Monopoly rent- a special form of land rent, formed when certain types of agricultural products are sold at a monopoly price that exceeds their value.
Monopoly rent is a special form of capitalist land rent, part of the surplus value created by hired labor, appropriated by land owners. Formed when goods are sold at a monopoly price that exceeds their value.
It exists in agriculture, mining and urban land. In agriculture, monopoly rent appears on plots of land with exceptional properties that allow the production of rare crops or special varieties of products, the demand for which is much higher than the possibility of their production.
For example, the production of special grape varieties to obtain rare wines. In the extractive industry, monopoly rent is formed in those areas where rare metals, minerals or other minerals are mined, the demand for which on the market significantly exceeds the possibilities of their extraction, as a result of which market prices they hold steadily above the value. In all these cases, the capitalist who leases the land is forced to pay the owner an unusually high rent, which, in addition to absolute rent and differential rent (cf. Differential rent under capitalism) includes monopoly rent.
With the development of large cities, monopoly rent arises and begins to grow on urban areas that have an exceptional position in terms of the construction of industrial and shopping centers, large commercial buildings and apartment buildings. In this case, it takes the form of excessively high rent for premises or very high rent. Changes in demand for rare products, depletion of mineral resources, the impact of the scientific and technological revolution lead to the fact that certain areas lose their exclusivity, while other areas acquire it. This leads to the abolition of monopoly rent in some areas and its appearance in others. On the whole, with the growth of the scarcity of rare areas, there is a tendency towards an increase in monopoly rent.
Absolute land rent- one of the types of income from land ownership, payment to the owner for permission to apply capital to land; paid by the tenant from absolutely all plots of land, regardless of fertility (hence the name of this type of rent).
Absolute rent brings farmers everything land leased. The reason for the existence of absolute ground rent is monopoly private property on land, and the condition for education is a lower organic composition of capital in agriculture than in industry. Therefore, there is a surplus of surplus value over the average profit. Absolute rent is a part of the surplus value appropriated by farmers by virtue of private ownership of land. Large-scale private ownership of land complicates the flow of capital from industry to agriculture, hinders cross-sectoral competition, the equalization of the rate of profit of agricultural capital with the general rate of profit. Therefore, the products of agriculture are sold at a value that is higher than the social price of production, since the surplus of surplus value over the average profit is retained in agriculture. The difference between the cost and the production price of agricultural products, i.e. surplus profit, capitalist entrepreneurs give in the form of absolute rent to the owners of the land as payment for the use of the land.
The source of absolute rent is the surplus labor of hired agricultural workers. The owners of all receive the absolute ground rent. land plots for rent.
In conditions of limited land, not only the best, but also the worst lands are included in the turnover. In this case, the rent is levied by the owners for all kinds of land, including the worst ones. As a result, land rent arises on the worst lands, which appears in the form of absolute rent.
The mechanism for the formation of absolute rent is provided due to the fact that the social costs of production in agriculture are the costs of production on the worst lands, and products are sold at social prices. The difference between them allows you to receive additional profit in the form of absolute rent:
T = C + V + Pcr + Pdop,
where T is the cost of production Agriculture produced on the worst lands; С + V - capital expenditures of the farmer, respectively, for the means of production (С) and for wages hired workers (V); Рср - the average profit that the farmer receives; Rdop - additional profit that the owner of the land receives in the form of absolute rent.
In our country, until recently, based on the adopted methodology for justifying the appearance of rent, there was no absolute rent (due to the lack of private ownership of land). Currently, private land ownership is being reintroduced. Under these conditions, it is necessary to clarify the nature of the emergence of absolute rent.
Recall that absolute rent presupposes the existence of private ownership of land, which can be used in two ways:
a) with the right to lease land;
b) without the right to lease land.
In the first approach, the owner leases the land and receives a certain income, which acts as an absolute rent. In this case, the owner of the land may not participate in agricultural production, but live on the income from land lease. It is no accident that N. G. Chernyshevsky called absolute rent "idle rent."
In the second approach, the owner does not have the right to lease the land. In this case, the land is excluded from free trade; consequently, the possibility of the emergence of a monopoly of large landownership is excluded. With this form of agrarian relations, the existence of absolute rent becomes impossible.
Special mention should be made of the state form of land ownership. Until recently, it was believed that the state form of ownership excludes the possibility of an absolute rent. However, in market conditions regions are increasingly endowed with the rights of business entities; the principles of organization of local self-government are being introduced, carried out on the basis of economic and financial independence; the responsibility of the regions for ensuring the vital activity of the subordinate territories is increasing. Under these conditions, it is quite legitimate for the regions as economic entities and as land owners to raise the issue of leasing land (especially in cities and urban-type settlements) and receiving income in the form of absolute or differential rent using it for local needs. This approach is consistent with the provision that rent-seeking is the economic form of the sale of land ownership.
Differential rent- additional income received through the use of greater land fertility and higher labor productivity. Differential rent exists in two forms: differential rent I and differential rent II. The sources of differential rent I are more productive labor on relatively better and average fertile lands, as well as differences in the location of land plots in relation to sales markets, transport routes and so on. Differential rent II is associated with additional capital investment in the same area, providing additional profit. Differential rent arose as a result of limited land: the price of production of an agricultural product is determined by the conditions of production not in the middle and best plots, but in the worst ones, since the product of only the best and middle plots is insufficient to cover social demand. As a result, additional surplus value is formed, which is the difference between the production price in the worst areas ( public price production) and the individual production price in the middle and best sites.
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Neoclassical models of economic growth
Neoclassical models of economic growth emerged in the mid-1950s. XX century, when the problem of achieving potentially possible growth rates was brought to the fore, not so much due to unused capacities, but by introducing new technology, increasing labor productivity and improving the organization of production.
V models R. Solow the production function of Cobb-Douglas is used, in which the factors "labor" and "capital" are substitutes.
The prerequisites for the model are: a) decreasing marginal capital productivity (MRC); b) constant returns to scale; c) constant rate of capital retirement; d) no investment lags; e) the interchangeability of factors is explained by technology and prerequisites for perfect competition in the market for factors of production.
The proposal describes a production function with constant returns to scale, and for any positive z it is true that.
where Y / L- individual labor productivity y;
K / L- capital-labor ratio (capital-labor ratio) of labor k.
Then we can write down that labor productivity is a function of capital return (at each point of the curve, the tangent of the angle is equal to the marginal productivity of capital) and the supply can be defined as y = f(k) (fig.14.2).
Demand y in R. Solow's model is determined by consumption and investment, i.e.
where With and i- consumption and investment per employee.
Figure 14.2 - Dependence of labor productivity on capital-labor ratio.
But either, then, or
, which means that demand is defined as
Taking into account the equality of demand with supply, we have:
The dynamics of the output volume depends on investments, the level of their disposal. Investments change capital-labor ratio k and depend on the rate of accumulation, i.e.
The disposal of funds is equal to dk, where d- annually retired part of the capital k... Hence, the dynamics of the capital stock is as follows: or.
There is an equilibrium value of capital-to-labor ratio k*.
If the capital-labor ratio is less than the equilibrium value, i.e. k 1 < k*, investment is greater than disposal. i.e. i> dk, which means their growth increases the capital-labor ratio to k*. If the capital-labor ratio is greater than the equilibrium value, i.e. k 2 > k*, then the investment is less than the disposal, i.e. i < dk, which means the capital-labor ratio is reduced to k* (fig.14.3).
Figure 14.3 - Equilibrium capital-labor ratio
The value of the equilibrium capital-labor ratio is influenced by the rate of accumulation (savings). An increase in the accumulation rate to 1 increases the equilibrium capital-labor ratio to k* 1, increases labor productivity ( cm... rice. 14.3).
Let the population grow at a pace n... Now, to maintain the previous level of capital-labor ratio, a volume of investment is required, which will not only cover the outflow of capital, but also provide them with new workers, i.e., the change in the capital stock per worker will become equal to = i - dk - nk, = f(k) – (d + n)k.
For a state of equilibrium capital-labor ratio, equality is necessary:
= f(k) – (d + n)k = 0.
In this case, the slope increases ( d + n)k and the equilibrium value of capital-labor ratio k* decreases k* 1 (fig.14.4).
Thus, in order for the capital-labor ratio to remain constant, with the growth of the population, capital must grow at the same rate, i.e.
Figure 14.4 - Capital-to-labor ratio with population growth
Thus, population growth is a factor in economic growth.
Taking into account technological progress in the model modifies the initial production function (a labor-saving form of scientific and technological progress is assumed), i.e.
Y = F(K, LE),
where E- labor efficiency;
LE- the number of conventional units of labor with constant efficiency E... The more E, the more products a worker can produce.
Let E growing at a pace g... If the number L growing at a pace n, a E with the pace g, then the number of conventional units of labor with constant efficiency LE growing at a pace ( n + g). From here k = i – dk– nk – gk or k = f(k) – (d + n + g)k.
Thus, in the presence of STP, the total volume of capital and output will grow at a rate g, which is the basis for improving the well-being of the population.
Since economic growth is associated with different savings rates, the problem arises of choosing the optimal savings rate at which consumption will reach its maximum.
"Gold" level of capital accumulation(Phelps' golden rule of accumulation) is the level of capital accumulation that ensures the highest consumption of society and a stable state of the economy.
Consumption growth is possible up to the point where the investment growth rate is higher than the capital outflow rate (point k** rice. 14.5). Here, the volume of output increases more than the increase in disposals and consumption.
Change in capital-to-labor ratio k gives an increase in output equal to the marginal productivity of capital and increases disposal by d(MRK = d). Taking into account population growth and scientific and technological progress, RTOs = d + n + g, which is equal to the tangent with the slope d + n + g... If the economy initially has a large capital stock, a program is needed to reduce the marginal propensity to save.
If the capital stock is less than k**, then a program to increase the level of savings is needed. This program will initially lead to an increase in investment and a drop in consumption, but as capital accumulates, consumption begins to grow again.
R. Solow's model identifies technological progress as the only basis for sustainable growth in welfare.
The disadvantage of the model is that it analyzes the state of sustainable growth in the long term, without taking into account a number of growth constraints (resource, environmental, social).
Figure 14.5 - "Gold" level of capital accumulation
In the neoclassical model, sustainable growth rates are determined exogenously. Modern theories of endogenous growth try to define sustainable growth rates within the framework of the model endogenously, linking it with all possible quantitative and qualitative factors: resource, institutional and others.
Supporters of the concept of "supply economy" believe that an increase in growth rates at full employment is possible by reducing regulatory intervention from outside in the market economy.
Model J. Mead also has a neoclassical foundation and explains economic growth by marginal approaches, using the law of marginal factor productivity. Using a modernized version of the Cobb-Douglas function, J. Mead derived the equation for the possibility of stable dynamic equilibrium:
where y- the average annual growth rate of the national income;
k- the average annual rate of capital growth;
L- the average annual rate of growth of labor;
Share of capital in national income;
Labor share in national income;
r- the rate of technical progress.
Thus, the growth rate of national income is equal to the sum of the growth rates of labor and capital, weighted by the share of their expenditures in national income plus the rate of technological progress. Assuming that the rate of growth of labor and technical progress are constant, J. Mead concludes that a steady rate of economic growth will be achieved provided that the rate of growth of capital is stable and equal to the rate of growth of national income.
If the rate of capital increase exceeds the rate of growth of national income, this will automatically lead to a decrease in the rate of accumulation. This dependence is a consequence of the premise of a constant share of savings in national income; therefore, the increase in savings required to finance higher rates of accumulation will lag behind the latter, exerting a restraining effect on them, and vice versa.
Considering the influence of the growth rates of labor productivity on dynamic equilibrium, J. Mead came to the conclusion that if they exceed the rates of capital accumulation, then due to a decrease in the marginal productivity of labor, labor will be replaced by capital and their new combination in the production process will provide full employment both labor and capital. Therefore, in reality, it is necessary to maintain a correspondence between the growth rates of labor and capital accumulation. If the growth of labor is not accompanied by a corresponding growth in capital, the growth of the labor force will be excessive.
In the event of unemployment in the labor market, competition will intensify, which will lead to lower wages and an increase in the profitability of capital. As a result, the rate of accumulation will increase, which will be balanced with the rate of growth of the labor force. The state in J. Mead's model should play only an indirect stabilizing role through the use of monetary policy... Only this will create efficient mechanism redistribution of income and savings, providing the necessary employment of resources and sustainable economic growth.
A. Lewis model considers the labor reserve as the basis of economic growth and is applicable for countries in which "the population density is high, capital is scarce, and natural resources are limited" (India, Pakistan, Egypt, etc.).
At the center of the analysis is the figure of the entrepreneur. In addition, the task is to optimally redistribute the part labor resources between the spheres of the economy: agriculture and industry in order to achieve accelerated economic growth. The supply of labor resources in the agricultural sector is unlimited, and in the industrial sector it is a function cash capital, the level of technology and the demand for manufactured products.
Economic growth itself A. Lewis divides into two types: in industry, its source is the use of additional labor (extensive type), in agriculture - an increase in marginal labor productivity (intensive type)... These two types of economic growth correspond to two different investment functions. In industry, it is mainly about the expansion of capital. In agriculture, investments are expanding in connection with the reduction of profits: an increase in wage costs forces the replacement of manual labor by machine labor, in order to reduce costs and increase profits.
A. Lewis believed that the model is not applicable to Western countries that have already passed the industrial stage, other authors, on the contrary, see it as workable in a developed economy. Countries such as Great Britain, Sweden, Belgium, Norway and Denmark also confirmed the A. Lewis model, but in an inverse relationship: low rates of economic growth in these countries were associated with limited use of labor resources and production capacities. Another group consisted of countries experiencing a significant surplus of labor (Spain, Portugal, Greece, Yugoslavia, Turkey). Their economic growth, according to S. Kindleberger, also fits into the model of A. Lewis. These countries supplied labor not only for their own industry, but also for the industry of other European states and served as a kind of reserve fund of labor for the entire continent.
For countries with open economy competitiveness is of great importance. It is she who determines the further economic growth of the country, the solution to the problem foreign trade, the level of well-being of the population.
Competitiveness is the presence of abilities and properties that provide advantages over economic rivals in certain areas of activity. National competitiveness is the ability to efficiently and productively use available resources, as a result of which the economy can constantly develop, producing innovations and implementing innovations.
There are the following levels of competitiveness economy: competitiveness of goods, enterprises, industries, regional competitiveness and competitiveness of the country. If for a product the key in determining the level of competitiveness are its price and quality, hence the main competitive strategies of the company are the cost reduction strategy and the differentiation strategy aimed at finding new technologies and creating products with new characteristics.
Criterion the competitiveness of the firm is the profitability of production, the scale innovation activities, labor productivity level, efficiency strategic planning, management, its adaptability to market conditions.
Sectoral competitiveness is associated with an assessment of the international specialization of the national economy, the share of exports of goods and capital of a given sector in the overall structure of exports and outflow of capital.
We are talking about the competitiveness of individual regions when competitive advantages are associated with the local conditions of some territories, where successfully competing firms and industries have a pronounced geographical concentration, and the level of territorial decentralization of management functions allows them to independently enter the world market.
A country's competitiveness is an indicator that determines all previous levels of competitiveness.
Basic theory of the country's competitiveness M. Porter identifies four components that ensure such competitiveness:
1) factorial conditions. Along with the main factors of production, their quantity and quality, the acquired factors are of great importance (modern infrastructure, highly educated personnel, research institutes, etc.);
2) significant in size, segmented demand in the domestic market for products of the industry striving for international leadership;
3) the presence of related and supporting (auxiliary, related) industries with a strong international position;
4) additional condition the competitiveness of the country is the state policy (the state forms the institutional structure in the environment of which the firm or industry operates).
The general patterns of competitiveness do not exclude the great influence and importance of local conditions, customs, and economic policy.
Overseas experience achieving competitiveness shows that each country has its own way of securing a strong position in the world market. National prosperity is being created. For this, a set of forces must act that would ensure a constant readiness to introduce innovations, modernize the economy, and accelerate development.
Competitiveness as a property of the economy is a very dynamic quality. To maintain it, a competitive basis of the economy and targeted government support are needed.
Achieving competitiveness requires the implementation of the following approaches:
a) expanding the export of efficiently operating industries and industries;
b) import of goods for which the country is not competitive;
c) promoting the export of capital in the form of direct investment of those industries that are less productive within the national economy or whose development pursues the expansion of sales markets by overcoming customs barriers.
Foreign practice shows that the starting positions for the development of competitiveness are in industries relying on the use of natural resources or labor-intensive goods. It is important to take into account the focus on creating competitive advantages in strictly defined industries, segments, or even in individual industries. The rational structure of export-import operations is of great importance.
Alexander Idrisov
Managing partner
"Pro-Invest Consulting"
I. Competitiveness of the economy - the basis for development
Russia is part of the world economy, and it is a fait accompli.
The most important goal of the Russian Government is to create a competitive economy that ensures the country's leadership in international market.
The basis of a competitive economy is a competitive industry. All actions of the Government: developed programs and legislative acts, procedures state regulation and activities state support must be subordinated to the main and priority goal for today - ensuring competitiveness Russian enterprises, and, consequently, the competitiveness of the economy and the country as a whole.
The competitiveness of the economy is, first of all, the activation of exports. Export development is the most important task of the Government.
Competitiveness Russian industry- this is the flag that the Government should carry in its hands as the main symbol of transformations in the economy. This is the idea that can unite people, regardless of their political preferences and position in society.
There will be a competitive industry, there will be:
export and foreign exchange earnings (independence from the state of international commodity markets);
stable tax revenues to the budget;
employment;
social and political stability;
well-deserved position of Russia in the international arena.
II. Enterprise competitiveness
The main components that ensure the competitiveness of enterprises are:
Quality of products and services
Marketing and sales strategy
Personnel qualifications
Technological level of production
Tax environment in which the company operates
Availability of funding sources
Unfortunately, the level of competitiveness of Russian enterprises is very low. Almost the single most important reason for low competitiveness is unskilled management or the complete absence of what is called regular management. We have everything: highly educated people, Natural resources, huge market potential, as well as the possibility of acquiring the latest equipment... Moreover, despite the widespread opinion, business leaders have every real opportunity to attract the necessary capital. However, they must present a clear marketing strategy, business development plan, and also convince investors that they are the qualified managers who are able to implement these plans.
III. Investments
As mentioned above, almost any Russian company has a real opportunity to raise capital. The investment problem is not technical, but psychological. The overwhelming majority of heads of Russian enterprises are guided by only two sources of funding - the state or bank loans... Both of these funding options are the least realistic in existing conditions... Most enterprises are unable to provide banks with liquid collateral for loans, and government funding is unlikely to be available to many. At the same time, there are all the necessary conditions to attract private investment: high interest of private investors and high potential Russian market... Despite the events of recent days, interest foreign investors operating in the field of direct investment is unabated. One of the obstacles to attracting investment is the fact that Russian enterprises are not able to provide a business plan developed in accordance with international standards, on the other hand, business leaders are demonstrating the "dog in the hay" effect: "I will die, not share." The Russian head of the enterprise, as a rule, owns a controlling or significant block of shares and is not ready to attract investment through the sale of shares. In world practice, even in developed countries it is impossible to find an industrial enterprise that would provide financing only through loans. All the most significant industrial corporations, leading the market, list their shares on the stock exchange and consider this to be the greatest blessing. Another equally important problem hindering the investment process is tax system, forcing the management of the enterprise to conceal income in order to survive in today's conditions. The concealment of income contradicts the main requirement of professional investors - "transparency", that is, complete and correct disclosure of financial information.
The task of the Government is to take control of investment processes and take actions that will neutralize the reasons that impede its development.
1. A serious program of intensive training of business leaders in modern methods of corporate strategic planning is required. No plan - no clear and realistic funding strategy, and therefore no action.
2. Tax law should, on the one hand, be attractive to investors, on the other hand, it should stimulate directors of enterprises to disclose financial information.
3. Transition to international standards accounting has already been declared, it should be intensified.
4. It is urgent to take measures to restore and develop the stock market. It is not only a tool for raising capital in real sector, but also an opportunity for the population to preserve and increase (with normal work stock market and a stable political situation in the country) savings.
5. Develop efforts to create favorable investment climate and, first of all, the adoption of tough measures to combat crime. Order and reliability are the most important incentives for any investor.
IV. Governmental support
State financial support(direct government funding, loan guarantees, etc.) should be addressed only to those enterprises that are really unable to provide financing from commercial (non-government) sources (bank loans, private investors, stock market). Commercial enterprises representing potentially profitable commercial projects should under no circumstances be considered as objects of government support. This main principle to be followed by the Government, without any exceptions.
To enterprises that do not have the ability to attract Money from extrabudgetary sources include:
1. Defense enterprises that have restrictions on the disclosure of information, and, therefore, do not have the ability to provide full-fledged financial information for the investor. Provided that these enterprises still play an important role in the process of ensuring the country's defense capability. Otherwise, this enterprise should take action to separate the non-defense part of the production into a separate entity, which will be able to ensure the disclosure of financial and economic information, and, therefore, attract private investment.
2. Research organizations whose research results are outstanding scientific result and cannot be offered industrial enterprises... Otherwise, such projects should be financed either by enterprises interested in research results, or by venture funds, including state ones.
3. Socially significant government projects that may not be commercially effective in the current environment.
IV. Privatization
The results of privatization are deplorable. The main goal - the creation of an effective owner - was not achieved. Ineffective property management leads to a deterioration in the condition of enterprises, and sometimes to their complete liquidation, which is a direct damage to the interests of the state. The state is not only deprived of budget revenues, but also forced to cover social costs. Development and implementation required special program creating effective owners. To do this, it is necessary to demand from the owners plans for the development of enterprises, demonstrating the ability of the enterprise to overcome the crisis and increase competitiveness. A condition must be set that in case of non-fulfillment of the agreed plans, the shares of the owners will be sold at market value new owners who have submitted the most effective development plans according to the conclusions of independent experts. This measure should ensure the dynamism of enterprise reform processes.
V. Enterprise Restructuring
A number of Russian enterprises have historically inherited redundant infrastructure that makes it impossible for them to be profitable. Such enterprises cannot, under any circumstances, provide financing from commercial sources... They must either increase profits several times, or reduce assets and costs. Such giant enterprises, as a rule, are of great social importance for the region and cannot simply be liquidated. However, all attempts government funding these enterprises will lead to the loss budget funds... The only way out of the situation is the development and implementation of restructuring projects. Due to the lack of qualifications and experience, the company's management is unable to independently develop and implement the restructuring project. The state should provide assistance in financing the services selected on a competitive basis by professional management consultants. By the way, today on the market there are a sufficient number of Russian consulting firms capable of carrying out such work.
Vi. Government regulation
Tax legislation, duties, tariffs, etc. should be designed taking into account main goal- whether this measure will contribute to strengthening the competitiveness of Russian enterprises. For example, the introduction of duties on the purchase of electronic components led to the complete elimination of all planned projects for the creation of consumer electronics in Russia and the loss of an entire industry. On the other hand, according to the experience of China, if you plan to sell a milk tanker to China, you have to pay up to 100% duty. While the first measure reduced the competitiveness of Russian enterprises, the introduction of measures similar to those in China can help to strengthen their competitiveness.
The introduction of taxes on advertising does not allow Russian enterprises to fully compete with Western firms. The inability to sell the assets and products of an enterprise below cost (loss tax) puts enterprises in an extremely disadvantageous position in relation to their competitors, reduces the possibility of liquidating illiquid assets and replenishing working capital. On the other hand, high duties on imported industrial equipment, which are necessary to ensure competitive quality Russian products, lead to an increase in the cost of goods and, accordingly, a loss of competitiveness.
It is also very important that government regulation measures stimulate the development of industries aimed at deeper processing of raw materials. That is, measures of state regulation should provide unconditional assistance to the development of industries, the purpose of which is the final consumer. Not a consumer of a transistor, but a consumer of a TV. Not a leather consumer, but a shoe consumer. Such an approach, on the one hand, will ensure the development of the consumer market and the strengthening of the positions of Russian manufacturers in it, on the other hand, it will stimulate the development of industries engaged in intermediate technological redistributions. Measures to stimulate deep processing will contribute to the creation of viable industrial groups with common strategic goals, each link of which will be interested in the effective work of the other. This list can be continued, but the main thing is that the principle of taking certain regulatory measures should be the same: they should be aimed at strengthening the competitive position of Russian enterprises.
- Leadership and Management
Keywords:
1 -1
Since 1998, within the framework of the World Economic Forum ( World Economic Forum) ratings are published in which most countries of the planet are ranked according to the level of competitiveness. This raises several questions.
First, what is "Competitiveness of the national economy", I.e. not the competitiveness of a product, firm, industry, but competitiveness economic system country?
Second, what determines the competitiveness of a country, what factors are at its core? Why are some countries making significant progress in their development, while others are not?
Third, if the competitiveness of an individual company is quite simple to determine (for example, in terms of the size and rate of profit, the level of technology, the size of the market share, etc.), then what about the assessment of the country's competitiveness? What kind macroeconomic indicators should be considered: GNP, GDP, GDP per capita (in 2005, the highest per capita GDP was in Luxembourg, second place for this indicator - Qatar 1, fourth and fifth - Brunei and Kuwait), natural resource endowment, share countries in the world's GDP?
The answer to many questions is given by theory famous American economist from Harvard University M. Porter. Working in the 1980s. in the Commission on the Competitiveness of American Industry created by R. Reagan, Porter tried to determine
In 2008, Qatar came out on top in terms of per capita GDP.
divide the term "competitiveness" in relation to the state. Based on the study of the practice of companies in the leading industrial countries of the world, which account for almost half of world exports, M. Porter proposed the concept international competitiveness of the nation(the main provisions of the concept are presented in his book "Competitive Advantages of the Nation").
Porter's approach is to view the competitiveness of a country in terms of the competitiveness of companies representing the country in the global market, since ultimately national income the country is created by its manufacturing companies, and international trade essentially redistributes the product created by competitive firms in competitive industries different countries... Hence, the degree of competitiveness of the country should be considered from the micro level- the level of an individual firm. That is, according to Porter, it is not the countries that are initially competitive, but the companies of these countries.
The success of the development of the national economy depends on the activities of a certain core companies, leading international activity. To compete successfully, firms must have one of two advantages: either have low production costs and, therefore, low prices, or differentiate product quality based on high prices. Porter notes that no country in the world can be competitive in absolutely all positions, that even in the most prosperous countries not all industries and not all companies can prosper at the same time. Consequently, the country must specialize in the most competitive segments of the economy, and less efficient industries can either be moved abroad or should be abandoned altogether.
The competitiveness of the national industry, agriculture, and the service sector also means that they develop according to the laws of the free market. Protectionist policies, government subsidies to local companies, and restriction of access to the domestic market for foreign competitors are detrimental to the competitiveness of domestic producers.
Porter proposed a “competitive diamond” model that reflects the pattern of factors (determinants) of national competitive advantage (Figure 6.1). The answer to the question of why a country is making progress in a particular area is four components (properties) that form the environment in which companies operate (compete). This environment may or may not contribute to the creation of competitive advantage. These four properties are: 1) factorial conditions; 2) conditions of domestic demand; 3) the state of the service and related industries; 4) the structure and strategy of firms, intra-industry competition.
Rice. 6.1.
Let's consider these properties in more detail. Concerning factor conditions, then the factors are divided into the main(primary) that the country gets from nature (climatic and natural resources, geographical position, unskilled labor, etc.) and developed(secondary) that appear as a result of the development of production (infrastructure, technology, knowledge, highly qualified personnel). At the same time, in knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy the main factors do not provide any advantage. Such factors can be obtained in almost any other country in the world. Only developed factors give the country those competitive advantages that are difficult for competing countries to copy.
Factor conditions are also divided into are common(universal) and specialized(specific). Specialized factors require significant investment and are difficult to duplicate for competing countries ( Insurance companies, medical libraries, mortgage banks, highly skilled workforce). The fact that a country has a large number of general and basic resources makes the competitiveness of such a country imaginary and illusory.
Speaking of the second property - domestic demand conditions - it should be noted that it is not the volume of domestic demand that matters, but its quality. The national market can be relatively small, and the demand - huge, due to the high level of income of the population, advertising policy. The importance of has the quality of the consumers themselves. Demanding and informed consumers force manufacturers to constantly improve, introduce new technologies, and improve product quality.
In a relationship third property Porter draws attention to the fact that the development of individual industries contributes to the prosperity of related industries. For example, a company IBM led to the emergence of such giants of the global computer industry as Microsoft, Intel, Netscape. Mutual cooperation of allied companies allows the implementation of joint projects, contributes to the emergence of alliances, and consequently, transaction costs are reduced, the exchange of information between specialists from different industries is enhanced. According to Porter, it is not only individual industries that become competitive, but clusters of industries clusters, in which companies are vertically or horizontally integrated. For example, in Sweden, all areas of activity related to metalworking are developed: the production of steel, various tools, industrial and electrical equipment, cars.
Fourth property covers goals, strategies, ways of organizing companies that are very different from each other in different countries... The way a company is managed, the style of leadership depends on the national characteristics of a particular country. No system is universal, but it must match the sources of competitive advantage. For example, in Germany the most competitive large companies in industries with a high level of technology, and in Italy, small and medium-sized businesses, family enterprises are in the lead. It is also important which spheres of activity are prestigious in the country, which industries are the branches of national pride. In the United States, classes in medicine, law, financial services, microbiology, and the computer industry are considered to be especially prestigious. Unsurprisingly, it is in these industries that the United States can be proud of its successes.
Sufficient intra-industry competition is the main catalyst for the economic system. It is fierce internal competition that promotes the search for foreign markets and stimulates firms to go abroad. In Japan, there are about a dozen car manufacturers, more than 20 companies produce audio and video equipment. The close environment of competitors encourages the search for new and better solutions in business. The Hollywood principle operates: in the environment of prosperous, but at the same time competing with each other, a special atmosphere is established that contributes to the rise of the entire environment. Silicon Valley in California is developing in a similar way.
All four properties interact, forming a kind of "national diamond", which is an integrated system... To obtain and maintain competitive advantages in certain sectors of the economy, advantages are needed in all the components of the diamond (in this case, it cannot be duplicated in other countries). Benefits based on one or two determinants cannot be held for long, they are “elusive”. For example, Russian reserves of raw materials no longer make our country competitive even in the raw materials segment of the world market, since, firstly, new deposits are being discovered in Africa, Latin America, Australia, and secondly, modern technologies allow you to get by with synthetic substitutes for many natural materials and minerals. Only a set of properties determines the global leadership of a country as a competitive world-class power. National competitive advantages arise only when the whole diamond is unique.
In addition to the four determinants in the “competitive diamond”, there are two variables that can either strengthen or weaken these four properties - random events and government actions (see Figure 6.1).
TO random events include events that are not directly related to the conditions of the country's development. Neither companies nor the national government can influence such events, but these events change the balance of power in national economy... Random events include political decisions of foreign governments; wars, epidemics, natural disasters; inventions and major technological advances; sharp changes in resource prices; turmoil on world financial markets etc.
Another variable is government policy in various sectors of the economy and spheres of society (tax, foreign trade, monetary, currency, structural, etc.) - it is also able to influence the balance of power and priorities for the development of the national economy. M. Porter draws attention to a serious problem in the relationship between private business and the state: a temporary mismatch of tasks public policy and business objectives. State policy in to a greater extent focused on the interests of voters (who do not like to wait long) and on the interests of politicians (who were elected for a relatively short term). Consequently, government decisions are more short-term in nature, and it is rather difficult to talk about a long-term strategy of the state. Companies, on the other hand, are focused on the long term, since a company needs many years of hard work to create and maintain competitive advantages in the industry. Short-term government decisions, as well as short-term wishes of shareholders, only "irritate" business.
Thus, according to M. Porter, the basis of the competitiveness of the national economy is product and sectoral competitiveness, which is measured by labor productivity in the sector, i.e. competitiveness at the micro level determines competitiveness at the macro level. In the 1990s. M. Porter's theory served as the basis for developing recommendations in the field of public policy to increase the level of competitiveness of national goods in Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.
In the very general sense under competitiveness is understood as the ability to get ahead of others, using their advantages in achieving the set goals.
Competitiveness is one of the most important integral characteristics used to assess efficiency economic activity business entities. The very word competitiveness, in relation to whatever subject it is considered, means the ability of this subject (potential and / or real) to withstand competition.
SI Ozhegov in the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" interprets the term competitiveness as the ability to withstand, to resist competitors.
R.A. Fatkhutdinov gives the following definition of competitiveness Is the ability of an object to withstand competition in comparison with similar facilities in this market. The author emphasizes that the product or service is competitive or non-competitive in a particular market.
Manifold existing approaches the concept of competitiveness is currently defined in the economic literature:
- or by the peculiarities of the formulation of the problem and the purpose of the study, which leads the author to the need to focus his attention on one or another aspect of competitiveness;
- or by the peculiarities of the choice of the subject of research, which can be objects of competition (goods, services) and subjects of competition (enterprises, industries, regions, national economy, the state), and objects of competition (demand, market, factors of production: natural resources, labor force, capital, securities, information, political power), and the scale of activity (product markets, industry markets, regional markets, interregional markets, world markets).
The main types of competitiveness:
- (enterprises, firms, companies);
- (goods, services).
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Hierarchy level |
Competitiveness concept |
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The ability of a country to produce goods and services that meet the requirements of world markets and create conditions for increasing public resources at a rate that allows for a sustainable pace GDP growth and the quality of life of the population at the level of world values |
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The ability of the region to produce goods and services that meet the requirements of domestic and world markets, to create conditions for increasing regional resources (innovative, intellectual, investment) to ensure the growth of the competitiveness potential of economic entities at a rate that ensures sustainable GRP growth rates and the quality of life of the region's population at the level of world values |
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The ability of the industry to produce goods and services that meet the requirements of global and domestic markets, and create conditions for the growth of the competitiveness potential of enterprises in the industry |
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Ability:
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The ability to be attractive to the buyer in comparison with other products of a similar type and purpose due to the better correspondence of its quality and cost characteristics to the requirements of the given market and consumer estimates |
Competitiveness of goods (services)
- complex, multidimensional, economic object, characterized by a set of properties, the main of which are consumer properties, i.e. the ability of a product to meet the needs of the owner. A commodity is a product of labor produced for sale. The term "product" is a more universal, more general term - "product". Products are physically tangible products. The product also includes an intangible component (services, ideas, etc.).
A product is anything that can be offered on the market for purchase, use or consumption in order to satisfy specific needs (physical items, services, ideas). According to Kotler, a product is perceived on three levels:
- product by design, which must determine what problem of the consumer the created product solves (the main benefit or service);
- product in real performance- a specific product with a level of quality, a set of properties, specific design, brand name, packaging;
- goods with reinforcements- providing additional services(supplies and crediting, installation, guarantees, after-sales service, etc.).
Service - a type of activity or benefits that one party can offer to the other.
Service characteristics:
- intangibility (it is impossible to see and taste the service, hear it before purchasing it);
- inseparability from the manufacturer (its implementation is possible only in the presence of the manufacturer);
- inconsistency of quality (the quality of the service depends on the skill of the producers);
- non-persistence (the service cannot be stored until the next sale or use).
In the hierarchy of concepts of competitiveness, the basic concept is "", which can be considered for various types of goods (industrial and technical purpose, consumer purpose, services, information, etc.).
Enterprises, industries, regions, states that enter into a competitive struggle for:
- consumers;
- markets (commodity, sectoral, territorial);
- factors of production (natural raw materials, production
- technological, labor, financial resources);
- investments.
Consumer value of goods Is its ability to meet the specific need of the relevant consumer group (consumer segment). The consumer value of a product is determined by the degree to which it meets the needs of the corresponding group of consumers. Measure of the consumer value of a product- the maximum price that the consumer is willing to pay for it without regret. The lower the selling price of a product relative to its consumer value, the more profitable the consumer is to purchase the product, or, in other words, the higher the competitiveness of the product. For the consumer, the unpaid part of the consumer value is equal to the additional profit received from the use of the product. For a manufacturer, it corresponds to the “stock of competitiveness of his products”.
Many buyers, when deciding to buy a particular product, use the criteria: price and quality (and this may mean reliability for some buyers, for others - aesthetic characteristics). The consumer weighs "whether there is enough quality" he is offered for the specified price. When describing a successful purchase, people often say that "it was possible to buy a product with such and such advantages for only so many rubles." In other words, the buyer believes that it was not a pity to give more for the purchased product. But since it got cheaper, the purchase price is lower than the consumer value. The competitiveness of a product is the higher, the greater the share of unpaid utility received by the consumer.
Comparing products designed to meet the same need, the buyer takes into account their consumer properties, finds out the degree of compliance with their own needs. At the same time, he seeks to achieve the optimal ratio between the level of consumer properties of the product and the costs of purchasing and using it, that is, to obtain the maximum consumer effect per unit of cost. In relation to a specific need, the specified ratio can be achieved by a number of different goods due to their similar properties. Accordingly, they will all have the ability to satisfy this need and in relation to it can be considered interchangeable. For example, a person's need for movement can be met by using a car, motorcycle, bicycle, train, etc.
