Without the development of methods for designing management structures, it is difficult to improve management and increase production efficiency, since:

Firstly, in the new conditions in a number of cases it is impossible to operate with old organizational forms that do not meet the requirements of market relations, create a danger of deformation of the management tasks themselves;

Secondly, it is impossible to transfer the laws governing technical systems to the sphere of economic management. An integrated approach to improving the organizational mechanism has largely been replaced by the introduction and use automated systems management (ACS) - an extremely important work, but not the only one in the development of management at all levels. The creation of automated control systems is often carried out in isolation from the improvement of the control structure, insufficiently connected with organizational factors;

third, the creation of a structure should be based not only on experience, analogy, habitual schemes and, finally, intuition, but also on scientific methods of organizational design;

fourthly, the design of the most complex mechanism - the control mechanism - should be entrusted to specialists who own the methodology for the formation of organizational systems.

When developing the principles and methodology for designing management structures, it is important to move away from the presentation of the structure as a frozen set of bodies corresponding to each specialized management function. The organizational structure of management is a multilateral concept. First of all, it includes a system of goals and their distribution between various links, since the management mechanism should be focused on achieving goals. This also includes the composition of units that are connected by certain relationships; distribution of tasks and functions among all links; distribution of responsibility, powers and rights within the organization, reflecting the ratio of centralization and decentralization of management. Important elements management structures are communication, information flow and workflow in the organization. Finally, the organizational structure is a behavioral system, these are people and their groups constantly entering into various relationships to solve common problems.

Such versatility of the organizational mechanism is incompatible with the use of any unambiguous methods, either formal or informal. That is why it is necessary to proceed from a combination of scientific methods and principles for the formation of structures ( systems approach, program-target management, organizational modeling) with export-analytical work, the study of domestic and foreign experience, close interaction between developers and those who will practically implement and use the projected organizational mechanism. The methodology for designing structures should be based on a clear formulation of the goals of the organization. First, the goals are formulated, and then the mechanism for achieving them. At the same time, the organization is considered as a multi-purpose system, since the orientation towards one goal does not reflect its diverse role in the development of the economy.

Of particular importance are the nature of the influence of the external environment on the construction of the organization and the system of relations between the elements of the structure and the elements of the external environment (Fig. 28.1).

The systematic approach to the formation of the organizational structure is manifested in the following: 1) do not lose sight of any of the management tasks, without which the implementation of the goals will be incomplete; 2) identify and link, in relation to these tasks, a system of functions, rights and responsibilities along the management vertical - from CEO enterprises to the site foreman; 3) to explore and institutionalize all connections and relationships along the horizontal management, i.e., to coordinate the activities of different levels and management bodies in the performance of common current tasks and the implementation of promising cross-functional programs; 4) to ensure an organic combination of vertical and horizontal management, meaning finding the optimal ratio of centralization and decentralization with management for the given conditions. All this requires a carefully developed step-by-step procedure for designing structures, a detailed analysis and definition of a system of goals, a thoughtful allocation of organizational units and forms of their coordination.

Basic methodological design principles

There are several definitions of the term "design". Basically, they characterize it from two sides, as a common concept and from a scientific and technical position:

Design- the activity of a person or organization (s) to create a project, that is, a prototype, a prototype of an alleged or possible object, state; a set of documentation designed to create a specific object, its operation, repair and liquidation, as well as to verify or reproduce intermediate and final solutions on the basis of which this object was developed.

From a concept specific to mechanical engineering, construction and other branches of science and technology "project"(eng. design) in the meaning of "project documentation" should be distinguished used in the field of activity project management in the context management concept "project"(English project, otlat. projectus- thrown forward, speaking) in the meaning of “a certain task with certain initial data and the required results (goals) that determine the way to solve it”, “program”, “work package”, etc.

Design may include several stages from the preparation of technical specifications to the testing of prototypes. Design object is an project material subject.

The concept of "design" does not include the stage of project implementation.

Design has its own methodology, which includes structure activities, principles and norms activities, subjects,an object and his models,methods and etc.

Design Methods

Main article: Design Methods

Heuristic methods

Iteration method (successive approximation)
Decomposition method
Control question method
Brainstorming method (assault)
Theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ)
Method of morphological analysis
Functional cost analysis
Construction Methods

Experimental Methods

Purposes and types of experimental methods
Experiment planning
Machine experiment
thought experiment

Formalized Methods

Solution search methods
Methods for automating design procedures
Optimal Design Methods

3 Organizational structure formation process

The process of forming the organizational structure includes the formulation of goals and objectives, determining the composition and place of units, their resource support (including the number of employees), the development of regulatory procedures, documents, provisions that fix and regulate the forms, methods, processes that are carried out in the organizational management system .

This whole process can be organized into three major stages:

The formation of a common structural diagram in all cases is of fundamental importance, since it determines the main characteristics of the organization, as well as the directions in which a more in-depth design of both the organizational structure and others should be carried out. critical aspects systems (the ability to process information).

The development of the composition of the main divisions and the links between them lies in the fact that it provides for the implementation of organizational decisions not only in general for large linear-functional and program-targeted blocks, but also up to independent (basic) divisions of the management apparatus, the distribution of specific tasks between them and building intra-organizational relationships. Basic subdivisions are understood as independent structural units (departments, bureaus, departments, sectors, laboratories), into which linear-functional and program-targeted subsystems are organizationally divided. Base units may have their own internal structure.

Regulation of the organizational structure - provides for the development of quantitative characteristics of the management apparatus and procedures for management activities. It includes:

 - determination of the composition of the internal elements of the basic units (bureaus, groups and positions);

 - determination of the design number of subdivisions;

 - distribution of tasks and works between specific executors;

 - establishment of responsibility for their implementation;

 - development of procedures for performing management work in departments;

 - calculation of management costs and performance indicators of the management apparatus in the conditions of the designed organizational structure.

When the interaction of many links and levels of management is required, specific documents are developed, which are called organigrams. The latter are a graphical interpretation of the process of performing managerial functions, their stages and the work included in them, describing the distribution of organizational procedures for the development and decision-making between departments, their internal structural bodies and individual employees.

Consider the basics of design. The methods used in it depend on the specifics of the drawings being created.

Architectural design

Photo and film design

These modern technologies opened up huge opportunities for architects to analyze the building model being created by simulating the existence of people in the space of the proposed building. Thanks to design, modern architects create perfect compositions, reduce the likelihood of errors that occur when transferring a “paper project” into reality. The laws of mathematics, logic, office equipment, automated machines simplify the procedure for preparing documentation, speed up the design of office buildings and domestic facilities.

Systems and design methods involve the processing of a large amount of information, so it is important to find additional resources in order to optimize the process and meet the requirements dictated by a rapidly changing society.

All methods used in modern construction are based on They are impossible without the use of modern electronic means and automated technology. When developing master plans, working out the number of storeys of buildings, performing calculations, architects actively use IR technologies.

Design Challenge

The desired method is aimed at developing projects based on the optimal summation of aesthetic, social, scientific, technical, natural, building and other conditions in order to obtain ready-made and correct solutions. With the help of automation and modeling on electronic machines of the latest generation, it is possible to support the processes of systematization, accumulation, and processing of the flow of information. Design involves analytical comparison ready-made options with programmed parameters and selection the best option solution, its technical and graphic fixation, as well as in obtaining the required amount project documentation. Phototelegraph equipment, movie cameras, holographic devices, storage devices, copy centers, steel control panels integral parts when creating projects for buildings and office space. All these elements are accelerating tools in the work of any designer.

Features of architectural graphics

It is a branch of fine art that embraces the creative process of images and ideas in design with architectural design. A detailed development of a plan for the future structure is carried out in a drawing with a certain scale. For this, certain designations of pylons, walls, foundations, columns, marks for the location of doors and windows are used. The general plan shows the location of an ensemble of structures or a separate building in a certain area with the location of the cardinal points. The architectural drawing is interconnected with mathematical calculations and indications of the actual dimensions of the building being created, demonstrates the ratio of its constituent parts. At present, it is planned to divide architectural graphics into digital and classical. In classical graphics, objects such as paints, pencils, and paper are used as the main tools. Digital graphics is impossible without the use of modern computing systems.

Design sequence

This creative process is carried out in our country according to certain state standards and norms in various sectors of the economy. The development of project documentation is carried out at the following stages:

development of a preliminary design;
material processing;
preparation of working documentation;
approval of the finished project.

Consider the design stages. At the first stage, it is not supposed to coordinate the materials with the executive authorities, state supervision. Professionals consider the nuances of the sketch to be the thinking through of the main details of the future object before the final decision on its implementation in real construction is made.

With the help of a draft design, the following problems are solved:

urban planning justification for the location of a new construction site on the ground;
demonstration of the interior layout and appearance created object;
identifying the attractiveness of the project from the point of view of investors;
determination of historical and cultural, urban planning, sanitary and hygienic and environmental requirements.

The draft design has an explanatory note, with nearby territories, general plan, floor plans, transport schemes, facades, sections with special "layers", options for volumetric and color solutions of facades, photomontage, 3D visualization.

Design features

This technique is used not only in the construction industry, but also in the organizational structure of management. It consists in choosing the optimal variant of the organization in the production of management, which will increase the efficiency of personnel, increase the volume of products. Risk in the management aspect is defined as the level of uncertainty in predicting the result. It is always associated with the choice of alternatives and the calculation of the probability of the result obtained for each individual alternative.

The design of structures in a production and economic organization is considered as a complex object, including economic, administrative, organizational, informational, economic interactions that lend themselves to direct study and rational design, as well as socio-psychological relationships and characteristics. They are directly related to the level of qualifications and abilities of employees, leadership style, attitude to their official duties. The peculiarity of the management problem lies in the fact that it should not be adequately represented as a problem of formal selection of the ideal variant of the organizational structure according to the formulated, mathematically justified optimality criterion. The problem involves several criteria at once, therefore, to solve it, the scientific methods of modern analysis, modeling, evaluation of organizational systems are combined with the functioning of a leader, expert and specialist in the selection and evaluation of ideal options for organizational solutions.

Organizational design involves a consistent approach to the model of the optimal management structure, in which design methods play an auxiliary role in assessing, reviewing, adopting the most effective methods of organizational decisions for implementation in reality. The design of management structures is carried out on the basis of methods that complement each other:

analogies;
structuring;
expert-analytical approach;
organizational modeling.

The analogy method consists in using management mechanisms and organizational forms that have justified themselves in companies with similar organizational parameters, namely goals, sizes, in comparison with the projected organization. The methodology of analogies includes the development of standard methods for managing industrial and economic organizations. What are the design goals? The analogy method is applied on the basis of two approaches that complement each other. The first is to identify certain values and patterns of change in the main organizations of control mechanisms that will be effective under certain initial conditions. The second position involves a set of general decisions about the relationship and nature of individual management levels and positions, taking into account the activities of the organization, the direction of its activities, as well as the creation of special regulatory parameters for the management apparatus for organizations of this type.

The expert-analytical method involves the examination and detailed study of the company. For this, qualified specialists are involved, and the selection of tools for design depends on their conclusion.

Conclusion

Any human activity is closely related to the use of design technologies. In addition to the construction industry, the design methodology is widely used in educational institutions. Individual entrepreneurs, beginners own production, first carefully study the theoretical foundations of design, in order to increase the efficiency of the company, minimize unnecessary costs, reduce the cost of products. Any action, during which it is possible to develop a new interesting business, is called project technology. The Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation has developed educational standards of the second generation, in which design methods are prerequisite formation of a harmoniously developed personality.

Life cycle (LC)- the period of creation and use of AIS (AIT), covering its various states, starting from the moment the need for this automated system arises and ending with the moment it is completely out of use by users.

The life cycle of AIS and AIT allows us to distinguish four main stages: pre-project, design, implementation and operation. The efficiency of the system depends on the quality of design work. Therefore, each design stage is divided into a number of stages and provides for the preparation of documentation reflecting the results of the work.

The main works performed at the stages and stages of design can be considered:

I stage - pre-project survey

1st stage - collection of materials for design, formation of requirements, study of the design object, development and selection of a variant of the system concept;

2nd stage - analysis of materials and formation of documentation - creation and approval of a feasibility study and terms of reference for the design of the system based on the analysis of survey materials collected at the first stage.

II stage - design:

1st stage - technical design, where the search for the most rational design solutions for all aspects of development is carried out, all components of the system are created and described, and the results of the work are reflected in the technical design;

2nd stage - working design, during which the development and refinement of programs, the adjustment of database structures, the creation of documentation for the supply, installation of technical means and instructions for their operation, the preparation for each user of the system of extensive instructional material, designed in the form of job descriptions for specialist performers realizing their professional functions, are carried out using technical controls. Technical and working projects can be combined into a single document - a techno-working project.

III stage- system input into action:

Stage 1 - preparation for implementation - installation and commissioning of technical means, downloading databases and pilot operation of programs, personnel training;

2nd stage - pilot testing all components of the system before being put into commercial operation, personnel training;

3rd stage (the final stage of the creation of AIS and AIT) - commissioning; issued by acts of acceptance and delivery of works.

IV stage - industrial operation - in addition to everyday functioning, it includes maintenance of software tools and the entire project, operational maintenance and database administration.

The life cycle (LC) is formed in accordance with the principle of top-down design and, as a rule, is iterative in nature: the implemented stages, starting from the earliest ones, are cyclically repeated in accordance with changes in requirements and external conditions, the introduction of restrictions, etc. At each stage of the life cycle, a certain set of documents and technical solutions is formed, while for each stage the documents and solutions obtained at the previous stage are the initial ones. The stage is completed by checking the proposed solutions and documents for their compliance with the formulated requirements and initial conditions.

Existing life cycle options determine the order of execution of stages during the development of AIS and technologies, as well as the criteria for moving from stage to stage. Three of the most widely used following models J C:

1. The cascade model assumes the transition to the next stage after the completion of the work on the previous stage.

2. Staged model with intermediate control - an iterative model for the development of AIS and AIT with feedback loops between stages. The advantage of this model is that inter-stage adjustments provide less development effort compared to the waterfall model; however, the lifetime of each of the stages is stretched over the entire development period.

3. The spiral model focuses on the initial stages of the life cycle: requirements analysis, specification design, preliminary and detailed design. At these stages, the feasibility of technical solutions is checked and justified by creating prototypes. Each turn of the spiral corresponds to a step-by-step model for creating a fragment or version of AIS and AIT. It clarifies the goals and characteristics of the project, determines its quality, and plans the work of the next turn of the spiral. Thus, the details of the project are deepened and consistently concretized, and as a result, a reasonable option is selected, which is brought to implementation.

The spiral model of the life cycle is the most promising. Specialists of firms involved in the design and creation software products, the following advantages of the spiral model are noted:

Accumulation and reuse of design solutions, design tools, models and prototypes of AIS and AIT;

Orientation to the development and modification of the system and technology in the process of their design;

Analysis of risk and costs in the process of designing systems and technologies.

main feature development of AIS and AIT consists in the concentration of complexity at the stages of pre-project survey and design and the relatively low complexity and labor intensity of the subsequent stages. Moreover, unresolved issues and errors made during the analysis and design phases give rise to difficult, often unsolvable problems during the implementation and operation phases and, ultimately, lead to the abandonment of the use of project materials.

Creation of automated information systems and technology in the economy can be carried out in two ways. The first option assumes that this work is carried out by specialized firms with professional experience in preparing software products of a specific orientation (accounting for industrial accounting, accounting in banks, automation of specific banking operations etc.), their sale and further support in organizations operating the supplied software and systems. If AIS and AIT are created according to the second option, design and creation of developments in this area are carried out by designers-programmers located in the staff of enterprises and organizations where the transition to the use of new technical means is carried out, new information technologies and systems are created. There are currently two extremes in design work. In one case, the standards for producing documentation are strictly observed, but the development time is greatly delayed, the creation of the system does not fit into the rhythm of real life, and it turns out to be unviable. In another case, the ability of developers to create programs to automate the solution of individual tasks allows them to ensure the process of using developments by the end user without delay, the system starts working, but the creation of documentation lags behind, and as a result, a product is obtained that is laborious to operate, and its development largely depends on specialists. -developers. This contradiction can be overcome if the design discipline is observed.

In the process of developing automated systems, workplaces and technologies, designers face a number of interrelated problems.

It is difficult for the designer to obtain comprehensive information to assess the requirements formulated by the customer (user). new system or technology.

The customer often does not have sufficient knowledge about the problems of automating data processing in a new technical environment in order to judge the possibility of implementing certain innovations. At the same time, the designer is faced with an excessive amount of detailed information about the problem area, which causes difficulties in modeling and formalized description of information processes implemented in new conditions, solving functional problems.

Due to the large volume and technical terms, the specification of the system being designed is often incomprehensible to the customer, and its excessive simplification cannot satisfy the specialists who create the system.

With the help of well-known analytical methods, it is possible to solve some of these problems, but only modern structural methods provide a radical solution, among which the methodology of structural analysis occupies a central place.

At the pre-design stage, the study and analysis of the features of the design object is carried out in order to clarify the requirements of the customer, their formalized presentation and documentation. In particular, a set of conditions is revealed under which it is supposed to operate the future system hardware and software resources provided to the system; external conditions of its functioning; the composition of people and works related to it and participating in information and management processes, a description is made of the functions performed by the system, etc. At the same stage, restrictions on the development process are set (directive deadlines for completing individual stages, available resources, organizational procedures and measures that ensure information protection, etc.).

The purpose of the analysis at this stage is to transform general, unclear knowledge about the requirements for the future system into accurate (if possible) definitions. So, at this stage are determined:

System architecture, its functions, external conditions, distribution of functions between hardware and software;

Interfaces and distribution of functions between a person and a system;

Requirements for software and information components of the system, necessary hardware resources, database requirements, physical characteristics of system components, their interfaces.

The quality of further design depends decisively on the correct choice of analysis methods and the formulated requirements for the newly created technology. These methods are used to study and research, develop and evaluate design solutions laid down during the creation of the AU, as well as to ensure cost savings and reduce the time for designing and implementing the system.

Methodology for creating AIS and AIT

The methods used at the stage of pre-project survey are divided into methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of an object (technology), methods for forming a given state, methods for graphical representation of the actual and given states (Fig. 7). Let's consider these methods in more detail.

Methods for studying and analyzing the actual state economic object or technologies. These methods allow you to identify bottlenecks in the processes under study and include:

Oral or written questioning;

Written survey;

Observation, measurement and evaluation;

Group discussion;

Task analysis;

Process analysis.

Oral and written survey. An oral survey is carried out according to a pre-compiled questionnaire at the workplace of a specialist with a record of answers and allows, in the form of a simple conversation, to understand the technology of work and the experience of the interviewee. Difficulties of a psychological nature are easily overcome, and it is possible to start preparing a new solution already at the stage of analysis.

The disadvantage of this method is the heterogeneity of the survey results.

Written survey with the help of a list of questions gives (provided that the respondents are ready for truthful answers) complete and thorough information. With a sufficiently large number of questionnaires, their processing on a computer is practiced. To improve the quality of the survey, it is advisable to introduce a prompt for answers: “yes - no”, “small - medium - large”, etc. The clarity and unambiguity of the questions have a significant impact on the quality of the results, so the development of a list of questions requires knowledge of the fundamental problem situation.

Rice. 7. Works and methods of their implementation at the pre-project stage.

Observation, measurement and evaluation. With the help of these methods, information is collected about the parameters, features and objects in the relevant field of study. Parameters, signs and objects that are important for the study are accurately evaluated by employees and recorded in cards or forms (for example, by frequency, quantity, duration, costs.) Accumulation of information, analysis of results with a sufficiently large number of observations is performed on a computer.

Group discussion is carried out by designers, programmers together with users or customers in order to summarize and discuss all issues important for solving problems and identify the necessary tasks.

Analysis of production, management and information processes used to prepare decisions regarding the reorganization of information process technology. By analyzing the process of solving problems, the necessary changes are developed that must be made to information technology. At the same time, the target settings of the tasks to be solved are specified.

The analysis of production, management and information processes should primarily cover the following: the object under examination; purpose and result of the decision managerial tasks; constituents technological process- decisions, operations and algorithms; volume and quality of information; means of processing information; requirements for management personnel and workplace; working methods; bottlenecks, obstacles, difficulties; requirements for rational organization of the process.

In general, the methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of managerial activity and the existing technology for solving problems are designed to establish and evaluate processes, functions, requirements for employees, the sequence of technological operations and labor tools, the duration and timing of work, information flows. They contribute to the collection of the necessary materials and the formation of the necessary initial basis for the design of AIS and AIT.

Methods for the formation of a given state. They are based on the theoretical justification of all the components and elements of the AIS based on the goals, requirements and conditions of the customer. These methods, which are the working tools of designers, include methods:

Modeling the management process;

Structural design;

Decomposition;

Analysis of the information process.

Method of modeling the control process. In the process of studying the design object, economic-organizational and information-logical models are built, which include the tasks, structures and resources of the object. They reflect economic and managerial relations, as well as the information flows associated with them. Representing a combination of material and information processes, they contribute to an increase in the level of organization of the object.

Information-logical models contain necessary information about information links between bodies and areas of management, complexes of tasks to be solved and individual tasks in unity with economic processes.

Structural (modular) design method allows you to develop a project of clearly delimited blocks (modules), between which links are established through input and output information, and the hierarchy of their subordination is also shown. The conditions for the application of this method are the division of large complexes of problems into subcomplexes and the exact designation (identification) of all links of separation and conjugation. The structural design method allows dividing the entire complex of tasks into visible and analyzable subcomplexes (modules).

Methods for graphical representation of the actual and specified states provide for the use for visual representation of information processing processes in the form of flowcharts, schedules for the passage of documents, etc. Graphic methods are integral part any project and are necessary for practical work, since they play the role of an auxiliary tool in describing the introduction of new technologies. The most famous of them are the block diagram method, arrow diagram methods, network charts, tables of the sequence of operations of the passage of processes. Differences in methods are expressed in the degree of their implementation on a PC, clarity, depth of reflected processes.

If at the pre-design stage the features of the design object should be carefully analyzed, the requirements for the creation of AIS and AIT are clearly formulated in the terms of reference, then the design should answer the question: “How (in what way) will the system satisfy the requirements presented to it?”. The task of this stage is the formation of a new structure of the system and the logical relationships of its elements that will function on the proposed technological platform. Design implements an iterative process of obtaining a logical system model, along with strict goals set for it, as well as writing specifications for a physical system that meets these requirements. Usually the design stage is divided into two stages.

1. Creation of design solutions, design of AIS architecture, including the development of the structure and interfaces of components, coordination of functions and technical requirements to components, methods and design standards, production of reporting documents.

2. Detailed (working) design, including the development of specifications for each component and, above all, the creation or binding of software tools, interfaces between components, the development of a component integration plan, the formation of extensive instructional materials.

As a result of the design stages, a system design should be obtained that contains enough information to implement the system within the budget of the allocated resources and time.

When developing an AIS and AIT project, the division of labor, cooperation and communication between developers and customers are ensured. As the level of design increases, the responsibility for making design decisions increases repeatedly. To ensure the high-quality implementation of the project, the stages of system development are linked to the process of organizing design work, which includes the following: development of goals, objectives and organizational principles when setting a task; formation of a fundamental design solution in the development of the concept of the project and the variant of AIS and AIT; material and technical implementation of design work in the preparation and debugging of programs; approbation of organizational solutions during trial operation and delivery of the AIS and AIT project; use of design and organizational solutions in the operation of AIS and AIT.

The stages of the process of organizing and conducting design work reflect the fundamental way of developing and implementing new design solutions. This standard concept is suitable for organizing design with various forms of using labor tools, including the use of a PC and design automation. This does not take into account the nature of the problems to be solved in a particular case. Based on a typical design organization concept, each stage can be refined depending on the repetitive work steps. Then, for each AIS and AIT project, the work to be performed is selected and consolidated into a schedule. Depending on the nature and complexity of the problems to be solved, it may be necessary to perform multiple certain stages. As part of the working stages, it is envisaged to assign responsibility to individual performers for the development of tasks, project stages and programs.

In the process of organizing the design, various decisions are made that affect the dynamics and quality of work. Therefore, for each design stage, the following are determined: expected results and documents; personal functions of the head; decisions made by the leader; functions of the customer and developer of AIS and AIT.

Coordination with work performed in parallel in time during the selection, training, release and transfer of personnel, as well as in the preparation and implementation of investment measures and other work, must be included in the content of the work stages and are reflected in the design and executive documentation.

executive documentation refers to individual processes, areas and is developed within the framework of the entire projected AIT. The documentation includes: organizational instructions for work processes, programs for workplaces, instructions for paperwork, recommendations for using information, methods, decision tables, etc.

Having characterized the content of design work in the creation of AIS and AIT, one cannot help but dwell on the currently most common methods of conducting design work.

V modern conditions AIS, AIT and AWP, as a rule, are not created from scratch. In the economy, at almost all levels of government and at all economic entities - from regional governments, financial and credit organizations, enterprises, firms to trade organizations and service industries operate systems of automated information processing. However, the transition to market relations, the increased need in connection with this for timely, high-quality, operational information and its assessment as the most important resource in management processes necessitate the restructuring of functioning automated information systems in the economy, the creation of AIS and AIT on a new technical and technological basis.

The search for rational design paths is carried out in the following areas: the development of standard design solutions recorded in application software packages (APP), solving economic problems with subsequent linking of the PPP to specific conditions of implementation and operation, development of automated design systems. Let's consider the first of the ways, i.e. the possibility of using standard design solutions included in the application software packages.

The following activities lend themselves most effectively to informatization: accounting, reference and information support economic activity, organization of work of the head, document flow, economic and financial activities, education.

The largest number of PPPs has been created for accounting. Among them are "1C: Accounting", "Turbo-Accountant", "InfoAccountant", "Sail", "ABACUS", "Bambi +", "Accounting Complex", "Best", "Luka".

Reference and information support of economic activity is represented by the following PPP: "GARANT" (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking, currency regulation, customs control), "CONSULTANT+", (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking, currency regulation, customs control).

Economic and financial activities are supported by the following PPPs:

“Economic analysis and forecast of the activities of a company, organization” (INEC company), which implements the following functions: economic analysis activities of the firm, enterprise; business plan; feasibility study for the return of loans; analysis and selection of options for activities; balance forecast, flows Money and finished products;

« The financial analysis enterprises" (Infosoft firm), which implements the functions: overall assessment financial condition; analysis of financial stability; balance sheet liquidity analysis; analysis financial ratios(liquidity, agility, coverage, leverage ratio, own funds); analysis of business activity ratios; calculation and analysis of turnover ratios; assessment of production profitability.

The companies Diasoft, Inversion, R-Style, Programbank, Asoft and others work in the field of creating financial and credit systems.

In a competitive environment, those enterprises whose business strategies are combined with information technology strategies win. Therefore, a real alternative to choosing a single package is to select a set of packages from different vendors that best suit one or another AIS function (mix-and-match approach). This approach mitigates some of the problems that arise when implementing and linking software tools, and AIT will be more appropriate for the functions of a particular domain identity.

V Lately An increasing number of banks, organizations, enterprises prefer to buy ready-made packages and technologies, and, if necessary, add their own software to them, since the development of their own AIS and AIT is associated with high costs and risks. This trend has led system vendors to change the pre-existing way to market. As a rule, a basic system is now developed and offered, which is adapted according to the wishes of individual customers. At the same time, users are provided with consultations that help to minimize the time required for the implementation of systems and technologies, use them most efficiently, and improve the skills of personnel.

For example, the banking AIS Atlas of the Internet company is designed for any possible system configurations. Banks can, using their own staff, customize the system configuration according to their requirements. To do this, the Atlas system has a complete set of development tools - training, advice and support.

The situation is similar in the development of AIS in other areas of the economy. So, for example, the development of AIS for insurance activities is only possible for specialized organizations that summarize the practical experience of insurers, work closely with audit organizations and have a staff of highly qualified task managers and programmers.

Computer-aided design systems - the second, rapidly developing way of conducting design work.

In the field of design automation AIS and AIT over the past decade, a new direction has been formed - CASE (Computer-Aided Software / System Engineering). An avalanche-like expansion of the areas of application of PCs, the increasing complexity of information systems, and the increasing requirements for them have led to the need for industrialization of technologies for their creation. An important direction in the development of technologies was the development of integrated tools based on the concepts life cycle and quality management of AIS and AIT, which are complex technologies focused on the creation of complex automated management systems and support for their complete life cycle or a number of its main stages. Further development of work in this direction led to the creation of a number of conceptually holistic, equipped with high-level design and implementation tools, brought in quality and ease of replication to the level of software products of technological systems, which were called CASE-systems or CASE-technologies.

There is currently no generally accepted definition of CASE. The content of this concept is usually determined by the list of tasks solved with the help of CASE, as well as by the set of methods and tools used. CASE technology represents a set of methods for analysis, design, development and maintenance of AIS, supported by a set of interconnected automation tools. CASE is a toolkit for system analysts, developers and programmers that allows you to automate the process of designing and developing AIS. At the same time, CASE-systems are used not only as complex technological pipelines for the production of AIS and AIT, but also as a powerful tool for solving research and design problems, such as structural analysis of the subject area, specification of projects using fourth-generation programming languages, release of project documentation, testing of implementations. projects, planning and control of developments, modeling of business applications in order to solve the problems of operational and strategic planning and resource management, etc.

The main goal of CASE technology is to separate the design of AIS and AIT from coding and other "low intelligence" stages of development, as well as to automate the processes of development and operation of systems as much as possible.

When using CASE-technology, the technology of division of work changes at all stages of the life cycle of automated systems and technologies, while the greatest changes relate to the stages of analysis and design. In most modern CASE systems, structural analysis and design methodologies are used, based on visual diagram techniques, while graphs, diagrams, tables and diagrams are used to describe the model of the designed AIS. Such methodologies provide a rigorous and visual description of the system being designed, which begins with its overview and then it is detailed, acquiring a hierarchical structure with an increasing number of levels.

CASE-technologies are successfully used to build almost all types of AIS, but they occupy a stable position in the development of business and commercial AIS. The widespread use of CASE technology is due to the mass nature of this application area, in which CASE is used not only to develop AIS, but also to create models of systems that help commercial structures solve the problems of strategic planning, financial management, determining the policy of firms, training personnel, etc. This direction has received its own name - business analysis. For example, for the fastest and most efficient development of high-quality banking system financiers are increasingly turning to the help of CASE technology. Providers of this technology are entering the position of financiers and are rapidly expanding the market for funds. The rapid introduction of CASE technology is also facilitated by the complication of banking systems.

CASE is not a revolution in AIS design automation, but the result of a natural evolutionary development of the entire industry of tools, previously called instrumental or technological. One of the key features is the support of structural systems analysis and design methodologies.

From the very beginning, the goal of developing CASE technology was to overcome the limitations of using the structural design methodologies of the 1960s and 1970s. (complexity of understanding, high labor intensity and cost of use, difficulties in making changes to design specifications, etc.) due to their automation and integration of supporting tools. Thus, CASE technologies cannot be considered independent methodologies, they only develop structural methodologies and make their application more efficient through automation.

In addition to the automation of structural methodologies and, as a result, the possibility of using modern methods of system and software engineering, CASE technologies have the following main advantages:

Improve the quality of the created AIS (AIT) by means of automatic control (primarily project control);

Allow for a short time to create a prototype of the future AIS (AIT), which makes it possible to evaluate the expected result at an early stage;

Accelerate the system design and development process;

Release the developer from routine work, allowing him to focus entirely on the creative part of the development;

Support the development and maintenance of the development of AIS (AIT);

Support development component reuse technologies.

Most CASE tools are based on a scientific approach called methodology/method/notation/tool. The methodology formulates guidelines for the evaluation and selection of the project of the developed AIS, the steps of work and their sequence, as well as the rules for the application and assignment of methods.

To date, CASE-technology has taken shape in an independent science-intensive direction, which led to the formation of a powerful CASE-industry, which brings together hundreds of firms and companies of various orientations. Among them stand out companies-developers of analysis and design tools for AIS and AIT with a wide network of distribution and dealer companies; firms developing special tools with a focus on narrow subject areas or on individual stages of the AIS life cycle; training firms that organize seminars and training courses for specialists; consulting firms providing practical assistance in the use of CASE packages for the development of specific AIS; firms specializing in the production of periodicals and bulletins on CASE-technologies.

Task setting plan

I. Organizational and economic essence of the task:

the name of the task, the place of its solution;

Purpose of the decision;

Purpose (for which objects of departments and users it is intended);

The frequency of the decision and the requirements for the timing of the decision;

Sources and methods of data receipt;

Consumers of the resulting information and ways to send it;

Information connection with other tasks.

II. Description of initial (input) information:

list of initial information;

Forms of presentation (document) for each item of the list; examples of filling out documents;

The number of documents (information) per unit of time, the number of lines in the document (array);

Description of structural units of information (each data element, attribute);

Exact and full name, identifier, maximum word length in characters;

Ways to control the source data:

Control of bit depth of props;

Balance or settlement method for controlling the quantitative values of details;

III. Description of the result (output) information:

list of result information;

Forms of presentation (printed summary, videogram, computer media and its layout, etc.);

Frequency and timing of submission;

The number of documents (information) per unit of time; the number of lines in the document (array);

List of users of the resulting information (division and personnel);

List of regulatory and request information;

Description of the structural units of information (each data element, attribute) by analogy with the source data;

Ways to control the resulting information;

Bit depth control;

Variable value interval control;

Control of compliance with the list of values;

Balance or calculation method for monitoring individual indicators;

Control method using checksums and any others possible ways control.

IV. Description of the algorithm for solving the problem(sequence of actions and logic for solving the problem):

Description of methods for generating result information, indicating the sequence of performing logical and arithmetic operations;

Description of links between parts, operations, algorithm formulas;

Requirements for the order of arrangement (sorting) of key (main) features in output documents, videograms, for example, in ascending order personnel numbers;

The algorithm must take into account the general and all particular cases of solving the problem.

Note. When describing the algorithm, one should use the symbols (identifiers) of the details assigned when describing the source and result information; a textual description of the algorithm is allowed. It is necessary to provide for the control of calculations at separate stages, operations of the algorithm execution. At the same time, control ratios are indicated that allow you to identify errors.

V. Description of conditionally constant information used:

a list of conditionally permanent information (classifiers, directories, tables, lists with their full names);

Presentation Forms;

Description of the structural units of information (by analogy with the original records);

Ways to interact with variable information.

The introduction of AIS and AIT, as experience shows, leads to qualitative changes in the work of users: their professional knowledge is expanding, skills are acquired in the automated information sphere.

New information technology can have a number of positive effects:

Processing of initial data and carrying out calculations is entrusted to employees who do not have high qualifications and the necessary practical skills, and highly qualified specialists are assigned analysis, selection of calculation options, and development of management decisions.

Working with a PC leads to an increase in the qualifications of all performers and a general, rather high level of their professional culture.

The time saved as a result of automation of processing calculations and paperwork is used to carry out calculations in several versions, to obtain alternative assessments of the situation, which is necessary for analysis and making informed decisions.

It would be wrong to assume that the time freed up (due to working on a computer) should lead to a reduction in the number of economists, accountants and other specialists, since calculations are only part of the main task - making the necessary decision. With a reduction in the time for calculations, the time for analysis and decision-making increases.

Thus, the creation of AIS and AIT does not so much lead to the release of specialists, but puts forward new requirements for them, that is, it allows them to qualitatively change their work.

The most important requirement for specialists is the ability to implement task setting, i.e. to create algorithms for their solution, to establish the composition of the information content of computational procedures to obtain the desired results, to formulate requirements for methods of monitoring the tasks being solved.

5. Automated workplace - a tool
end user automation

The activities of management employees (accountants, specialists in the credit and banking system, planners, etc.) are currently focused on the use of advanced technologies. The organization and implementation of management functions requires a radical change in both the management technology itself and the technical means of information processing, among which personal computers occupy the main place. They are increasingly turning from systems of automatic processing of input information into a means of accumulating the experience of managerial workers, analyzing, evaluating and developing the most effective economic decisions.

The trend towards increased decentralization of management entails distributed information processing with decentralization, the use of computer technology, and the improvement of the organization of user workplaces.

Automated workstation (AWP) can be defined as a set of information, software and technical resources that provides the end user with data processing and automation of management functions in a specific subject area.

The creation of automated jobs suggests that the main operations for the accumulation, storage and processing of information are assigned to computers, and the economist performs some of the manual operations and operations that require a creative approach in preparing management decisions. Personal equipment is used by the user to control production and economic activities, change the values of individual parameters in the course of solving a problem, as well as enter initial data into the AIS to solve current problems and analyze control functions.

AWP as a tool for rationalization and intensification of management activities is created to ensure the performance of a certain group of functions. The simplest function of the workstation is information and reference services. Although this function is inherent in any workstation to one degree or another, the features of its implementation significantly depend on the user category.

Workstations have a problem-professional orientation to a specific subject area. Professional workstations are the main tool for communication between a person and computer systems, playing the role of autonomous workplaces, intelligent terminals of large computers, workstations in local networks. Workstations have an open architecture and are easily adapted to problem areas.

The localization of workstations allows for the rapid processing of information immediately upon its receipt, and the results of processing can be stored for an arbitrarily long time at the request of the user.

In the context of the implementation of the management process, the purpose of introducing an automated workplace is to strengthen the integration of management functions, and each more or less "intelligent" workplace should provide work in a multifunctional mode.

AWPs perform decentralized concurrent processing economic information at the workplaces of performers as part of a distributed database (DB). At the same time, they have access through the system device and communication channels to the PC and database of other users, thus ensuring the joint functioning of the PC in the process of collective processing.

AWP, created on the basis of personal computers, is the simplest and most common version of an automated workplace for employees in the field of organizational management. Such a workstation is considered as a system that, in an interactive mode of operation, provides a specific employee (user) with all types of support exclusively for the entire session of work. This corresponds to the approach to designing such a component of the workstation as internal information support, according to which the information fund on magnetic media of a particular workstation should be at the exclusive disposal of the user of the workstation. The user himself performs all the functional duties of converting information.

The creation of workstations based on personal computers provides:

Simplicity, convenience and user friendliness;

Ease of adaptation to specific user functions;

Compact placement and low requirements for operating conditions;

High reliability and survivability;

Relatively simple maintenance organization.

An effective mode of operation of the workstation is its functioning within the local area network as workstation. This option is especially appropriate when it is required to distribute information and computing resources among several users.

A more complex form is an workstation using a PC as an intelligent terminal, as well as with remote access to the resources of the central (main) computer or an external network. V this case several PCs are connected via communication channels to the main computer, while each PC can also work as an independent terminal device.

In the most complex systems, workstations can be connected through special equipment not only to the resources of the main computer of the network, but also to various information services and systems. general purpose(news services, national information retrieval systems, databases and knowledge, library systems, etc.).

The capabilities of the created workstations largely depend on the technical and operational characteristics of the computers on which they are based. In this regard, at the design stage of an automated workplace, requirements are clearly formulated for the basic parameters of technical means for processing and issuing information, a set of component modules, network interfaces, ergonomic parameters of devices, etc.

The synthesis of an automated workplace, the choice of its configuration and equipment for real types of economic and managerial work are of a specific nature, dictated by specialization, goals, and volumes of work. However, any configuration of the workstation must meet the general requirements for the organization of information, technical, software.

The information support of the automated workplace is focused on a specific, user-familiar, subject area, document processing should involve such structuring of information that allows for the necessary manipulation of various structures, convenient and quick correction of data in arrays.

The technical support of the workstation must guarantee the high reliability of technical means, the organization of user-friendly modes of operation (autonomous, with a distributed database, information, with upper-level technology, etc.), the ability to process the required amount of data at a given time. Since the workstation is an individual user tool, it must provide high ergonomic properties and service comfort.

The software, first of all, focuses on the professional level of the user, combined with his functional needs, qualifications and specialization. The user from the side of the software environment must feel the constant support of his desire to work in any mode, actively or passively. The priority of the user when working with technology is undeniable. Therefore, during their interaction, it is envisaged to maximize the convenience of human work by improving software tools:

Recently, there has been a trend towards the creation of unified workstations serving several subject areas. For example, the "ARM-analyst" complex, created on the basis of "ARM-statistics", significantly expands the capabilities of the latter and meets the requirements of industrial, scientific and commercial structures emerging in the market conditions to the maximum extent. "ARM-analyst" allows you to solve a wide range of functional tasks.

The complex "Express analysis when concluding contracts, orders, contracts" provides the process of managing analytical information about the cost, price, possible volumes of production of certain types of products.

Complexes "Analysis of the formation, distribution and use of profits", "Analysis of the material, technical and financial condition of the enterprise", "Analysis of labor, pay and social development”, “Analysis of the implementation of government orders and business contracts” correspond to the structure of the current legislation on the enterprise. Moreover, in order for the AWP-analyst to be used for enterprises operating according to various models, all existing schemes for generating income have been introduced into it.

The software of the complex "Analysis of foreign trade activity" allows you to analyze foreign exchange costs, their effectiveness and settlements with the state.

Complexes "Analysis and forecasting of time series", "Correlation-regression analysis", "Sampling method" make it possible to automate socio-economic analysis using statistical methods.

The "Service Programs" complex allows you to receive processed information in the form of graphs and diagrams, edit input information, and correct data stored in AWP files.

"ARM-analyst" is a multi-mode and multi-purpose complex, which reflects and develops integration, analytical and information processes. It combines socio-economic and statistical analysis, processing of operational, accounting and statistical information is implemented.

All functional modes of information processing can be technologically implemented in "ARM-analyst" on the basis of centralized and decentralized information support.

"ARM-analyst" is a universal tool for automating the solution of problems of multi-level analysis of the activities of enterprises and firms, which, in the presence of a developed set of application software packages, can easily be adapted to solve problems that are more complex in mathematical understanding.

Options for creating AIS

The creation of automated information systems in the economy can be carried out in two ways. First option assumes that this work is carried out by specialized firms with professional experience in preparing software products of a specific orientation (accounting in industry, accounting in banks, automation of specific banking operations, etc.), their sale and further support in organizations operating the supplied software means and systems.

If AIS are created by the second option, design and creation of developments in this area are carried out by programmers who are employed by enterprises and organizations where the transition to the use of new technical means is carried out, new information technologies and systems are created.

In the process of developing automated systems, designers face a number of interrelated problems:

1. It is difficult for a designer to obtain comprehensive information to assess the requirements formulated by the customer (user) for a new system or technology.

2. The customer often does not have sufficient knowledge about the problems of automating data processing in a new technical environment in order to judge the possibility of implementing certain innovations. At the same time, the designer is faced with an excessive amount of detailed information about the problem area, which causes difficulties in modeling and formalized description of information processes implemented in new conditions, solving functional problems.

3. Due to the large volume and technical terms, the specification of the system being designed is often incomprehensible to the customer, and its excessive simplification cannot satisfy the specialists who create the system.

The quality of AIS design depends decisively on the correct choice of methods for analyzing the area under study, the formulated requirements for the newly created information system. These methods are used to study and research, develop and evaluate design solutions for the creation of AIS, as well as to ensure cost savings and reduce the time for designing and implementing the system.

Methods for studying and analyzing the actual state of an economic object or technology. These methods allow you to identify bottlenecks in the processes under study and include:

Oral or written questioning;

Written survey;

Observation, measurement and evaluation;

Group discussion;

Task analysis;

Process analysis.

Oral and written survey. An oral survey is conducted according to a pre-compiled questionnaire at the workplace of a specialist with a record of answers and allows, in the form of a simple conversation, to understand the technology of work and the experience of the respondent. The disadvantage of this method is the heterogeneity of the survey results.

Written survey with the help of a list of questions gives (provided that the respondents are ready for truthful answers) complete and thorough information.

Observation, measurement and evaluation. With the help of these methods, information is collected about the parameters, features and objects in the relevant field of study.

Group discussion is carried out by designers, programmers together with users or customers in order to

summarizing and discussing all important issues for solving problems and determining the necessary tasks.

Task analysis. The essence of this method is the vertical and horizontal structuring of tasks and their distribution among the performers (job descriptions) based on the given structure of the object. Tasks are broken down to such an extent that it is possible to determine the results, decisions, powers, algorithms, input and output information.

Analysis of production, management and information processes used to prepare decisions regarding reorganizations of information processes. By analyzing the process of solving problems, the necessary changes are developed that must be made to information technology. At the same time, the target settings of the tasks to be solved are specified.

Methods for the formation of a given state. They are based on the theoretical justification of all components and elements of the AIS based on the goals, requirements and conditions of the customer. These methods, which are the working tools of designers, include the following methods:

Modeling the management process;

Structural design;

Decomposition;

Analysis of the information process.

Information-logical models contain the necessary information about information links between authorities and areas of management, complexes of tasks to be solved and individual tasks in unity with economic processes.

Decomposition method modules provides for further division of subsets of tasks into separate tasks, indicators.

Analysis and modeling of information processes is designed to identify and present in each case the relationship between the result, the processing process and data input. It is also used to analyze and form information links between the workplaces of management employees, specialists, technical personnel and information technology. For this purpose, the input and output information, as well as the algorithm for processing information in relation to each workplace, are described.

Methods for graphical representation of the actual and specified states. They provide for the use for visual representation of information processing processes in the form of flowcharts, schedules for the passage of documents, etc. Graphical methods are an integral part of any project and are necessary for practical work, since they play the role of an auxiliary tool in describing the introduction of new technologies. The most famous of them are: the block diagram method, the methods of arrow diagrams, network diagrams, tables of the sequence of operations for the passage of processes. Differences in methods are expressed in the degree of their implementation on a PC, clarity, depth of reflected processes.

If at the pre-design stage the features of the design object should be carefully analyzed, the requirements for the creation of AIS are clearly formulated in the terms of reference, then the design should answer the question: “How (in what way) will the system satisfy the requirements presented to it?” Usually the design stage is divided into two stages:

1. Creation of design solutions, AIS architecture design, including the development of the structure and interfaces of components, coordination of functions and technical requirements for components, design methods and standards, production of reporting documents.

As a result of the design stages, a system design should be obtained containing enough information to

implementation of the system within the budget of allocated resources and time.

When developing an AIS project, the division of labor, cooperation and communication between developers and customers are ensured. As the level of design increases, the responsibility for making design decisions increases repeatedly. To ensure the quality of the project, the stages of system development are linked to the process of organizing design work, which includes the following: development of goals, objectives and organizational principles when setting a task; formation of a fundamental design solution when developing a project concept and an AIS variant; material and technical implementation of design work in the preparation and debugging of programs; approbation of organizational solutions during trial operation and delivery of the AIS project; use of design and organizational solutions in the operation of AIS.

For each design stage, the following are determined: expected results and documents; personal functions of the head; decisions made by the leader; functions of the customer and developer of AIS.

As-built documentation refers to individual processes, areas and is developed within the framework of the entire projected AIS. The documentation includes: organizational instructions for work processes, programs for workplaces, instructions for paperwork, recommendations for using information, methods, decision tables, etc.

Having characterized the content of design work in the creation of AIS, one cannot help but dwell on the currently most common methods of conducting design work.

In modern conditions, AIS, AIT and AWP, as a rule, are not created from scratch. In the economy, at almost all levels of government and at all economic entities - from regional governments, financial and credit organizations, enterprises, f^rms to trade and service organizations - there are systems for automated information processing. However, the transition to market relations, the increased demand for timely, high-quality, operational information and its assessment as the most important resource in management processes, as well as the latest achievements in scientific and technological progress, necessitate the restructuring of functioning automated information systems in the economy, the creation of AIS based on new technical and technological bases. Only new technical and technological conditions - modern AIS - allow realizing the much-needed market conditions a fundamentally new approach to the organization of managerial activity by an economic object as an engineering activity, called "reengineering".

Term "reengineering" was introduced by M. Hammer; it provides for a radical redesign of business processes (business processes) to achieve sharp, spasmodic improvements in cost, quality, service, development rates of firms, companies, enterprises, organizations based on AIS and AIT. Reengineering, first of all, provides for the restructuring of the economic activity of an economic object on the basis of a new information technology. At the same time, AIS and AIT, their hardware, software, and information support are subject to reengineering, the redesign of which is carried out on the basis of a newly created abstract model of the revised original system.

The following types of activity lend themselves most effectively to informatization: accounting, reference and information support for economic activity, organization of the manager's work, document management, economic and financial activities, and training.

: The largest number of PPPs are created for accounting. Among them are: "1C: Accounting", "Turbo-Accountant", "Info-Accountant", "Sail", "Bambi +", "Accounting Complex", "Best", "Luka".

Reference and information support of economic activity is represented by the following PPP: "GARANT": (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking, foreign exchange regulation, customs control), "CONSULTANT", (taxes, accounting, audit, entrepreneurship, banking, foreign exchange regulation, customs control).

Economic and financial activities are supported by the following PPPs:

"Economic analysis and forecast of the activities of the company, organization", realizing the following functions: economic analysis of the activities of the company, enterprise; business plan; feasibility study for the return of loans; analysis and selection of options for activities; forecast of balance sheet, cash flows and finished products.

"Financial analysis of the enterprise", which implements the following functions: general assessment of the financial condition; analysis of financial stability; balance sheet liquidity analysis; analysis of financial ratios (liquidity, flexibility, coverage, ratio of borrowed and own funds); analysis of business activity ratios; calculation and analysis of turnover ratios; assessment of production profitability.

Recently, an increasing number of banks, organizations, enterprises prefer to buy ready-made packages and technologies, and if necessary, add their own software to them, since the development of their own AIS is associated with high costs and risks. This trend has led system vendors to change the pre-existing way to market. As a rule, a basic system is now developed and offered, which is adapted according to the wishes of individual customers. At the same time, users are provided with consultations that help to minimize the time required for the implementation of systems and technologies, use them most efficiently, and improve the skills of personnel.

Computer-aided design systems- the second, rapidly developing way of conducting design work,

"In the field of automation of design of AIS and AIT over the past decade, a new direction has appeared - CASE (Computer-Aided Software / System Engineering). An avalanche expansion of the areas of application of PCs, the increasing complexity of information systems, and the increasing requirements for them have led to the need for industrialization of technologies for their creation. Important direction in the development of technologies was the development of integrated tools based on the concepts of the life cycle and quality management of AIS, which are complex technologies focused on the creation of complex automated management systems and support for their full life cycle or a number of its main stages.Further development of work in this direction led to the creation of a number of conceptually holistic, equipped with high-level design and implementation tools, brought in quality and ease of replication to the level of software products of technological systems that These are called CASE-systems or CASE-technologies. CASE technology is a set of methods for analysis, design, development and maintenance of AIS, supported by a set of interconnected automation tools. CASE is a toolkit for system analysts, developers and programmers that allows you to automate the process of designing and developing AIS, which is firmly established in the practice of creating and maintaining AIS and AIT. At the same time, CASE-systems are used not only as complex technological pipelines for the production of AIS, but also as a powerful tool for solving research and design problems, such as:

Structural analysis of the subject area;

Specification of projects by means of programming languages of the fourth generation;

Release of project documentation, testing of project implementation, planning and control of developments, modeling of business applications in order to solve the problems of operational and strategic planning and resource management, etc.

The main goal of CASE technology is to separate the design of AIS from its coding and subsequent stages.

development, as well as to automate the processes of development and operation of systems as much as possible.

When using CASE-technologies, the technology of conducting work at all stages of the life cycle of automated systems and technologies changes, while the greatest changes relate to the stages of analysis and design. In most modern CASE systems, structural analysis and design methodologies are used, based on visual diagram techniques, while graphs, diagrams, tables and diagrams are used to describe the model of the designed AIS. Such methodologies provide a rigorous and visual description of the designed system, which begins with its general overview and then details, acquiring a hierarchical structure with an increasing number of levels.

CASE-technologies are successfully used to build almost all types of AIS, but they occupy a stable position in the development of business and commercial AIS. The widespread use of CASE-technologies is due to the mass nature of this application area, in which CASE is used not only to develop AIS, but also to create system models that help commercial structures solve the problems of strategic planning, financial management, determining company policy, personnel training, etc. This direction got its own name - business analysis. For example, for the fastest and most efficient development of a high-quality banking system, financiers are increasingly turning to the help of CASE technology.

From the very beginning, the goal of developing CASE technologies was to overcome the limitations of using the structural design methodologies of the 1960s and 1970s. (complexity of understanding, high labor intensity and cost of use, difficulties in making changes to design specifications, etc.) due to their automation and integration of supporting tools. Thus, CASE-technologies cannot be considered independent methodologies, they only develop structural methodologies and make their application more efficient through automation.

Improve the quality of the created AIS by means of automatic control (first of all, project control);

Allow for a short period of time to create a prototype of the future AIS, which makes it possible to evaluate the expected result at an early stage;

Accelerate the system design and development process;

Release the developer from routine work, allowing him to concentrate entirely on the creative part of the development;

Support the development and maintenance of the development of AIS;

Support development component reuse technologies.

In order for an organization to succeed or start working more efficiently, it must be properly designed and organized.

Designing an organizational structure is one of the key tasks of management, since the management structure of an organization is the source of its competitive advantage.

ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN is the design of new organizations, structural transformation or optimization of activities already existing organizations, as well as the formation of their organizational structures.

Organizational design allows you to create systems with predetermined characteristics contained in the design documentation.

The subject of organizational design is the system of organization of production, labor and management in the organization as a whole, in its divisions or individual activities.

The purpose of organizational design is the development of new organizational systems or proposals for change existing systems, and the result is a set of technical, organizational and planning and economic documentation necessary to create a developed organizational, production system.

Organizational Design Challenges is an:

Identification of conditions affecting the activities of the organization and methods for their study;

Determination of the qualitative and quantitative composition of the elements of management structures, the formation of their relationship;

Defining the management structure of the organization and determining the conditions in which each of them will be more effective;

Studying the principles and methods of designing management structures and the features of their application;

Determination of the methodology for calculating the required number of personnel;

Development of measures for the implementation of the designed measures in the organization;

Development of methods and forms of control, as well as the specifics of their use.

Organizational design allows you to create systems with predetermined characteristics contained in the design documentation. When designing organizations, the following principles of organizational design should be considered:

The principle of separation of functions (functions should be shared between different departments or positions in one department, so that it is not clear who is responsible for what. For example: accounting, security or assigning personnel department employees to different departments).

The principle of separation of powers and responsibilities (between the management, the amount of authority should be divided, which should be sufficient to be responsible. The authority should be with each manager and employee and, therefore, there should be responsibility corresponding to these authorities).

The principle of ensuring the vertical of power (formation of a system in which control actions are transmitted vertically from the upper level of control to the lower level and back without loss and distortion).

The principle of unity of command (the presence of only one direct supervisor (or the supervisor and his deputies, but then the employee is subordinate to the deputies when there is no supervisor) for each employee or the subordination of employees to different supervisors, but with the definition of the types of activities for which he reports to each of them, for example, a teacher reports to both the head of the department and the dean)

The principle of unity of action (all actions should be aimed at achieving the goal and not contradict it).

The principle of democratic centralism (to act on instructions, and not at its own discretion and, as a result, the formation of a system of organizational and administrative documentation of the organization).

The principle of centralization (all organizational information should be stored in one place, such as a common department or a single database).

Reasonable Order Principle (forming an idea of what state of the organization is normal, that is, in order, and how it needs to be restored).

The principle of justice (formation of a system of rewards and punishments, so that it is adequate to the positive actions of the employee and his misdeeds).

The principle of ensuring staff stability ( Formation of conditions under which personnel who work well will strive to stay in the organization, and not leave it).

Principle of intelligent initiative (formation of a system in which the employee will have the opportunity to take the initiative, but only within the framework of certain documents (employment contract, job descriptions, etc.))

Methods of organizational design.

Methodological approaches to design can be divided into four groups: the method of analogies, the expert method, the method of structuring goals and the method of organizational modeling.

2.1 Method of analogies

The analogy method involves the use of experience in designing management structures in similar organizations and provides for the development of typical management structures in various types organizations, defining various frameworks, conditions and mechanism of application.

Typical organizational structures should be variant in nature, providing for the possibility of adjustment, deviation in case of changes in the conditions in which the organization operates.

2.2 Expert method

The expert method is based on the study of the recommendations and suggestions of experts and experienced practitioners. The purpose of this method is to identify the specific features of the work of the management apparatus, possible shortcomings in the activities of various parts of organizational structures, reasonable recommendations for their improvement.

2.3 Method of structuring goals

The goal structuring method involves the development of a system of organization goals and its subsequent combination with the organizational structure being developed.

The implementation of this method also involves linking all types of organizational activities based on the final results, regardless of the distribution of these activities among various departments of the organization. The goal structuring method provides for an expert analysis of the proposed options for organizational structures, drawing up tables of powers and responsibilities for achieving goals both for departments and for complex multifunctional activities, where the boundaries of responsibility (material resources, production, information processes) are specified, specific results are determined, for the achievement of which is established responsibility, the powers vested in the relevant management bodies.

2.4 Organizational modeling method

The method of organizational modeling is the development of formalized mathematical, graphical, machine and other representations of the distribution of powers and responsibilities in an organization, which are the basis for building, analyzing and evaluating various options for organizational structures by the relationship of their variables.

This method allows you to clearly formulate a criterion for assessing the degree of rationality of organizational decisions.

The essence, structure and content of the concept of organizational culture

Organizational culture is a system of values, symbols, patterns of behavior and beliefs that arise within the workforce in the process of joint professional activities.

Formation of the culture of the organization occurs under the influence of the business environment, national-state and ethnic factors.

Structure of organizational culture.

Analyzing the structure of organizational culture, there are three levels:

superficial, internal and deep.

Learning about organizational culture starts with surface level, which includes such external organizational characteristics as the products or services provided by the organization, the technology used, the architecture industrial premises and offices, observed behavior of employees, formal language communication, slogans, etc. At this level, things and phenomena are easy to detect, but they can not always be deciphered and interpreted in terms of organizational culture.

Those who are trying to get to know organizational culture more deeply affect its second, internal level. At this level, the values and beliefs shared by the members of the organization are examined in accordance with the extent to which these values are reflected in symbols and language. The perception of values and beliefs is conscious and depends on the desire of people. Researchers often limit themselves to this level, as the next level is almost insurmountable.

Third, deep level includes basic assumptions that are difficult to comprehend even by the members of the organization without special focus on this issue. These hidden and taken for granted assumptions guide people's behavior, helping them to perceive the attributes that characterize organizational culture.

The concept of organizational culture.

There are many approaches to the analysis of the content side of a particular organizational culture. F. Harris and R. Moran proposed to identify ten meaningful characteristics inherent in any organizational culture:

1) Awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization

2) Communication system and language of communication (use of oral, written, non-verbal communication).

3) Appearance, clothing and self-image at work

4) Habits and traditions associated with the reception and assortment of food

5) Awareness of time, attitude towards it and its use

6) Relationships between people

7) Values and norms (the former are sets of ideas about what is good and what is bad; the latter are a set of assumptions and expectations regarding a certain type of behavior).

8) Worldview

9) Development and self-realization of the employee

10) Work ethic and motivation

These characteristics of the culture of the organization together reflect and give meaning to the concept of organizational culture. The content of an organizational culture is determined not by a simple sum of expectations and the actual state of affairs for each characteristic, but by how they are interconnected and how they form the profiles of certain cultures. A distinctive feature of this or that culture is the priority of the basic characteristics that form it, indicating which principles should prevail in the event of a conflict between its different components.

In fact, any of these subcultures can become dominant, i.e. the actual organizational culture, if it is purposefully supported and used by organizational authorities as a tool for consolidating individual goals in the direction of a common organizational goal.

There may also be a type of subculture within an organization that is quite persistent in rejecting what the organization as a whole wants to achieve.

Among these organizational countercultures, the following types can be distinguished:

2) opposition to the power structure within the dominant culture of the organization; 3) opposition to patterns of relationships and interactions supported by

dominant culture.

Countercultures in an organization usually appear when individuals or groups are in conditions that they feel cannot provide them with the usual or desired satisfaction of needs. In a sense, organizational countercultures are expressions of dissatisfaction with the way organizational power allocates organizational resources. Especially often this situation occurs during organizational crises or reorganization. Under these conditions, some "countercultural" groups may become quite influential or even dominant.

26 essence, typology of managerial decisions, factors influencing the process of making managerial decisions

Essence, properties of management decisions

A decision is a choice of an alternative.

management decision is the choice of an alternative in the process of implementing the basic functions of management and aimed at achieving the goals of the organization

The object of the management decision - system or operation.

Features and differences of the management decision from other types of decisions.

A managerial decision has both features inherent in all decisions made by a person, regardless of the field of activity, and special features that are characteristic of decisions made in the management process. Management decision:

Forms a control action, thus linking the subject and object of control;

It becomes the result of a person's creative mental activity, which is based on the knowledge and conscious use of objective laws, attraction personal experience;

Defines the range of actions of the subject and object of management to achieve the overall goals of this system, i.e. leads to action, practical results.

Thus, a managerial decision is a creative act of purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object, based on knowledge of objective laws and experience and leading to practical results.

2. Classification of management decisions

According to the nature of the decision-making process, there are:

Intuitive decisions are choices made only on the basis of a feeling that they are correct.

Judgmental decisions are choices based on knowledge or experience. A person uses knowledge of what has happened in similar situations before to predict the outcome of alternative choices in the current situation.

Rational decisions. The main difference between rational and judgmental decisions is that the former does not depend on past experience. A rational decision is justified through an objective analytical process.

According to the time of occurrence of consequences for the control object, there are:

Strategic decisions - decisions regarding a set of actions aimed at achieving the goals of the organization by adapting it to changes in the external environment. The strategic decision is realized through the allocation of resources, adaptation to the external environment, internal coordination and organizational strategic foresight.

Long-term decisions - decisions aimed at the adoption and implementation of long-term plans;

Current decisions are decisions that develop and refine promising decisions and are made within the framework of a subsystem or stage of one of its cycles, such as a development cycle.

Operational solutions - solutions covering production processes for the manufacture and supply of elements of more than low level, bringing the planned task to specific performers in each division.

Stabilization decisions are decisions made to ensure that the system and its subsystems are in the area of controllable or admissible states.

According to the solution development technology, there are:

Organizational decisions, the purpose of which is to ensure movement towards the tasks assigned to the organization.

Organizational decisions can be classified as programmed and non-programmed:

1) programmed decisions - the result of the implementation of a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken when solving a mathematical equation.

2) unprogrammed decisions - are made in situations that are new to a certain extent, internally unstructured or associated with unknown factors.

Compromises are decisions made from the standpoint of a systematic approach and taking into account the possible consequences
management decision for all parts of the organization.

Factors influencing the process of making managerial decisions

Since decision-making depends both on the personality of the decision maker and his psychological characteristics, and on the objective conditions in which he is, all factors influencing this process can be divided into two large groups - personal (subjective) and situational (objective).

Personal factors determined by the originality of mental processes, states and qualities of decision makers that affect the decision-making process. Therefore, they can be represented as three levels corresponding to the traditional mental structure of the personality. These include mental processes, mental states and mental properties..

MENTAL PROCESSES. Mental processes are usually divided into three main types: cognitive, volitional and emotional. The most important role among them in the decision-making process is played by cognitive or cognitive processes, which include sensation, perception, memory, thinking, representation, imagination and attention.

MENTAL STATES

the mental state is understood as a holistic reaction of the individual to external and internal stimuli, aimed at achieving some useful result.

mental states depend both on the specific situation in which a person is located, and on his individual psychological characteristics.

Examples of mental states such as cheerfulness, fatigue, fatigue, mental satiety, information overload, apathy, depression, euphoria, alienation, boredom, stress, frustration, anxiety, exhaustion, and many others can be given.

MENTAL PROPERTIES.

The whole set of mental properties, or qualities, can be divided into two classes: general and individual.

Common properties include the most typical and fundamental features of the psyche, inherent in all people, and above all, the limitations of individual capabilities for storing and processing information. For example, the speed of information processing by a person is always limited, to individual properties include preferences and the level of claims of the individual.

Under the preference system understand the totality of views, values, beliefs, interests, with the help of which a person compares alternatives and makes a decision. Each person has unique preferences that are influenced by his upbringing, training, life experience, as well as individual mental properties, level of aspirations of the individual characterizes the desire of a person to achieve goals of such a degree of complexity that he himself considers himself capable of. The level of claims is based on a person's assessment of his own capabilities, and the preservation of this assessment has become a need for him.

situational factors. Decision-making depends not only on the psychological characteristics of the decision maker, but also on situational factors, i.e. specific circumstances in which the decision is made. This group includes factors of the external and internal environment of the organization that affect the development, evaluation, selection and implementation of alternatives.

EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. It is possible to single out two components of the external environment that affect the activities of the organization and the adoption of managerial decisions in different ways. They are called the macro environment and the immediate environment (or business environment) of the organization.

The macro environment includes factors that have an indirect impact on the organization. These include economic conditions, politics, law, socio-cultural, technological, natural and geographical factors.

The business environment includes external factors that have the strongest and most direct impact on the organization. These usually include consumers of products and services, suppliers of material and natural resources, competitors, infrastructure, government and municipal organizations, international sector.

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. In the process of making managerial decisions, any leader is forced to take into account not only external factors, but also the situation that has developed within the organization. This situation is characterized by a set of internal factors or variables that include goals, structure, culture, processes and resources of the organization.

Goals organizations. The goal is a mental anticipation in the mind of the leader of the desired result of future actions.

Organization structure is a set of the most stable relationships that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as social system. The structure of the organization includes four types of elements: structure links (management bodies, divisions, individual employees); relationships (horizontal and vertical); levels of structure (higher, middle and lower); powers (line and staff).

Organizational culture is one of the most important components of the organization, the basis of its life potential. This concept is very close in meaning to such a concept as “organizational morality”. Therefore, in the most general form, it is defined as a system

Organizational processes can be divided into two groups - functional processes and management processes. Functional processes are a set of interrelated operations aimed at achieving the goals of the organization.

Organization management processes are traditionally divided into two classes - management functions and "connecting" processes. Among the functions of management are usually distinguished such as planning, organization, motivation and control. Each of them is implemented with the help of "connecting" processes, which include the exchange of information and the adoption of managerial decisions.

Organization resources. It is known that the activity of any organization can be represented as a process of obtaining resources from the external environment, their processing and transformation into products or services that are “transferred” back to the external environment. Thus, resources, coming from the external environment, become the most important part of the internal environment of the organization and represent a key factor influencing its effectiveness. There are seven types of resources necessary for the life of an organization: people, materials, energy, finance, information, technology and time. The quality and quantity of these resources must always be taken into account in the decision-making process so that they are not only realistic, but also ensure the achievement of the goals of managing the organization.

Management decision-making is a complex mental and organizational process, which is influenced by a large number of factors due to both the psychological characteristics of the leader's personality and the specific decision-making situation. Therefore, in order to achieve success, the head of the organization must not only want, but also be able to make decisions, i.e. make a choice of an alternative consciously, taking into account knowledge about oneself and knowledge about the situation in which one is.