All about banks and banking systems. Commercial banks, their structures and functions. The impact of the securities market on the banking system

1. Introduction.

The modern economy is a very complex system, each part of which is closely related to others and plays an important role. But, one of the most important roles is played by the banking system, providing at the present stage of the development of economic relations the normal functioning of the entire economy as a whole. To date, banks are called upon:

Accumulate free cash;

Perform the functions of cashiers of economic entities;

Emissy.

Now it is impossible to imagine a harmoniously developed state

without an extensive network of banks. Indeed, banks play in the modern economy the role of numerous hearts, with the help of which the development and development of the economic and political power of the state is possible. It is the economic and political, since a political doctrine has not yet been created, in which the economy would be considered separately from politics. To date, banks are an economic instrument in the hands of the government.

But, as a rule, in direct submission to the government is one central bank, for example, the Federal Bank of Germany, and the remaining banks are only guided by its recommendations. And the Federal German Government cannot directly affect all German banks. The impact on them is possible through the government of the land to which they are "attached". Thus, the Government cannot hardly dictate its conditions (often guided by the political motifs of the ruling party) to banks.

Until recently, we have a whole banking activities and

fully determined by the internal policy of the CPSU. But, in connection with political and economic transformations, in our country appeared

many non-state banks whose activities are regulated on the one hand - objective economic laws, and on the other hand, with letters of the Central Bank and imperfectly by law.

Modern Russian banks develop a very high rate, considering that the first non-state financial institutions appeared in 1988, the appearance of credit cards in 1993 both on magnetic and electronic media can be considered as great progress.

Despite the imperfection of banking legislation, Russian banks occupy a solid position in the domestic capital market, and reveal branches abroad. True, there is still no time to talk about Russian bank expansion, since the economic difficulties in our country do not allow formed a full-fledged banking system.

The transition to the market is associated with the implementation of credit relations. Restructuring of monetary circulation and loan, maximum reduction in centralized financing, the transition to the horizontal movement of monetary resources in the financial market. Credit - the form of moving capital, i.e. Capital offered in a loan. Redistribution money Promotes the equalization of the profit rate between different sectors. The credit system can take two forms:

a combination of credit relations, forms and lending methods (functional form)

with credit and financial institutions that accumulate free cash and providing them in a loan (institutional form).

The first form is represented by the following loan forms:

Commercial, arising from the sale of goods with a delay of payment

Banking, arising from the dacha loan with a bank

Consumer arising when providing loans for the purchase of goods by legal entities

State when the lender is the state

International, when foreign banks are subjects of lending.

All these types of credit are characterized by specific forms of credit relations. Special institutions that form a credit system in the institutional understanding are implementing these relationships.

Central banks are banknotes issuing banknotes and being credit system centers. They take a special place in it and are usually government agencies.

The main functions of the Central Bank are as follows:

The emission function that retains its value, since the cash is still necessary for a significant part of payments and ensure the liquidity of the credit system, which should have funds for the final repayment of debt obligations.

The function of accumulating and storing cash reserves for commercial banks, that is, each bank - a member of the national credit system is obliged to keep the amount in a central bank in a central bank in a certain proportion to the size of its deposits. At the same time, the Central Bank for Tradition is the keeper of the country's official gold reserves (Russia's official foreign exchange reserves in 1993 amounted to $ 4 billion and about 300 tons of gold).

The lending feature of commercial banks, characteristic of the socialist economy under state monopoly on credit activities, as well as for a transitional period, accompanied by a shortage of funds in the hands of private financial institutions. It is less manifested in a developed market economywhere such lending exists mainly in periods of financial difficulties.

Providing loans and performing settlement operations for government bodies, as in budgets of various levels, up to half and more GDP countries are accumulated. These funds accumulate on accounts in central banks and spent with them. At the same time, the central banks conduct accounts of government agencies and organizations. In addition, they carry out operations with government securities, provide the state a loan in the form of direct short-term and long-term loans or purchases of government bonds. Central banks are also carried out on the instructions of government bodies of operation with gold and foreign currency.

Clearing function or function of non-cash payments. Thus, in a number of countries, the Central Bank is conducting operations on nationwide clearing, speaking by an intermediary between commercial banks located in different parts of the country. An example of a nationwide settlement chamber can serve as the Federal Reserve System of the United States.

Commercial banks are private and government banks that carry out universal lending operations for industrial, trade and other enterprises, mainly due to the cash capital they receive in the form of deposits.

Several of their functions are distinguished:

Accumulating perpetual deposits, or conducting current accounts, and payment of checks issued on these banks.

Providing loans to entrepreneurs.

The special merit of commercial banks is also in the implementation of calculations across the national economy. On the basis of their operations, credit money arise (checks, bank notes).

Specialized credit and financial institutions include banking and non-bank organizations specializing in certain types of lending. Thus, foreign trade banks specialize in lending to exports and imports of goods, and mortgage banks and companies - on the provision of long-term loans secured by real estate (land and buildings).

The system of credit and financial institutions includes:

Investment banks engaged in issuance - founding activities, that is, conducting operations on the production and placement of securities in the stock market, receiving income on this. They do not have the right to accept deposits and attract capital, as a rule, by selling their own shares or due to a loan of commercial banks. They use their capital for long-term lending to various industries. Today, they are few in Russia.

An extensive group of savings institutions, which occupies an important place in the credit due to the involvement of small savings and income, which otherwise cannot function as capital.

Insurance companies for which the specific form of attracting funds is characterized - the sale of insurance policies. The resulting income, they invest, first of all, in bonds and shares of other companies, government securities.

Pension funds that differ in the organization, management and structure of assets. Thus, there are insured pension funds, (managed by insurance companies) and unconflated (managed by enterprises or by their power of attorney - banks), pounded (their funds are invested in securities) and nephone (pensions are paid from current revenues and income) and many others.

Investment companies placing among small holders their obligations (stocks) and using the funds received to buy securities of the national economy. Minor investors willingly buy the obligations of investment companies, since due to significant diversification (investment in various enterprises) achieves well-known asset disproduction, the risk of losing savings due to bankruptcies of firms, in whose shares capital is invested. Thus, investment check funds in Russia are, in essence, also investment companies.

Thus, the credit system in Russia consists, firstly, from a banking system, which is usually two levels:

Central bank;

Commercial banks.

But sometimes the banking system is also a three-level (for example, in the USA):

Treasury Department;

12 district federal reserve banks;

5000 member banks.

And, secondly, from the credit and financial institutions that occupy the third and fourth of its floors.

Multi-levelness and complexity of interconnections within this structure creates opportunities for its wide use, allows you to initiate a large set of different credit and monetary control levers to the economic mechanism in a timely manner, influence the economic mechanism as a system. What is follows from the complex nature of credit policy.

1.1. The role of the banking system in the USSR.

Until 1987, four banks existed in the USSR: Gosbank, Stroybank, Vneshtorgbank, G.Orudsberkass. Em session, managerial and control functions, as well as short-term lending, cash-based cash services performed the USSR state bank. It automatically accumulated free cash, distributed between economic entities for a predetermined credit plan. Gosbank was focused mainly on the fulfillment of this plan with its branch network and the responsibility only to higher authorities, and not by the clientele.

The maximum centralization of the banking system had its attractive side, at least for individual economic entities. The monetary system was in uniform arms, which made it possible to suppress inflation, stabilize the money circulation, to restrain the growth of state internal and external debt. It was possible to carry out practically interest-free bank lending to state-owned enterprises, and in particular the state farms and collective farms, in some cases the debts of the state bank simply did not return and turned into subsidies.

During the rule of the command-administrative system in our country, the role of banks was extremely narrowed. Their functions were reduced to carrying out non-cash settlements between enterprises, cash maintenance, as well as financing of capital construction at the expense of state budget and special trust funds. As an integral part of the state apparatus, banks under centralized national planning carried out loan operations under strictly regulated areas of use of funds and limited lending funds. Explainacle operations were allowed only on solutions of party-government bodies. For the leaders of enterprises and for the banking workers themselves, there was actually a significant difference between budget and credit financing, lending was carried out from the same budget to condition percentages. The State Bank has constantly engaged in reproduction through a financial image loan of the Directive State National Economy Plan and complementary government programs and regulations. In essence, Gosbank was a cashier's cash register, carrying out monetary and credit emissions for financing largely deficient, wasteful, and often, simply unnecessary government programs. The introduction in addition to the state network of specialized banks did not change matters in essence, since they became a separated centralized bank, in which the number of vertical structures was added. Such a banking system only slowed down the development of commodity-money relations.

In connection with the CPSU taken in the mid-80s, the reform course was needed in reforming and banking system. It was believed that the banking sector was intended to ensure the maximum sustainability of the monetary system during the reform period, to promote the stable functioning of enterprises.

In 1987, a 2-point organization began.

1.2. The role assigned to banks in Russia.

In the Russian Federation, the creation and functioning of commercial banks is based on the Law of the Russian Federation "On Banks and Banking Activities in the Russian Federation". In accordance with this law, the Bank of Russia acts as universal credit institutions that make a wide range of operations in the financial market: the provision of various loans by type and timing, purchase and sale and storage valuable papers, foreign currency, attracting funds into deposits, exercising settlements, issuance of guarantees, guarantees and other obligations, intermediary and trusting operations, etc.

In Russia, banks can be created on the basis of any form of ownership - private, collective, joint-stock, mixed. It does not exclude the possibility of creating banks based exclusively on the state-owned ownership, which, in accordance with current legislation, can carry out their activities on a commercial basis. To form the authorized capital of Russian banks allowed to attract foreign investment. Under banks with the participation of foreign investment in accordance with the terms of the opening of banks with the participation of foreign capital in the territory of the Russian Federation, approved by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, 08.04.93, are understood:

Joint banks, i.e. Banks, the authorized capital of which is formed at the expense of residents and non-residents;

Foreign banks - banks, the authorized capital of which is formed by non-residents;

Branches of non-resident banks.

The decision to open each individual bank with the participation of foreign investment is made by the Board of Directors of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. The Central Bank establishes the limit of foreign capital participation in the country's banking system. Restrictions on the participation of foreign capital are aimed at creating the most favorable conditions for the formation of domestic commercial banks and protection against expansion of foreign banks.

According to a method for the formation of authorized capital, banks are divided into shareholder (open and closed type) and mutual. The possibility of creating banks belonging to one person (legal or physical) is excluded by the current legislation, according to which the authorized capital of the Bank is formed from at least three participants.

If at the initial stage of the reform of the credit system, commercial banks were created mainly on a mutual basis, then for the current stage, the transformation of mutual banks into joint-stock and the creation of new banks in the form of joint-stock companies is characterized. For a joint stock company, it is characteristic that the owner of his capital is the society itself, i.e. bank. And the mutual commercial banks are not owners of their capital, because each of the shareholders retains ownership of its share of capital. Food commercial banks are organized on the principles of a limited liability company, i.e. Societies liability of each shareholder is limited to its contribution to the Bank's total capital. The expansion of the authorized capital can be carried out both by making participants in additional contributions and through the entry into the Bank of new participants. The question of the entry of new participants and the amount of their contribution to the authorized capital of the Bank is solved at the general meeting of participants.

Banks operating as a joint-stock company, the share capital is divided into a certain number of shares of equal nominal value placed among legal entities and individuals. Shareholders are not entitled to demand from the bank to return this contribution, which increases the sustainability, and reliability of the bank and creates a robust basis for the bank to manage its liquidity. Joint-stock banks are closed and open types. Shares of closed banks can move from hand to hand only with the consent of the majority of shareholders. Shares of open-type banks can move from hand to hand without the consent of other shareholders and distributed in an open subscription. Subscription to securities is considered open if the list of securities buyers is not approved in advance by the founders or governing bodies of the Issuer Bank, and as a result, these papers can acquire any person. An open subscription requires a bank of extensive information about its activities.

2. The main directions of reforms.

1) the creation of a 2-level banking system consisting of an emission bank and government specialized banks directly serving national economy; Translation of specialized banks on commercials and self-financing, improving forms and lending methods. The central place in this system is given to the State Bank, with the aim of separating emissions from lending. It is also a coordinator of the activities of specialized banks and conducting a single credit-monetary policy.

In 1987, Promstroybank, Zhilsotsbank, Sberbank, Agroprombank, Vnesheconombank of the USSR were created on the basis of previously existing institutions. This led to a certain revival of banking activities, but there was no full-fledged bank reform - economic relations remained the same. The contractual relationship with the clientele began to be introduced, the structure of credit investments has improved. The lack of an effective system of economic regulation of the monetary turnover aggravated by the commodity-monetary imbalance of the economy. Directive consolidation of the clientele, depending on its industry affiliation, caused an uneven distribution of liabilities between banks. In addition, it should be noted that the monopoly on banking operations remained under the state.

Creating a new monetary regulatory mechanism that allows economic methods to influence the macroeconomic proportions of public reproduction. Creating conditions for overflow of resources from one industry to another, for example, in agriculture. For these purposes, Gosbank was derived from submission to the government. A two-level banking system was created.

But, it was not taken into account that the new banking system should reflect the reality of the current in the banking other than 60 years (the distribution of cash savings, the role of individual credit institutions, basic cash flows, etc.). It was not taken into account that the future banking system cannot be fully adequate to classic two-level systems created in industrialized countries with a steadily developing market economy. Unlike them, this is a banking system of transitional and developing farms, characterized by instability and sharp structural shifts.

2.1. Requires, failures of reforms.

As a result of a number of indigenous reforms undertaken in our country, a qualitatively new system of economic relations was created. One of its main features is a high degree of monopolization of the economy, which arose both as a result of the raised economic steps of the country's leadership and due to the high centralization of the Soviet economic system. This creates significant difficulties in the formation of a civilized credit resource market.

There is even the opinion that today there is no real competition in the banking market, since the demand for credit resources is very large. At the moment, the participation of credit resources in the real investment process in the country's economy is strongly limited, since the latter is associated with significant risks and the fall in capital turnover. In this sense, the modern two-level structure does not fully meet the needs of the transformation of the macrostructure of the economy, that is, does not reflect objective requirements for sufficient optimization of macroeconomic corporations and to the formation of a reproduction structure corresponding to the market type.

The method of transformation of the economy and banks was revolutionary. And if we take into account that the Soviet economy, by the time of the start of reforms, was in a state of the sluggish crisis, it becomes clear causes of today's state of the Russian economy. The best way to restructure the banking system and the economy as a whole is evolutionary changes, a gradual transition from one scheme of economic relations - command to another - planned, as the economy as a whole, in the macro - and microstructure changes evolutionally. The banking system was to structurally organize on the evolutionary process and combine single and two-level components.

In the reform of the banking system, it would be necessary to create banks with capital formed on market principles along with government specialized banks. They must serve current investment activities that are beyond government programs.

The difference between the semi-terminal system from the current two-level consists in the existence of strong non-state banks. After all, the loan portfolio of all Russian banks in 1995 amounted to $ 5 billion, which is comparable to a similar indicator of one Middle Foreign Bank. In such a situation, the state would have a better resource base for financing investment programs, a simpler and cheap system for serving public debt and currency control. As a result, the growth rates of prices and the economic downtry could be less, the pace of restructuring of the economy is higher, and all society is somewhat closer to the socially oriented market than when the existing banking system is functioning. But, these opportunities can be practically implemented only with adequate economic policies in general.

Throughout the seventy delander years, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe banking system is rooted as a secondary, performing production service functions. This happened as a result of superchangeal management. Under these conditions, the use of a two-level system as a model for the reorganization of the banking structure attracted obvious and accessibility.

Do not forget that the creation of a two-level system was the second step of the reform, initiated in 1987, was directed against the centralized state bank, and contributed to the creation of a "four-chapted" banking system, which was somewhat difficult. It could be changed only by power methods. These circumstances and served as the impetus for radical reforms of the banking sector. Finally, the state did not have real programs for the structural restructuring of the economy in evolutionary type. Because of this, there was no financial support scheme for such transformations. In our conditions, Gosbank is not needed as a bank serving state needs in the broad sense of the word. Only recently, in connection with the adoption of the Decree "On measures to strengthen control over the use of federal budget funds", the Central Bank is responsible for conducting accounts for income and federal budget accounting.

The total result of the reform of the USSR banking system and Russia was the banking system more structurally ordered and progressive than what was before and especially after the first step of reforms. But it is impossible to call the existing banking system full. How can I make it so? Most likely, we must carry out suspended reforming efforts to approximate the banking system to the state, adequate to the formation of a market economy. This may be the introduction of a more rigid activity of Sberbank, including limits on its active operations in the interbank and commercial markets, the use of funds, Sberbank to finance the reconstruction programs of the economy, the use of the Central Bank services for the implementation of large investment projects, entalling the Bank of Russia in the Public Securities Market Brokerage Bank Powers with respect to non-financial clientele. This should contribute to the financial centralization, strengthening the financial base of the structural restructuring of the economy, the development of competition in the banking services market.

The banking sector existing in developed countries is not an adequate model for the transitional economy of Russia. Models of the formation of the banking sector of the market type should be used, that is, models reflecting the transition state of the modern domestic economy. From these positions, a banking system that combines the features of single-level and two-level systems with a strong state-of-level and transitional form of a central bank that performs the functions of a commercial bank would be the most responsible restructuring of the economy. As the material structure that satisfies the requirements of the capitalist economy is developing, the commercial functions of the Central Bank would fade and walked the process of forming a traditional two-level system.

3. Creating a new banking system in Russia.

In connection with the collapse of the USSR, fundamental changes in politics and economics the banking system could not effectively function. There was a need for her new, the second over the past 10 years restructuring. The new banking system was supposed to be made in conditions:

Large-scale structural changes leading to a radical change in the economic and political system of the country (changes in ownership, conversion, demonopolization, large-scale changes in the structure of products manufactured, violation of the holistic economic complex of the former USSR, the formation of an externally-oriented economy, a large-scale restructuring of the state and political system);

Extreme instability requiring not only operational, but, above all, long-term, promising management;

The deep crisis of the farm (the fall in production and its effectiveness, inflation), the most severe state of monetary circulation, disorder of the entire financial economy of the country;

The unsuccessful current policy of the Bank of Russia in the 1991s of the 19th half of 1992, which led to the weakening of the banking system (payment crisis, the case crisis, the disorder of the non-cash settlement system, overly rigid and unpredictable monetary policies, etc.).

Ultimately, there was a need for a long-term concept of the transition of Russia to the market type economy and democratic statehood, which corresponds to a qualitative other banking system, rather than for a centralized planned economy and a totalitarian state.

Unfortunately, the project of such a concept was developed by O.I. Lavrushin, Ya.M. Mirkin only in 1993

The basic principles of this concept were:

Organization of banking in transition economy

The real degree of "markets" of the future banking system, the ratio of centralized and decentralized in it. The focus of the new banking system for maintaining the reform process:

Diversification of property (privatization, the formation of an independent private sector);

Demonopolization;

The formation of new markets (securities, land, fixed assets, insurance services, scientific and technical products and information, etc.);

Technical, technological and product restructuring of the economy, conversion and reduction of military expenses;

Restructuring of interregional and inter-republican ties;

Strengthening the openness of the economy, its integration into micro-economic relations;

Redistribution of powers between the center and regions.

In addition, the banking system, according to the authors of the Concept, should contribute to the development of private ownership in the financial sector, the development of various types of credit institutions. But, at the same time, it should not be violated, strict, the system of control over the activities of banks by the Central Bank and the representative bodies of the state.

Organization of market bank reforms. They should be carried out much slower than political changes occur, and is not revolutionary categorically, and evolutionally, with the most efficient preservation of all useful elements of the old system. At the same time, despite the fact that bank reforms are only a consequence of political changes, they should not keep track of them to significantly.

The behavior of the new banking system in the new conditions.

The Russian banking system has always experienced the impact of the economic recession due to the serious shortcomings of its institutional framework. But, for a long time, it was hidden, due to high-yield risky operations, which contributed to a high level of inflation.

One of the disadvantages of its institutional device is limited diversification of the loan portfolio. This problem originated at the first stage of reform when specialized banks were created. In the context of subsequent reforms that contributed to the collapse of the national network of banks, there was a transformation of specialized banks in banks serving one sector of the economy in one region. In addition, the economic decline did not contribute to the expansion of the Circle of Borrowers at the expense of "outsiders" customers, which did not contribute to their involvement in banks. This led to the fact that only a few banks today have a diversified loan portfolio. Also in conditions of high inflation, during banks, and first of all, the central bank of the "expensive money" policy has occurred a number of successfully working enterprises from loans under 250-300% per annum. Enterprises that could not at the expense of their means ensure full functioning were forced to resort to loans issued under such high interest. This gave rise to a large number of irreversible loans and even such measures as the dismissal of workers could not stabilize the situation. These enterprises were forced to take new loans to give the old ones that, in the end, led them to themselves and crediting banks in a crisis state. Now we often exist such banks, which as a result of unsuccessful lending to one giant enterprise are on the debit balance, and even current payments can not spend lending.

The necessary diversification of loan activity is constrained by three factors: an economic downturn; insufficient information on financial products by banks; Limitful financial know-how in most entrepreneurs. As well as low level of competition.

A big role in the formation of the Russian banking system is what it is, played a high level of inflation. Because of inflation, the cost of loans provided by banks was constantly grew. Capitalizing its income from bank interest in the context of inflation, banks felt safe. This led to an increase in intermediary services and margin. This, as well as a high level of wages that does not contribute to the increase in liquidity, undermined confidence in banks.

When the government agreed to reduce inflation, and the Central Bank lowered the discount rate, and was also limited to the growth of the dollar's course. Many banks could not survive in the established conditions. They failed to work at low inflation.

The disadvantages of the existing banking system opened the measures of the Central Bank on the timeliness of payments. This significantly reduced the role of sources of speculative income related to payments delay. In addition, as follows foreign specialists: "Numerous examples confirm the point of view that non-professionals that have the necessary connections are very often becoming the leaders of banks that have the necessary bonds in order to be appointed banking banks. Obviously, the level of corruption with difficulty is measurable. "

4. Recovery of the state and commercial banks of Russia.

The transition to new forms of business does not mean a complete refusal of the state from the management of the economy. On the contrary, it was during the transition period that the possibility of controlling the progress of reforms is becoming important, and commercial banks play a big role. The stabilization of the economy is impossible without an effective, extensive network of reliable banks whose activities are not in incision with the interests of the state. Only, in contrast to the command economy, bank management is carried out not directively, but through banking legislation.

To date, the main tasks of the Central Bank are regulation of money circulation, ensuring the sustainability of the ruble, a single monetary policy, the organization of settlements and cash services, the protection of the interests of depositors, banks, supervision of the activities of commercial banks, foreign economic activity, the establishment of the obligatory reservation standards, the accounting rate. The CBR is the creditor of the last instance. Among the banks of the components of the second level of the banking system there are also specialized: municipal, mortgage, land, investment.

A special place in the banking system of Russia is occupied by Vnesheconombank - it serves the foreign debt of the Russian Federation and the Bank of Reconstruction and Development - is engaged in financing government programs using budgetary resources. In addition, there are special credit institutions: credit unions, cooperatives, financial and trust companies, insurance companies, private pension funds, loan-savings associations, investment funds. Their main difference from banks is that they fulfill a limited number of banking operations. They accumulate population and legal entities, carry out lending to enterprises and citizens, trust operations.

In the Russian Federation, the function of regulating the activities of commercial banks within the framework of a single monetary system is assigned to the Central Bank. The main assigned tasks assigned to it are:

Stability of work and strengthening the financial position of the CB;

Orientation and stimulation of the Bank's activities in the areas of lending aimed at fulfilling the priority objectives of the economy;

Scientific organization of money circulation in the national economy.

But, unlike the command economy, now the methods of managing the banking system are mainly economic:

Changing the norms of mandatory reservation in the CBD;

Changing the volume of loans provided to the CBR to commercial banks, as well as interest rates on them;

Conduct operations in the open market with securities and currency.

In accordance with the instruction No. 1, the CBR formed a reserve fund of the credit system of the Russian Federation due to the reservation of a certain share of third-party enterprises attracted by commercial banks, which are used as credit resources.

For example, it provides the possibility of commercial banks to fulfill obligations in a timely manner due to the fact that some of these funds are deposited and not used by banks as credit resources. The CBR changing the norms of compulsory reservation affects the CB loan policy and a change in the money in the country.

One of the tools of economic management of commercial banks is centralized lending to economic entities from the CBD through the CB, as well as lending to the banks themselves.

But in some cases, for example, a stable loss of liquidity by the Bank, a violation of the timing of funds in odds, administrative measures can be applied.

Management and monitoring of the stability of the banking system consists in carrying out banks of certain conditions that ensure the implementation of 12 main standards:

N 1 -Mimal capital adequacy - the ratio of capital capital and the total volume of assets weighted with risk;

N 2 -Mimal current liquidity - the ratio of assets to the amount of the Bank's obligations on demand for more than half of the liquid assets is represented by the balance of "Operations with State Securities" (194);

H 3 -normative instant liquidity of the bank - the ratio of the sum of highly liquid assets to the obligations of the Bank to demand;

H 4 -Maximal risk on long-term loans - the attitude of loans for more than a year to capital and long-term deposits;

H 5 -Mimal ratio of liquid and total assets. The ratio of liquid assets and total assets. Total assets are treated as net assets;

H 6 -Maximal risk size per borrower - the ratio of the aggregate amount of loans and guarantees issued to one borrower to the Bank's capital;

H 7 -Maximal size of risk on major loans - the ratio of the aggregate value of large loans and 50% of guarantees towards the Bank's capital;

H 8 -Maximal risk size per lender - the ratio of the contribution of the accounts of one creditor to the Bank's capital;

H 9 -Maximal amount of loans granted to one shareholder - the ratio of the aggregate amount of loans and guarantees issued to one borrower-shareholder to the Bank's capital;

H 10 -Maximal amount of loans, guarantees and guarantees provided by the Insider. The ratio of the aggregate amount of loans and guarantees issued by insiders to the Bank's capital;

H 11 -Maximal size of attracted contributions of the population. The ratio of the total amount of deposits of citizens and capital banks.

H 12 -Maximal use of own funds to acquire shares of one legal entity. The percentage of invested and own funds.

In addition, there are techniques to determine the risk of non-payment by the borrower of the principal debt and interest due to the creditor in the term established by the loan agreement - credit risk. This is necessary in the formation of a loan portfolio showing the overall picture of loans issued by the Bank during the reporting period (usually a quarter). Based on the degree of risk, loan debt is divided into 5 conventional risk groups. The assessment of credit risks is made depending on the availability of appropriate and properly decorated collaboration, as well as the number of days of delay in the loan. There are also restrictions on major loans to loans issued to one borrower, and a component of 20 and more percent of the bank's share capital.

Attempts by the state to control banks in the transition period are not new: they were taken in the period of NEP. Bank's ability to ensure the timeliness of its obligations, was the focus of credit policy in the mid-20s. Then the liquidity of the Soviet banks was achieved through the balance of their assets and liabilities, and the state regulation of their solvency was carried out by establishing proportions between the value of the Bank's liabilities and its own means, limiting the one-time loan to one client and other methods. The activities of credit institutions from 1921 to 1928 were limited, as a rule, tenfold values \u200b\u200bof their own capital. So, in accordance with the decree of the WCTC and SNK of January 18, 1923, utility banks were created, in which the charter indicated that "the general sum of the amount accepted by the banks into deposits and on current accounts of bills of bills and any other amounts of monetary obligations There should be no way to exceed more than ten times its own capital of the bank, the main and spare. " A similar requirement was included in the Charters of the Central Agricultural Bank, the joint-stock bank for electrical engine. For agricultural loan societies, the amount of obligations assumed, including guarantees, should not exceed more than 20 times their own capital. The transition to the loan planning of long-term and short-term loans in the late 1920s, the opposition of the plan and market led to the refusal to regulate the activities of industry banks as a whole. In the interests of compliance with the liquidity of banks and customers in the 20s, the charters and provisions of credit institutions also limited the issuance of a loan to one borrower. Thus, in the charter of the communal bank it was envisaged that a loan, opened by each of the individual clients, could not exceed the amount equal to 1/10 share capital. Despite the change in the economic situation in the country, such requirements are relevant to this day.

Since the 30s, the banking system, based on the state-owned property, worked mainly with state enterprises and organizations. The predominance of statehood in the national economy meant that for the obligations of borrowers to credit institutions, ultimately, the state replied in the person of ministries and departments. This led to the fact that banks did not feel risk in their work. The boundless solvency and liquidity of the state in the conditions of non-convertibility of the national currency and the closed economy were fencing banks from risks, made an excessive work of credit institutions to maintain liquidity.

As a result, experience and spelling skills, assessment and controlling credit risks were lost. The new economic mechanism, powered by laws on the state-owned enterprise, on cooperation in the USSR, changes in the form of ownership demanded adequate changes in the banking sector. The emergence of specialized, commercial and cooperative banks based on different forms of ownership caused decentralization of credit resources, separated emission activities from credit, changed the appearance of Gosbank and other credit institutions. The emergence of elements of market relations made the activities of banks associated with risks.

More than half-one banking experience made it possible to identify the classic impact levers from the Central Bank to other credit institutions in order to maintain their solvency and regulation of monetary relations in general. This is, first of all, restricting the debt of one borrower, the reservation system, obliging commercial and other banks to store in the Central Bank a certain share of the total amount of deposits, the refinancing system and interest rates on refinancing or accounting for bank bills in the Central Bank, the central bank operations with valuable papers on the market, control of capital adequacy. The strongest method of regulating the activities of commercial banks is the refinancing system by the central (emission) bank. Most of the loans issued by commercial banks are covered by refinancing.

In general, the bank is an organization that performs certain economic and social functions. Moreover, these functions differ depending on the economic system. Under the conditions of tough centralization and planning, banks are part of the state office of management and control over the activities of the economy. At the same time, supervision, alarm on the disadvantages allowed, mismanagement in enterprises become one of the main directions of their activities. In such a situation, the bank can be interpreted as an element of superstructure. The main function of the bank in a market economy is the redistribution of funds under these conditions is not based on a market environment, but on the leadership directives, the principle of "one bank for the Client" does not provide the basis for the development of commercial relations in the banking sector. And this in turn does not contribute to the development of new forms of banking activities, leads to its stagnation. Indeed, in the reform of the banking system, it became obvious that the domestic level of banking operations neither quantitatively nor qualitatively corresponds to overseas. What happened, for example, operations with bills - forgotten, and new types of banking services are not formed.

But, in the current Russian economy, commercial banks continue to participate in control over the activities of enterprises, often to the detriment of their main activity.

It should not be noted that banks can also affect the state by:

Providing or failure to provide loans to the government;

Changes in the volume of operations with currency and government securities;

By changing its credit policy towards domestic producers.

Finally, the banking community in Russia has a representative body - the Association of Russian Banks, at the last congress of which a number of leading bankers expressed a serious concern about the existing situation of affairs in the economy. That is, in particular, V. Vinogradov said: "We believe that an increase in the M2 unit ... could be focused on reducing the debts on the payment of pensions and other social obligations .... The lack of necessary schemes for the interaction of the state with banks in solving this problem leads to the fact that in the first quarter of the current year in emissions of more than 20 trillion. rubles with general annual terms of the issue of Central Bank 70 trillion. rubles The debt of enterprises and the federal budget for wages increased by 7 trillion. rubles. "

5. Rolled by banks in Russia.

At the moment, the banking system is an important link in the domestic economy. It is due to a significant accumulation of funds, banks can have a significant impact on the course of the national currency, and on the influx of money in the treasury, through operations with government securities. In the conditions of the inactive crisis of non-payment, the banking system is designed to keep the amount of money in the framework of the economy that ensures the functioning of the economy.

The stabilization role of the banking community at this stage of the development of the economy is very important. Attempts by the natural (purely market) overflow of funds from one industry to another did not lead to the desired results, moreover, the capital of the banking system according to G. Khanina was absolutely declined since 1991 by 3-4 times, in relation to GDP it is at the England level 80s of the XVIII century. This suggests that the effective redistribution of funds in the domestic economy at this stage is able to provide only a state program developed taking into account world experience and domestic realities. As it, for example, was in the United States in the 40-50s, when there was a program to support priority industries in science and economics.

Attracting foreign credit resources is hampered for several reasons:

First, Russia is already quite a large debtor.

Secondly, the corruption processes in the state apparatus, which actually should start the distribution of foreign loans, seriously undermine the confidence of foreign creditors and do not guarantee the direction of the allocated funds in the country's economy.

Thirdly, there is still very high investment risks in Russia, partly due to the lack of such a program.

Fourth, foreign lenders are often not interested in the development of certain industries of our economy, and will never allocate credit resources for it.

In addition, you should not forget that the IBRD loans are also provided. Moreover, they are spent. At the VII Congress, ARB V. Vinogradov said on this occasion:

"Many of those present in the hall in the hall seem to even know that the loan portfolio of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in Russia includes 29 loans totaling $ 6.4 billion. It is used from these loans 10-15%. This year IBRD gives $ 2.24 billion. For 1998, 3.24 billion is planned. Ways to use these funds are still a secret for seven castles for most of us. "

All this indicates the need to create such a system of public cooperation with banks in the field of credit policies, which would not provide words, but in fact, the effective implementation by banks in their characteristic functions.

The adoption of the program is designed to determine the most priority directions of lending, but do not forget that many enterprises have no acceptable collateral, nor guarantees. Thus, lending to these enterprises significantly worsens the cumulative loan portfolio of Russian banks in terms of risks. And this is unacceptable for today, for it is so overloaded with dubious loans. It means that it is necessary to develop a system of guarantees and guarantees to ensure acceptable credit risks of investments in these enterprises.

Separate steps to streamline the role of commercial banks are already accepted. For example, the adoption of the Decree "On measures to strengthen control over the use of federal budget funds" should reduce to a minimum number of authorized banks.

In the meantime, the banking system is not fully used by the economic instrument, besides not too developed.

5.1. The importance of the securities market on the banking system.

Seriously prevents the development of credit activities Government policy of using banking resources to finance budget deficit through the securities market. The scale of the production of GKO, OFZ, the OSZ increases with high rates. In mid-1996, a brief and medium-term government securities with a nominal value of more than 180 trillion was turned on the market. rub. And with a market value of over 160 trillion. rub. On the eve of the presidential election, the yield of operations with government securities reached 360% per annum. This significantly delayed funds to the securities market primarily from credit resources.

Attempts to reduce yield by attracting foreign investors to the market did not give the desired result, the main holders of securities remained commercial banks, because This is more profitable in today's conditions compared with lending. Despite the decline in profitability due to the slowdown in the ruble depreciation and reducing speculative operations, commercial banks continue to orient a significant part of their activities on the currency business. With the overall reduction in the network of existing credit institutions, the number of banks with a currency license has grown.

In the conditions of a wide "dollarization" of the economy and an extremely liberal foreign trade regime of banks, despite the absence, experience and necessary personnel, try to connect to the currency turnover.

Foreign currency accumulation of Russian commercial banks, including funds of clients' enterprises, are calculated by tens of billions of dollars, much exceeding the official currency reserves of the Central Bank. With the active participation of the stock exchange, the circulation of multi-billion amounts of cash foreign currency within the country is supported.

In this situation, the activities of commercial banks are focused on the simplest bank transactions with a narrow circle of customers. Implementation of the main goal of banks - the preservation of nested capital and profit is largely promoted by the state, encouraging fundraising in GKO. But the field of activity of commercial banks cannot effectively develop in such conditions. To stimulate the development of the banking services market, both in quantitative and qualitatively, it is necessary to stop cash flow into dollars and create conditions for effective investment in domestic enterprises.

Conclusion.

Despite the fact that since the late 80s, the domestic economy is experiencing not the best times, it was during this period a banking system was formed. Of course, it cannot be called a strong, fully responsible principles of the market economy, but it has proven its vitality. In addition, she played not a latter role in the process of reforming the economy.

To date, when the domestic economy is not in a better position, for example, the danger of emission, the coming sequestration of the budget, non-payment of the banking system continues to function successfully. Of course, this is largely due to the state of the currency and stock market, which was mentioned above, but over time, the volume of speculative operations in the structure of bank revenues is steadily decreased. This is largely due to the central bank of a low interest rate policy, as well as a government course to reduce inflation.

It should be hoped that all that is a positive impact on economic transformations in the country that the banking system has provided for the past years to continue in the future.

List of references:

Law of the RSFSR of 02.12.90, "On Banks and Banking Activities in the RSFSR." - M., 1990.

A letter No. 98 of 30.06.94 on the implementation of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 23, 1994 "On additional measures to normalize the calculations and strengthening the payment discipline in the national economy." - M., 1994.

Alekhin B.I. Market of securities-m., Finance and statistics 1991.

Lavrushushin O.I. Banking - m., Banking and stock scientific and consulting center, 1992.

Banking - m., 1996.

Timothy U. Koch. Bank management. -Full: SPEKTR. Part V, 1993.

In the Association of Russian Banks // Association of Russian Banks. Information Bulletin 1995.- №44.-S.6-23.

Bubnov L.N. One of the ability to stabilize the Russian money market // Accounting and banks 1996.-№1.-C.4-9.

Polishchuk A.I. On the question of the translation of Russian banks to international standards // Accounting and banks 1996.-№2.-p.6-11.

Shlyk A.P. To the commissioning of the new instruction No. 1 "On the procedure for regulating the activities of credit institutions" // Accounting and banks 1996.-№2.-C.11-15.

The long-term concept of the development of the monetary system of Russia // Money and loan 1993.-№1.

Egorov A.E. Problems of activity of commercial banks at the present stage of economic development // Money and loan 1995.-№6.-C.4.

Paramonova T.V. Principles of banking regulation // Money and loan 1995.-№6.-C.10.

Agapov Yu.V., Lavrushushin O.I. The banking crisis entered the open form // Money and loan 1995.-№10.-C.15.

Simanovsky A.Yu. Banking sector in transitional economy of Russia // Money and loan 1995.-№11.-C.26.

IV Arb Congress // Money and Credit 1996.-№4.-C.21.

Buasse K., Cohen D., Pontarria G. Banking System of Russia: Transitional Problems // Money and Credit 1996.-№4.-C.31.

Borisov S.M., Korotkov P.A. Banking system of Russia: state and prospects // Money and loan 1996.-№8.-S.5.

Sukhov P.A. Some aspects of the sustainability of the banking system // Money and loan 1996.-№11.-p.19.

Varobyev S. Notes with the VII Congress of the Association of Russian Banks. // New newspaper 1997.- №17.-p.6.

Schinkarenko P.Casnaya Money-in Competition // Russian News 1997.-№87.-C.1.

State University of Office

Institute of National and World Economy

Department ........................................... ..........

"State regulation of the economy"

abstract

"Banks and banking system

in transition "

Performed: Bukin A.E., IPERE,

Accepted: ... ........................ ...

.....……………………..

Essence and organization of the banking system.

The role of the central bank in the banking system. The activities of commercial banks.

Structure of the banking system.

The problem of the multiplication expansion of bank deposits.

Essence and organization of the banking system

For the first time, the banks appeared in feudalism. In xivil bank operations Start developing in Italy, Germany, the Netherlands.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Banks begin to spread widely in England. If at the beginning of the main task of banks was the accumulation of funds in banks and their provision, then later the most important function of banks becomes mediation in credit payments. This feature has received the greatest development in the XIX century, with the dissemination of joint-stock banks.

At the end of the XIX century. - early XX century. In the strengthening of banking capital concentrations, banking monopolies in the form of banking cartels, syndicates (consortiations), banking trusts and concerns are arising. This leads to a decrease in the number of banks. At the same time, the number of departments of banks, varieties of services that are provided with them.

As well as concentration of banks There are them centralization. Concentration and centralization of banking capitalHis monopolization caused new features. So, Ot mediation functions In payments and loans, banks go to permanent lending industries and enterprises. They are reorienting with short-term loans for all types and forms of credit funds, first of all, for long-term investments in fixed assets. Due to this, they establish control over individual enterprises, and sometimes over some industries. Evidence of the growing control of banks over industry is the concentration in their hands of large stakes and bonds. The total debt of private corporations is also increasing. This indicates as strengthening the splicing of banking capital with industrialand about dominant roles of banks In this process.

Significantly increased the scale of lending by state banks through the service of public debt, as a result of which the value of the loan in providing the state with cash resources increases. Therefore, the Ministry of Finance issues various government securities (bonds, treasury bills, debt certificates, etc. which, being debt obligations of the state cover its budget deficit.

The role of the central bank in the banking system. Activities of commercial banks

Banking system It is a combination of various types of banks and banking associations in their relationship and interaction. The main types of banks include central emission bankswhich leadership and control over the functioning and development of the entire banking system of the country. The banking system also includes commercial, emission, agricultural, cooperative, etc.

Interaction and interconnection different species banks and banking associations, as a result of which the banking system is formed, are possible only under the execution Central Bank its basic functions.

Distinguish the following views banking systems:

centralized Monobankovskaya system;

two-level banking system (central bank and system of commercial banks);

a unique decentralized banking system is the Federal Reserve System of the United States, which is headed by 12 federal reserve banks in various regions of the country, whose task is to monitor the activities of banks and the definition of the fundamental directions of the US monetary policy.

Until 1987, in our country there was a hypertrophied banking system, the main task of which was the mechanical redistribution of the national loan foundation between different links of the National economic System on non-economic principles. The functioning banking system has ceased to meet the current requirements of the economy. Currently, in Russia, the general restructuring stage of the banking sector on market funds is generally completed. So currently formed two-level banking system, headed it stands in state owned Central bank, and in which commercial banks enter, credit organizations, as well as branches and representative offices of foreign banks in the territory of the Russian Federation.

central bank - The chief state bank of the country, endowed with special rights. The Central Bank is intended to regulate the monetary circulation in the country, to carry out monetary emissions, regulate the loan and exchange rate, control the activities of commercial banks, keep reserves and cash reserves and gold. The central bank is called bank banks.

Functions of the Central Bank:

* Banknote and non-cash emissions;

* monetary regulation of the economy;

* control over the activities of credit institutions;

* accumulation and storage of cash reserves of other credit institutions;

* lending commercial banks;

* Credit-settlement service of the government;

* Storage of official gold and foreign exchange reserves.

The second element of the banking system - commercial banks - Most often, non-state performing a wide range of banking operations serving mainly enterprises, firms, organizations, institutions and providing banking services to the population. The main functions of commercial banks - reception of deposits (deposits) and the provision of a loan, accounting, payment of money on deposits, purchase and sale of securities, currency, implementation of non-cash payments, service provision. Commercial banks can be universal and specialized. The latter includes savings, mortgage, clearing, etc.

Conscribed by banks operations to attract and place cash, securities and settlements are called banking operations. Distinguish active, passive, mediation etc. Operations.

Consider them.

Active operations - These are operations with which their own and attracted capital are placed. Active include credit - operations with securities; cash registers; acceptance; from foreign currency; with real estate. The most important of these are the first first.

Passive operationsThe content of which is to obtain a loan, are carried out in order to accumulate funds for subsequent financing of active operations. The basis of passive operations are attracted funds. The ratio between its own and attracted, capital should be at least 1:10, although in separate developed countries it reaches 1: 100. The most important type of passive operations is deposit. Deposits are divided into demand depositsthat the client can pick up at any time in connection with which the low percentage is paid; urgeredwhich can be removed by the client only at a predetermined time. They pay a higher percentage. Other types of passive operations include savings deposits, attracting funds from other banks and emissions of banking and mortgage bonds.

Credit operations are divided into blankov and secured. Recently refer to the latter bills (Provided in the form of buying bills), under securities, under the goods. In addition, there are loans onchool (repaid at the request of the bank or creditor), short-term, medium-term and long-term. There are also distinguished commercial loans (provided by enterprises) agricultural, consumer, intermediaries Stock Exchange and etc.)

Consulting Operations can be specialized in separate consulting profiles. Consulting It may consist in the preparation of packages of constituent documents when creating new firms.

Commission (mediation) operations - provision of services, execution of orders.

Basic types of banking services They are collective, accredit, translation, trust, leasing, etc. In general, the modern largest banks can have about 200 species of various services.

Which to extract profits as the main goal of its activities on the basis of a special permit (license) of the Central Bank Russian Federation (Bank of Russia) has the right to carry out banking transactions provided for by this Federal Law. The credit institution is formed on the basis of any form of ownership as a business society.

The Bank is a credit institution that has the exceptional right to carry out the following banking operations in aggregate: attracting funds to the deposits of funds for physical and legal entities, placement of the specified means on your own behalf and at your own expense on the terms of the repayment, payability, urgency, opening and maintenance bank accounts individuals and legal entities.

IN modern economy The feature of the Bank's activities is its role of a financial intermediary, i.e. The Bank accumulates (attracts) free monetary resources and conducts their redistribution in accordance with the interests of the participants in the economic system, makes the way resources from cash holders in those areas, industries, enterprises that need resources to expand activities for the production process.

European banking system - the basis of the system is large commercial banks with significant capital, a large number of branches and a wide range of customers. This is basically universal banks. Can go to the stock market.

The feature of the European banking system is due to a high degree of capital concentration, so the main sources of financing projects are large banks. In Europe, large financial and industrial groups have been formed include banks and enterprises that control the essential market share.

The plus of this model is the high stability of credit institutions, as risks are well diversified. But the minus of this model is a relatively lower availability of capital for small and medium businesses.

Banking system Russia was created under the influence of the European banking system. It is a classic two-level system.

The banking system of the Russian Federation includes the Bank of Russia, credit organizations, as well as branches and representative offices of foreign banks.

Legal regulation banking activities is carried out by the Constitution of the Russian Federation, this Federal Law, Federal Law "On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia)", by others federal laws, regulatory acts Bank of Russia.

At the first level of the Russian banking system - the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia).

At the second level - commercial banks.

Bank functions

1. The function of creating money - issuing loans to borrowers banks thus bring money issued Central Bank to consumers and increase their effective demand.

2. Credit mediation - the bank is an intermediary and offers credit resources to consumers on different conditions, depending on the profitability of their use, so The transmission of money in the economy is the law of supply and demand when moving free funds and resources are moved in the economic system.

3. Stimulating the savings by economic entities - offering various deposit bank products Banks Thereby stimulate the formation of savings in the economy.

4. Mediation in payments between entities - enterprises open in banks settlement, current and other accounts. And the commercial bank in turn assumes obligations to represent the interests of the client in the interbank settlement system.

5. Mediation in securities operations.

Concept of bank It comes from Italian, and in translation means shop, table. Bankierery - so called changed the usurists in medieval Italy.

Bank - this is financial Institutewhich produces a variety of types of money and securities. Banks are financial and credit institutions that provide financial services to government, individuals and legal entities. Properties of banks:

profit extraction;
carrying out banking operations;
opening and maintenance of bank accounts of individuals and legal entities;
activities based on the state license;
lack of rights to commit trade, industrial or insurance activities.

Types of banks Not numerous: Central banks and commercial. Central banks - regulate the banking system on state level, including release national currency. Commercial banks Do entrepreneurial activities in the banking system.

Commercial banks are three types:

investment banks (investments, securities);
savings banks (deposits, deposits);
universal (all types of banking).

Functions of banks.

Customer storage: the first historically, and so far one of the main functions of the bank.
Translation of money from one client to another non-cash payments (by changing the relevant entries).
Loans (loans have a stimulating effect on the production sector and for entrepreneurship; in addition, another positive moment This function is the creation of an additional money supply).
In the resources of banks attracted and borrowed capital prevails over his own, which entails increased responsibility to depositor customers and creditors.
Simultaneous work with customers from different areas of activity, including opponents (competitors).

Bank resources consist of equity and attracted funds. Equity - This is the reserve fund of the bank, the means of protection in the event of a loss of liquidity bank and the need to return deposits. Own capital consists of:

authorized capital (minimum size Property of the Bank);
funds due to profits;
extra capital (income on selling securities, on the course difference and difference in the revaluation of fixed assets).

Attraction of funds in the bank resources is:

deposits of individuals and legal entities;
interbank loans;
bank bills and bonds.

Banking system.

Banking system - This is a complex of all types of national banks and credit institutions. Structure of the banking system Consists of two levels.

At the top level, the central or emission bank, which regulates the activities of the entire system. At the lower level, commercial banks (universal and specialized - investment, savings, mortgage, credit, etc.).

Main elements in the infrastructure of the banking system:

legislative norms;
regulations for performing operations;
accounting, reporting and database processing;
the structure of the control apparatus (manual).

Banking infrastructure is something without which bank system cannot develop normally; It submits for banks the same behavior regulator as for humans - moral and legal norms.

Speaking of banks and bank system, it is impossible not to mention the concept banking secrecy - a kind of code of honor of the bank. In some countries, all employees of the Bank is prohibited to disseminate customer information, their accounts and displacements of funds.