methodological achievements of the science of that era and expanding truly fundamental theoretical studies. Her representatives opposed empirism of the Mercantilistic system of professionalism, which, according to the same P. Samuelo, did not allow the "advisers at the king" to convince its monarchs in the fact that the increase in the country's wealth is associated with the establishment of state control over the economy, including Consider import and promotion of exports and thousands of other "detailed orders".
"Classics", in contrast to mercantlers, substantially formulated both the subject and the method of studying economic theory. Thus, the increased degree of manufacturing of the economy (then its industrialization) led to the first plan of entrepreneurs employed in industrial production, pushing capital to the second plan engaged in trade, monetary circulation and loan operations. For this reason As a subject of studying "Classics" Preferred mainly the sphere of production.
What concerns method of study and economic analysis, then his novelty in the "Classical School" is connected, as already mentioned, with introducing the latest methodological techniques, which provided sufficiently deep analytical results, a smaller degree of empirity and descriptive, i.e. Surface, understanding of economic (business) life. This is also evidenced by the statements of L. Mises and M. Blag - the largest authorities of modernity in the field of economic science methodology.
The first of them, in particular, believes that "many epigions of economists-classics have seen the task of economic science in the study of the events that are not really happening, but only those forces that some not quite understandably predetermined the occurrence of real phenomena." According to the urgency, "economists-classics stressed that the conclusions of economic science ultimately are based on postulates, equally handicrafts from the observed" laws of production "and subjective introspection (self-surveillance. - Ya.y.)."
Thus, it can be argued that the change of mercantilism of the classical political economy was the accomplishment of another historical metamorphosis in relation to the name and appointment of economic science. As you know, the term of the ancient Greek philosophers "saving" or "economy" Perceived almost in the literal translation of the words "Okos" (household) and "NOMOS" (rule, law) and had a semantic load Processes of housekeeping, family management or personal economy. In the period of the mercantilistic system, the economic science, which received the name "Political Savings", thanks to D. Monkeyena, was perceived as Science O. state economy or the economy of national states managed by monarchs.Finally, in the period of the "classic school", political economy found the features of a truly scientific discipline studying the problem of the economy of free competition.
By the way, K. Marx, with whose name, the introduction of the term "classical political economy" is connected to the scientific circulation, first of all, from the fact that "classics" in the works of their best, as he believed, the authors of A. Smith and D. Ricardo is absolutely not Neither apologetics, nor sliding on the surface of economic phenomena. But, according to his thoughts, the "classic school" with his characteristic class orientation "investigated the production relations of the bourgeois society." This position, it seems, did not dispute and N. Kondratyev, who believed that in the teachings of "classics" it was about the analysis of the conditions for the free economic activity of "only capitalist system".
General signs of classical political economy
Continuing the overall characteristics of almost two hundred years of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.
First, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the preemptive analysis of the problems of the production sphere in the separation from the sphere of treatment, the development and use of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. In particular, the reference to the observed "laws of production" removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the anti-classic oppression of the spheres of production and appeal was the reason for the underestimation of the natural relationship of economic entities of these areas, inverse influence on the scope of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Moreover, classics in solving practical tasks The answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, As N. Kondratyev expressed "Estimated". For this reason, he believes "the answers that have the nature of the estimated Maxim or Rules, namely: the system based on freedom of economic activity is the most perfect, freedom of trade is most favorable to the prosperity of the nation, etc.". This circumstance is also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequences of economic analysis and theoretical generalization"Classical School" of political economy.
Secondly, relying on the causal analysis, calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, classics (unlike mercantlers) tried to identify the mechanism for the formation of goods and fluctuations in the price level on the market not due to the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country , and in connection with the costs of production or, on a different interpretation, the number of labor spent. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there was no other economic problem in the past, and N. Kondratyev also pointed out for this, which would attract "such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so many mental stress, logical tricks and polemical passions as a value problem . And at the same time, it seems it is difficult to specify another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of a value problem "5.
but The cost principle for determining prices The "classic school" was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need in one way or another good with the addition of this good one. Therefore, the opinion of N. Kondratieva, who wrote: "The previous excursion convinces us in the fact that until the second half of the XIX century there is no conscious and distinct separation and distinguishing theoretical judgments or practical. As a rule, the authors are convinced that those judgments that are actually judgments are equally scientific and reasonable, as well as those that are judgments theoretical "6. Several decades later (1962), Lyudwig von Mises expressed manyly a similar judgment. "Public opinion," he writes, "still impressed by a scientific attempt by representatives of the classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to resolve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the end user, but were forced to begin their constructions with a businessman's actions, for which consumer utility assessments are specified "(allocated by me. - Ya.Ya.).
Thirdly, the category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only initial category of economic analysis, from which other derivatives of the category are oppressed in the scheme of the genealogical tree (grow). Analyzing the problem of value, classics, according to N. Kondratyev, showed that this problem includes a number of although related, but deeply different issues. The main ones are the following: 1. What is the value as a phenomenon and what is its types (qualitative problem)? 2. What are the foundations, sources or reasons for the existence of value? 3. Is the value of magnitude and if so, what exactly, and than Is it determined (quantitative problem)? 4. What is the value of value measuring? 5. What function does the value category in the system of theoretical economy perform? ". In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. Search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society without taking into account the psychological, moral, legal and other factors of the social environment.
The specified disadvantages, referring to M. Blug, are partly due to the impossibility of conducting a fully controlled experiment in the social sciences, as a result of which "economists in order to discard any theory, you need much more facts than, say, physicists" 9. M. Blag himself, however, clarifies: "If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory were amenable to unambiguous test, no one would have heard the unrealistic prerequisites. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified because all predictions have probabilistic character here. "
Fourth, examining the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, in contrast to mercantilists) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), and They tried to substantitize the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy.However, as you know, they "Whether" Without a serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems that make it possible to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classic school. Achieving equilibrium in the economy considered automatically possible, sharing the "law of markets" Z.B. SEA.
Finally, fifthly, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the commodity world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics, the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Buagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite influence on the sphere of the production of monetary factors.
The main stages of the development of classical school
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
First stage. Its initial stage falls at the end of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century, when in England, thanks to the work of W. Peggy and in France, with the advent of the works of P. Buagilbera, the signs of the emerging alternative mercantilism of the new teaching were formed, which will subsequently name the classical political economy. These authors sharply condemned the restructuring freedom of entrepreneurship the protectionist system. The first attempts of costly interpretations of goods and services were made in their works (by taking into account the number of working time and labor spent during the production process). They emphasized the priority importance of the liberal principles of management in the creation of national (non-monetary) wealth in the field of material production.
The next stage of this stage is connected with the period of the middle and the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century, when with the advent of the so-called physiocration - a specific course within the classical school - the mercantilistic system has undergone a deeper and reasoned criticism. Physocirates (especially F. Kene and A. Turgo) significantly advanced economic science, denoting a new interpretation of a number of micro and macroeconomic categories, although their attention was focused on the problems of agricultural production to the detriment of other sectors of the economy and especially the sphere of circulation.
So, at the first stage, no representative of the classical political economy is not being professional economist, could not achieve in-depth study of theoretical problems of effective development as industrial productionand farming.
Second phase. The time segment of this period of development of the "classical school" is entirely connected with the name and creativity of the great scientist-economist Adam Smith, whose ingenious creation "The wealth of peoples" (1776) was the special and most significant achievement of economic science of the entire last third of the XVIII century.
His "Economic Man" and the "Invisible Hand" of Providence were able to convince not one generation of economists in natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. XX century As "classics", so then "neoclassics" believed in an irrefutable position about "laissezfaire» - Complete non-interference government prescriptions in free competition.
Open A. Smith (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory) laws of division and growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. On its theoretical surveys, modern concepts about the product and its properties, money, wages, profits, capital, productive work, etc. are also based.
Third stage. The chronological framework of this stage covers almost the entire first half of the XIX century, during which in developed countries of the world (primarily in England and France) a transition from manufactory to plants and factories, i.e. To machine, or, as they say to industrial, production, which marks the accomplishment of industrial coup. During this period, the greatest contribution to the treasury of the "classic school" was introduced by the students of the Anglica D. Ricardo, T. Malthans and N. Senior, the French, the French Say, F. Bastia et al. And although all these authors, following their idol, the main in economic science was considered the theory of value and just as he adhered to the cost concept (in accordance with which the origin of the cost of goods and services was seen either in the amount of spent Labor or in production costs), nevertheless, each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of liberal market relations a rather notable mark.
For example, was the author of one of the most common in the "classic school" of concepts, called the "Law of Markets" or simply the "law of SEI". For more than 100 years, this "law" was divided into "classics" at first, and then "neoclassics" because the basis of the equilibrium problem in question between the total demand and the cumulative proposal, providing in the conditions of oscillations of the market conditions, one or another level of social product implementation , and zh.b. Say, and his like-minded people were invested, in fact, the next Smith position: with a flexible wage and mobile prices, the interest rate will balance the demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.
Another researcher, D. Ricardo, more of its own contemporaries half aiming with L. Smith and at the same time, fully separated the views of the latter in the nature of the origin of the income "of the main classes of society", first revealed a natural In the conditions of free competition, the trend of the norm profit to a decreasedeveloped finished Theory on the forms of land rent.It also owns the merit of one of the best for that time justification patterns of changes in the cost of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
In the works of T. Malthus, in the development of the imperfect concept of A. Smith on the mechanism of public reproduction (according to Marx, "Dogma Smith") nominated (contrary to the point of view of the participation of the "classes" in economic life dominated then) "Third parties", In accordance with which the obligatory participation in the creation and distribution of the cumulative social product is not only "productive", but also the "unproductive" layers of society. In addition, this scientist belongs to the idea of \u200b\u200binfluencing the welfare of the society and the rate of population growth in our time and in our time - the very idea that was based on them The first in the history of economic thoughts of the theory of population.
Fourth stage. At this final stage in the second half of the XIX century. Denidated works by J.S. Mill and K. Marx, comprehensively summarizing the best achievements of the "classic school". As you know, in this period, the formation of a new, more progressive direction of economic thought, which later received the name of the "neoclassical economic theory" was subsequently. However, the popularity of the theoretical views of the "classics" remained very impressive. The reason for this was largely the fact that the last leaders of the classical political economy, being strictly committed to the Regulations on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and, condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought, nevertheless, in the words of P. Samuelson, they sympathized with the working class and were addressed "To socialism and reforms."
In conclusion, it should be noted that in Russia, despite the movements defined in recent years, in terms of eliminating the "literary hunger" by eating the Economy Economy-Classic, the results achieved, alas do not cause optimism. The fact is that published in 1991 and 1993. Edition of 10 thousand copies The two-volume "Anthology of economic classics" is essentially the only "Classical Political Saving" section of the help for Russian economists at the present time. In the "Lithology" in full, only one work of classics is included - the book "Treatise on taxes and fees" (the last edition was in 1940. Edition of 10 thousand copies.). And the famous "wealth of peoples" Adam Smith is represented only in the first two books from the Great Scientist's Pentateuch (the last edition was carried out in 1962 by a circulation of 3 thousand ex.). With significant abbreviations (only six chapters) in the twotoman included the main work D. Ricardo (the last edition was in 1955). Each is one bibliographic rarity - "experience about the law of population" T. Malthus (last published in Russia in 1868) - although it is included in the "anthology", but, as is known, this is the first and not the main development of this scientist. At the same time, the logs of such authors of the classical political economy remain published for the last time with the letter "Yet", like J.B. Say (M., 1896), F. Bastia (M. 1896) and Carey (St. Petersburg, 1869).
1. In the classical political economy, the priority method of economic analysis is:
A) empirical method;
B) functional method;
C) the causal method.
2. The study of the study of classical political economy is:
A) the sphere of appeal;
B) production sector;
C) the sphere of appeal and the sphere of production at the same time.
3. According to the classical political savings salary as the income of the worker:
A) to the physiological minimum;
B) to the subsistence minimum;
C) to the maximum possible level.
4. In accordance with the classical political economy, money is:
A) artificial invention of people;
B) the most important factor economic growth;
C) Technical instrument, a thing that facilitates the exchange.
5rd by a class of the class method of analysis, theories of capital, productive work, reproduction is:
A) F. Kene;
B) A. Smith;
C) K. Marx.
6.What was the basis of the physiocratic system?
A) Primates of agriculture as the basis of society's life;
B) analysis of public reproduction and its categories;
C) Primates of the sphere of circulation.
A) nominal money theory;
B) the metal theory of money;
C) quantitative money theory.
8. In what era did the position of the "invisible hand" occurred?
A) an unregulated market economy;
B) to a market economy;
C) regulated market economy.
A) F.Kene, A.Turgo, A.Smit;
B) A.Serra, U.Stafford;
C) "member, A.Montown;
D) I.pososhkov.
10.U. Petty and P. Buagilber - Rodonarchists of the theory of value, determined by:
A) labor costs (labor theory);
B) manufacturing costs (cost theory);
C) maximum utility.
11. According to F. Kene, the classification of farmers represent:
A) productive class;
B) the class of land owners;
C) Proflity class.
12. According to the teachings of F. Kene about the "clean product" the latter is created:
A) in trade;
B) in agricultural production;
C) in industry.
A) A.Turgo;
B) A.Smit;
C) F.Kene.
14. How was the originally called (at the beginning of the 17th century) economic theory?
A) economics;
B) science of wealth;
C) political economy;
D) the history of economic exercises.
A) A. Smith; a) "Book about poverty and wealth"
B) U. Petty; b) "Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples"
C) I. Posochkov; c) "Labor is a father of wealth, the Earth is his mother."
16. The only source of all wealth considers the work:
A) merchant;
B) agriculture (farmer);
C) artisan;
D) a usurist;
E) the peasant community.
17. According to A. Smith's thought, much greater value for real wealth and income, adds capital investing:
A) in trade;
B) in agriculture;
C) to industry.
18. According to A. Smith's methodological position, private interest:
A) not separated from the general interest;
B) stands above public;
C) secondary to public.
19.A. Smith showed that the main incentive of human economic activity is:
A) high pace of development;
B) private interest;
C) Advanced technical equipment of production.
20.A. Smith emphasized that the natural price is equalized by the market due to
A) consumer value and full utility;
B) exchange cost;
C) oscillations of supply and demand;
D) constancy of the cost of labor, constant costs;
E) the fact that labor is value;
E) three-factor composition;
G) the ratio between the amounts of labor in production.
21. All people employed in agricultural production, F. Kene attributed to the class:
A) owners;
B) hired workers;
C) fruitless;
D) productive.
Classical political economy arose in England in the XVII century. Its classic is called primarily for the truly scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science. Her founder is William Petty. The subject of studying political economy, in his opinion, is the analysis of the problems of production, because The creation and enhancement of wealth occurs exclusively in the industries of material production.
Petty allocates four factors of production: land and labor - the main, qualifications of the employee and the means of its labor are not basic. Thus, he considered two measurements of the cost - work and land.
An important place in his works is the labor theory of value. He distinguished market and natural prices. Natural price, or cost, is determined by the work spent on the production of goods. Market or political price varies depending on the ratio of supply and demand.
Relying on the labor theory of value, Petty considered Renta as the difference between the value of the goods and wages, which is necessary to maintain the life of the employee.
Petty made a significant step forward in the issue of the price of the Earth. In his opinion, it must represent the capitalized Rent, i.e. The amount of annual meter for a certain number of years.
The fact that U.Petti expressed in the form of guessing, Adam Smith (1723-1790) substantiated as a system, a detailed concept set out in the famous work of a scientist "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." In it, he allocates the subject of study of economic science - the economic development of society and the increase in its welfare.
With an explanation of the economic phenomena, A. Smita proceeds from the assumption about the immutability of human nature. All economic processes are based on egoism. The overall benefit is made as a result of the actions of individual individuals, each of which seeks to their benefit. The economic relations of people are formed spontaneously. In his teaching, for the first time, the huge role of the free market as a production regulator is shown. It was from him that the winged expression "invisible market's hand" went. Do not reject the fully participation of the state in economic Life And control by the state, Smith leads to him the role of "night guard", and not regulators and regulators of economic processes.
The source of richness Smith considers production, the conditions for the growth of wealth puts forward an increase in labor productivity, which is explained by the division of labor. The very division of labor is due to the natural tendency of people to exchange, and the depth of the division of labor is associated with the volume of the market. In the product, it allocates two components: Money value and consumer value. At the same time, work acts as a source and measure of value. Smith allocates three main types of income: wages, profits and rent.
He first introduced the gross and net income category. Gross income is a cumulative social product that includes all material costs, including re-taken into account with consistent processing at different stages. technological process. Net income is just the newly created value.
In addition, Smith made a significant contribution to the theory of value, the doctrine of income, capital, the origin of money, the economic policy of the state.
The largest economist of the era of the industrial coup in England was David Riccardo (1772 - 1823). He builds his concept on the labor theory of value. Usefulness He considers as the necessary prerequisite value, that is, what is not utility cannot have changed value.
Riccardo displays the law of money circulation: with the immutability of the number of goods and their price, the amount of money required for circulation depends on the value of money. So, he comes to a quantitative theory of money, to bring the value of money from their quantity.
The main problem of political economy Riccardo considered the distribution problem. The source of all income is labor. The value and ratio of income of individual classes are determined not to their contribution to the creation of goods, but completely different factors. Riccardo wage theory comes down to the Regulations that the payment of labor is regulated by the cost of the minimum of the existence of workers and cannot rise over this level for a long time. Considering the relationship between the amount of profit and earnings of workers, Ricardo came to the conclusion that the growth of the nominal wage leads to a decrease in profits.
A special place in his works is the theory of land rent. According to Riccardo, nature does not participate in the creation of rent, and does not determine the price level. The market cannot exist different prices for the same products. The price of grain grown in agriculture favorable for agriculture is set at the level corresponding to the value of the costs on the worst lands. As a result, manufacturers in best conditions, that is, having the best lands, receive additional income - land rental.
A certain contribution was made by Riccardo to the theory of foreign trade, and above all, the principle of comparative advantages. According to him, all countries benefit from international exchange, because each country has the opportunity to save the costs of his work, specializing in the production of those goods that are more profitable in this country, but not compared to other countries, but compared to the production of other goods in this country.
French economist Jean Batist Say (1767-1832) entered the history of economic thought as the author of the theory of utility. He put forward a new assumption that the production creates usefulness, and utility determines the value of things. Labor is not the only source of wealth. Three independent factors are involved in the creation of utility: labor, capital, land, with the activities of which are associated with all production. Say secured each factor part of the cumulative social product: for labor - wages, for capital - profits, for land - Rent.
The theory of SEI markets received widespread. He came to the conclusion that since each seller is at the same time a buyer, the total market crisis is impossible, only private disproportions are possible; Everyone is interested in the well-being of everyone, the prosperity of one production is favorable for all other industries; Those segments of the population, which only consume, does not produce anything, do not contribute to the wealth of the country, but ruin it.
The last thesis refutes the other follower A. Smitus - Thomas Robert Malthus (1766 - 1834), which acquired broad fame with the composition of the "Experience of the Law of Population". He proclaimed that the main and constant cause of poverty is not in a bad board and not in the uneven distribution of wealth, but in the disproportions between the limited resources of nature and the claims of the multiplying population. In this regard, one of the main causes of Wars T.Maltus considered the "lack of place and food". The population, according to its calculations, doubles every 25 years, is obvious in geometric progression, and the means of existence under the most favorable conditions cannot increase faster than in arithmetic progression. It follows that assistance to those in need of poor does not make sense, as this will lead to an even greater demographic "explosion."
Representatives of the classical school outlined the range of fundamental problems, formulated the main tasks facing economic Science, Created research tools, without which it would be impossible to further development.
