Does the development of network structures contribute to the democratization of society. Network terrorism against the backdrop of globalization. Multidimensionality of globalization processes

§ 38. Network structures in modern world politics

Remember:

what do you know about the device global economy? How successful, in your opinion, is the fight against terrorism developing in the world?

As we have seen, in the last few decades a new type of economy has emerged in the world, which a number of researchers rightly call global and informational. Humanity has entered the era of the information revolution and the information society. Productivity and competitiveness (of a firm, region or

States) have come to depend primarily on the ability to generate, process and effectively use knowledge-based information. The global economy is determined by the fact that the main types economic activity, such as production, consumption, circulation of goods and services, as well as factors of production such as capital, labor, raw materials, information, technology, are organized on a global, planetary scale using extensive networks connecting geographically distant economic agents. In the new historical conditions, achieving a certain level of productivity and the very existence of competition is possible only within the framework of global networks. modern economy(networks of suppliers, manufacturers, consumers, technological cooperation, etc.). Simultaneously global financial markets, as well as their control and management are turning into the most important levers of global management of world economic, social and even political processes.

POLITICAL NETWORKS

Changes organizational structures under the influence of the spread of information technology occurred not only in the economic sphere. Our society itself is increasingly turning into a society of network structures. In his Everyday life we are increasingly confronted with networks in the political and information spheres. The processes of formation of network structures deeply intrude into the spheres of culture and power. Communication is mainly carried out through a network of media (television, radio, press) and new electronic means information (Internet). Power in everything more is centered around the media and rooted in the structure of information flows. The sphere of politics is increasingly immersed in the virtual space.

An increasing number of public institutions and organizations are structured according to the network principle. Among the largest political networks, for example, a number of experts include the extensive system of institutions of governance of the European Union. The networks areself-organizing polycentric structures, orientation dedicated to the solution of certain tasks and consisting of autonomous groups. They are characterized by decentralization of power and responsibility, as well as the predominance of horizontal (rather than vertical, hierarchical) internal connections of separate constituent segments. Networks - from -

covered structures. They are capable of expanding to include new nodes if they perform similar tasks and profess similar values.

ATlast years network forms of organization are increasingly being mastered by representatives of non-governmental organizations. A significant number of human rights, environmental, pacifist organizations are actually decentralized and formed "from below" networks of interest. To the tasks that networks are called upon to solve in the modern world, in an organizational sense, they are much better adapted. New non-governmental organizations respond more quickly to the changing situation, make decisions based on a larger volume and better processing of information. And most importantly, by accumulating the capabilities of the groups that make up separate independent nodes of the corresponding network, these non-governmental organizations are exerting an ever more effective influence on the governments of various countries of the world. Their opinion becomes impossible to ignore when making decisions on political issues. Network non-governmental structures are beginning to play an increasing role in modern international relations. Often they are called actors without sovereignty, transnational forces, international pressure groups that radically transform the entire system of international relations, forcing states to give up - in the field of protecting human rights, humanitarian activities, in the field of ecology - the "sacred principle" of sovereignty. Their strength is primarily in their numbers and in their ability to mobilize broad public support. own initiatives. The decisive activation of non-governmental network structures in recent years has put on the agenda the question of the formation of the so-called non-governmental order. A number of researchers believe that it is even possible to talk about the emergence of a single global economy in the wake of globalization. civil society, one of the most important components of which are non-governmental network structures. They associate the spread of non-governmental networks with the triumph of the principles of "direct democracy", subsidiarity(from Latin subsidiarius - auxiliary, reserve), with the ability to create "from below", from grassroots cells and links, large organizations covering almost the entire space of our planet, which are directly connected with national institutions of civil society. In their opinion, world politics is beginning to be perceived by people in a completely new light. The world appears as a single integrated social system, permeated with networks of cooperation, competition and exchange.

The subjects of world politics are beginning to perceive it precisely as a global one - they find it natural to consider the world as a whole as an arena for the dissemination of uniform standards of behavior. In this interpretation, the increase in the number of network structures is almost unequivocally associated with the global trend towards the democratization of international relations and with the wave of democratization as such.

Civic political participation, that is, the participation of citizens in political decision-making today, is an integral element of the political process in the countries of the modern West. It is a response to the totality of the latest challenges to traditional democracy. The main character of "participatory democracy" is an ordinary citizen of a given country. And she herself is a direct, immediate participation " ordinary people» in the political process, in the redistribution of resources and power, the expression of their interests and requests in the face of power. According to some members of civil associations and new social movements, the influence of global civil society may lead in the future to change the nature of globalization, the elimination of many of its negative consequences. The followers of this concept were called alter-globalists (from the Latin alter - another).

It is hard to deny that the degree of influence on the domestic and foreign policy of states of such international network structures as, for example, Greenpeace, has increased over the past decade to a very significant extent. According to a large number of experts, network structures actually generate new standards and behaviors, determine the acceptability of certain methods of solving problems in world politics, carry out rigorous and consistent monitoring of these new norms of behavior in the international arena, and thereby justify or delegitimize the actions of states. and governments.

However, political networks are just a way of social organization and in this regard can be used to achieve a variety of goals. Perhaps the most dangerous manifestations of the spread of network structures have been associated in recent decades with the phenomenon of network terrorism.

NETWORK TERRORISM IN THE BACKGROUND OF GLOBALIZATION

The events of September 11, 2001 forced people to talk about transnational terrorism, about the new role of transnational terrorist organizations in the system of international relations, and made a revolution in the minds of politicians

and experts, the public consciousness of the world as a whole. Modern terrorism entails significant political, economic and moral losses, has a strong psychological impact on society, and claims more and more lives of innocent people. Being a radical reaction to existing political relations and gaining ever greater scope over time, terrorism poses a threat both to individual states and to the entire international community.

The breeding ground for the development of terrorism is political extremism in its most diverse forms and guises, i.e., the manifestation of such extreme fundamentalist views, the adherents of which do not disdain the use of violent methods to achieve their goals. Actually, to this day there is no generally accepted definition of terrorism (the number of possible definitions exceeds one hundred).

However in the broadest sense, terrorismthe use of violence against civilianspersons, political figures and symbols of a particular citystate, aimed at achieving a predeterminedother political goals.

There are several features of terrorism that clearly distinguish it from all other forms of political and non-political (criminal, etc.) violence. These include the use of terrorist methods solely to achieve a specific political goal(s); consideration of the civilian population or symbols of statehood as objects of influence; addressing terrorist acts ultimately to the authorities of a particular country or country as a whole (a particular terrorist act may have other, “auxiliary” addressees; for example, it may be indirectly addressed to competing groups or even members own organization- in order to radicalize it or strengthen the unity of the ranks).

What distinguishes terrorism from any other form of politically motivated violence is its asymmetric nature. Terrorism is a weapon of a significantly weaker side in terms of the parameters of its military-political power in the confrontation with a clearly superior enemy. The asymmetry manifests itself not only in the obvious potential difference, but also in the different statuses of the parties. The most common form of terrorist activity is associated with the use of terrorist methods by a non-state group to put pressure on the state in order to influence its actions through the use of violence.

against the civilian population, political leaders and symbols of statehood.

A striking example is the clash between the United States and the al-Qaeda terrorist network after the bloody terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. When comparing the resources and capabilities of al-Qaeda and the United States, the very idea of a clash of these two disparate entities may seem absurd. The problem, however, is that Al-Qaeda is a network structure that does not bear any obligations either to the population of certain countries, or even to its ordinary members, and is not limited in the choice of goals and means. Al-Qaeda does not have a single base zone, its financial resources are dispersed over different geographical areas. Until recently, she had the opportunity to receive covert support from her supporters even in the United States and in countries Western Europe. While the United States or any other country in the world is a state with broad obligations both internal (unconditionally ensuring the security of its own territory, citizens, etc.) and international legal plan, moreover, burdened with a bureaucracy that is not inclined to international cooperation and adhering to the traditional bureaucratic style of doing business.

The use of violence or the threat of violence against the civilian population is intended to compensate for the relative military and political weakness of a particular terrorist group. Terrorists are trying to impose their will on states and governments, trying to strike at a completely unprotected, but at the same time very sensitive place of their enemy (endangering the lives of ordinary citizens). Within the framework of authoritarian or totalitarian systems, such a threat can be ignored or compensated for by the ideologically driven mass mobilization of the population around the slogans and program guidelines of the party and government. Within the framework of democratic systems, where the role and place of the electorate is very significant, terrorists are trying to demoralize the population to indirectly influence the government and, under the threat of destabilizing the political situation (threat of the fall of the government, the defeat of the ruling party in the elections, etc.), to achieve their demands.

There are two main types of terrorist activity - domestic and international terrorism. However, in modern conditions such a division is meaningless. In the traditional sense, the type of terrorist activity that was carried out by

and prepared in the territory of more than one state or by citizens of more than one state. It is clear that during the last decades of the XX century. even those groups that pursued domestic political goals were increasingly based, fundraising, conducting propaganda activities, planning and preparing operations on the territory of several states at once. Thus, there is a blurring of the boundaries between domestic and international terrorism, internationalization and transnationalization of various aspects of the activities of terrorist organizations and groups.

The connection between modern international terrorism and the processes of globalization can be traced quite clearly. The so-called "new" international terrorist organizations have been able to adapt surprisingly easily to a changing world with porous borders and eroding state sovereignty, learn new techniques and methods of organization, as well as adapt to the rapid development of communication and information technologies. The terrorists have succeeded in exploiting the growing and poorly controlled cross-border financial flows for their own purposes. They adapted well to the advanced principles of self-organization, creating very extensive transnational network organizations. Terrorist networks are adapted to corrupt practices, to infiltrating government and administration bodies, they are stable and have the ability to regenerate. They are more viable than rigidly centralized organizations built on the principles of hierarchical subordination. In some cases, one can also talk about the financial self-sufficiency of terrorist networks due to the actual merging of individual links of transnational crime and transnational financial business with terrorist structures. Powerful terrorist groups now have sufficient resources at their disposal. financial resources. According to published estimates, the total budget for terrorist activity fluctuates annually from $5 billion to $20 billion.

Countering modern terrorism is possible only on the basis of closer coordination of the actions of governments, internal affairs agencies and security services of various countries of the world than at present. One of the most effective methods of combating terrorism is to deprive it of its financial base. In this sense, the possibilities of individual states are seriously limited. A significant part of the financial resources is obtained by terrorist networks as a result of legal commercial activities, middle-

in drug trafficking, as well as at the expense of some charitable organizations and foundations openly based in a number of Western countries and the Middle East. In the presence of transnational financial flows very difficult without international cooperation trace the sources and schemes of financing terrorist organizations. With the start of the global anti-terrorist campaign, work to combat money laundering through the banking sector has intensified sharply. However, there are still many reserves for improving interaction. In addition, the fight against terrorism is impossible without a coordinated information policy in various countries peace. The goal of antiterrorist operations is to isolate terrorists from society and deprive terrorist organizations of access to external sources of supply. The main difficulty lies in the fact that one or another terrorist movement can be suppressed only if public opinion in the country (and now, in the context of globalization - and beyond its borders) considers terrorists to be criminals (and not freedom fighters, victims of imperialism, tyranny and etc.) and actually acts on the side that opposes terrorism (on the side of a state or a group of states). Poorly coordinated actions in this area can reduce the effectiveness of counter-terrorism operations to almost zero. Activations interstate cooperationwa, thus there is no alternative.

1111 Basic concepts: political networks, terrorism, extremism.

|Ц§ Terms: subsidiarity.

From lat. subsidiarius - auxiliary, reserve - “the principle according to which the rights and interests of an individual, a small social group, primary territorial or professional communities take precedence over the rights and interests of communities of a higher order and the state. In political terms, the principle of subsidiarity or complementarity means a choice in favor of redistribution of responsibility from the bottom up, in contrast to the process of decentralization, delegation of authority from top to bottom. In accordance with it, it is argued that only those functions that cannot be fully or effectively performed by lower structures should be transferred to higher levels of management.

Test yourself

1) What is a political network? 2) In what areas of human activity do they most actively manifest themselves

network structures? 3) List the features and distinctive features of modern political terrorism. 4) What is the danger of terrorist networks?

Think, Discuss, Do

Network forms of organization are becoming more and more popular.
widespread, especially among non-governmental
organizations. What exactly are the properties of political
networks, could you explain the popularity of the network
type of organization?
Is there any relationship between global
lysis, informatization and distribution of network
forms of organization? Justify your point of view.
Until now, it is widely believed
according to which the fight against terrorism is the business of
including special services and law enforcement agencies.
What do you think the role of civil society might be?
society and individual citizens in opposition to terrorists
chesky threat?

Work with the source

Read an excerpt from an American sociologist's work on network structures.

Networks are open structures that can expand indefinitely by including new nodes if they are capable of communicating within a given network, that is, they use similar communication codes (for example, values or production tasks). social structure, which has a network basis, is characterized by high dynamism and is open to innovation without the risk of losing its slackness. Networks turn out to be institutions that contribute to the development of a number of areas: a capitalist economy based on innovation, globalization and decentralized concentration; the world of work, with its workers and firms, based on flexibility and adaptability; the sphere of culture, characterized by the constant dismemberment and reunification of various elements; spheres of politics focused on the instantaneous assimilation of new values and public mindsets; social organization, pursuing as its task the conquest of space and the destruction of time. At the same time, the morphology of networks acts as a source of far-reaching restructuring of power relations. Network-connected circuit breakers (for example, when it comes to taking control of financial institutions media empire influencing political processes) act as tools for exercising power available to

only the chosen ones. Who controls such a switch, he has the power.

caste le manuel, Formation of a society of network structures// New post-industrial wave in the West.

Anthology / Ed. V. L. Inozemtseva. - M.: Academia, 1999. -

Questions and assignments to the source. one) What do you think is the scope of networks as an organizing principle? 2) Does the development of network structures contribute to the democratization of society or not? Try to justify your answer.

What is a political network?
In what areas of human activity are network structures most active?
List the features and distinctive features of modern political terrorism.
What is the danger of terrorist networks?

Think, Discuss, Do

1. Network forms of organization are becoming more widespread, especially among non-governmental organizations.

What specific properties of political networks can you explain the popularity of the network principle of organization?

2. Is there any relationship between globalization, informatization and the spread of network forms of organization? Justify your point of view.

3. Until now, there is a fairly widespread opinion that the fight against terrorism is a matter exclusively for special services and law enforcement agencies. What, in your opinion, can be the role of civil society and individual citizens in countering the terrorist threat?

Work with the source

Read an excerpt from M. Castells' work on network structures.

Networks are open structures that can expand indefinitely by including new nodes if they are capable of communicating within the network, i.e. using similar communication codes (for example, values or production tasks). A networked social structure is highly dynamic and open to innovation without risking losing its balance.

Networks turn out to be institutions that contribute to the development of a number of areas: a capitalist economy based on innovation, globalization and decentralized concentration; the world of work, with its workers and firms, based on flexibility and adaptability; the sphere of culture, characterized by the constant dismemberment and reunification of various elements; spheres of politics focused on the instantaneous assimilation of new values and public mindsets; social organization, pursuing as its task the conquest of space and the destruction of time. At the same time, the morphology of networks acts as a source of far-reaching restructuring of power relations. Connected to the networks "breakers" (for example, when it comes to taking control of the financial structures of a media empire that influences political processes) act as tools for exercising power, available only to a select few. Who controls such a knife switch, he has the power.

Castells M. Formation of a society of network structures / / New post-industrial wave in the West.
Anthology / Ed. V. L. Inozemtseva. - M.: Acadetia, 1999. - p. 495-496.

Questions and tasks to the source

What do you think is the scope of networks as an organizing principle?
Does the development of network structures contribute to the democratization of society or not? Try to justify your answer.

drinking - in the field of human rights, humanitarian activities, in the field of ecology - is a "sacred principle" of sovereignty. Their strength is primarily in their numbers and in their ability to mobilize a broad public support.

holding on to their own initiatives. The decisive activation of non-governmental network structures in recent years has put on the agenda the question of the formation of the so-called non-governmental order.

Some researchers believe it is possible to speak

about the emergence on the wave of globalization of a single global civil society, one of the most important components of which are non-governmental network structures. In their opinion, world politics is beginning to be perceived by people in a completely new light. The world is conceptualized as increasingly unified, as a unified social system increasingly integrated with networks of cooperation, competition, and exchange.

In this sense, all subjects of world politics begin to

perceive it precisely as global - they find it natural to consider the world as a whole as an arena for the dissemination of uniform standards of behavior.

The spread of non-governmental networks is associated by some researchers with the triumph of the principles of "direct democracy", subsidiarity (from Latin subsidiarius - auxiliary, reserve), with the ability to create "from below", from grassroots cells and links, large, covering almost all the space of our planet of organizations that are directly connected with the national institutions of civil society. In their opinion, world politics is beginning to be perceived by people in a completely different light. The world appears as a single integrated social system, permeated with networks of cooperation, competition and exchange.

The subjects of world politics are beginning to perceive it precisely as a global one - they find it natural to consider the world as a whole as an arena for the dissemination of uniform standards of behavior. In this interpretation, the increase in the number of network structures is almost unambiguously associated with the global trend towards the democratization of international relations and with the wave of democratization as such.

Civil political participation, i.e. participation of citizens

given in making political decisions - an integral element of the political process in the countries of the modern West. "Participatory democracy" should be seen in the context of post-industrial changes in politics. It is a response to a set of new challenges

traditional democracy. The main character of "participatory democracy" is an ordinary citizen of a given country. And it itself is the direct, direct participation of "ordinary people" in the political process, in the redistribution of resources and power, the expression of their interests and requests in the face of power. According to some participants in civil associations and new social movements, the influence of a global civil society can lead in the future to a change in the nature of globalization and the elimination of many of its negative consequences. The followers of this concept were called alterglobalists (from the Latin alter - another).

It is hard to deny that the degree of impact on internal

The national and foreign policy of the states of such international network structures as, for example, Greenpeace, has increased to a very large extent over the past 10-15 years.

According to a large number of experts, network structures

actually generate new standards and models of behavior, determine the acceptability of certain methods of solving problems in world politics, carry out rigorous and consistent monitoring of these new norms of behavior in the international arena and thereby justify or delegitimize the actions of states and governments.

However, political networks are only

way of social organization and in this respect can be used to achieve a variety of goals. Perhaps the most dangerous manifestations of the spread of network structures have been associated in recent decades with the phenomenon of network terrorism.

NETWORK TERRORISM IN THE BACKGROUND OF GLOBALIZATION

about transnational terrorism, about the new role of transnational terrorist organizations in the system of international relations, made a revolution in the minds of politicians and experts, the public consciousness of the world as a whole.

Modern terrorism entails significant

political, economic and moral losses, has a strong psychological impact on society, claims more and more lives of innocent people.

As a radical reaction to existing political

relations and gaining ever greater scope over time, terrorism poses a threat both to each individual state and to the entire international community.

meaning. In the traditional sense, the type of terrorist activity that

performed and prepared in the territory of more than one state or by citizens of more than one state.

It is clear that over the past ten

age of the 20th century even those groups whose goals were limited by the domestic political context were increasingly based, fundraising, propaganda, planning and preparing operations on the territory of several states at once. There is a blurring of the boundaries between domestic and international terrorism, the internationalization of various aspects of the activities of certain terrorist organizations and groups.

The connection between modern international terrorism and

processes of globalization can be traced quite clearly. The so-called “new” international terrorist organizations have been able to adapt surprisingly easily to a changing world with porous borders and eroding territorial sovereignty, adopt new organizational techniques and methods, and adapt to the rapid development of communication and information technologies. The terrorists have succeeded in exploiting the growing and poorly controlled cross-border financial flows for their own purposes. They adapted well to the advanced principles of self-organization, creating very extensive transnational network organizations. Terrorist

networks are adapted to corrupt practices, to penetration into government and administration bodies, they are stable and have the ability to regenerate. Networks are mobile and therefore hard to be vulnerable. They are more viable than rigidly centralized organizations organized on the principles of hierarchies.

chemical subordination.

For terrorism in the second half of the twentieth century. the presence of a terrorist underground (with different

"wings", groups or factions) and at the same time

the existence of legal political parties associated with it, designed to formulate and publicize the ideas of terrorists. Examples of such organizations were the well-structured terrorist organizations of the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland and the Basque separatists (ETA) in Spain. With extremists and terror

With groups organized in this way, it was possible to engage in dialogue with the more moderate elements in their leadership. Such contacts made it possible to prevent at least uncontrolled violence (“terrorism without rules”) on the part of militant groups.

funds through the banking sector. However, there are still many reserves for improving interaction.

In addition, the fight against terrorism is impossible without

coordinated information policy in various

countries of the world. The goal of antiterrorist operations is to isolate terrorists from society and deprive terrorist organizations of access to external sources of supply. The main difficulty is that

It is possible to suppress this or that terrorist movement if public opinion in the country and beyond its borders considers terrorists to be criminals, and not freedom fighters, victims of tyranny, and actually acts on the side that opposes terrorism (on the side of a state or a group of states). Poorly coordinated actions in this area can reduce the effectiveness of counterterrorism operations to almost zero. The answer to the challenge of international terrorism can be a gradual approach to the revision of modern norms of international law. In the meantime, the intensification of interstate cooperation

there is essentially no alternative.

- Key concepts: political networks, terrorism, eq

strimism.

- Terms: subsidiarity.

Subsidiarity (from Latin subsidiarius - auxiliary, reserve) - the principle according to which the rights and interests of an individual, a small social group, primary

territorial or professional communities have priority over the rights and interests of communities of a higher order and the state. In political terms, the principle of subsidiarity or complementarity means choosing to redistribute responsibility from the bottom up, as opposed to the process of decentralization, delegation of authority from top to bottom. In accordance with it, it is argued that only those functions that cannot be fully or effectively performed by lower structures should be transferred to higher levels of management.

Check yourself

1) What is a political network? 2) In what areas

Do network structures most actively manifest themselves in human activity? 3) List the features and distinctive features of modern political terrorism. 4) What is the danger of terrorist networks?

§ 38. Network structures in modern world politics

Remember:

what do you know about the structure of the global economy? How successful, in your opinion, is the fight against terrorism developing in the world?

States) have come to depend primarily on the ability to generate, process and effectively use knowledge-based information. The globality of the economy is determined by the fact that the main types of economic activity, such as production, consumption, circulation of goods and services, as well as factors of production such as capital, labor, raw materials, information, technology, are organized on a global, planetary scale using extensive networks. linking geographically distant economic agents. In the new historical conditions, achieving a certain level of productivity and the very existence of competition is possible only within the global networks of the modern economy (networks of suppliers, producers, consumers, technological cooperation, etc.). At the same time, global financial markets, as well as their control and management, are turning into the most important levers of global management of world economic, social and even political processes.

POLITICAL NETWORKS

Changes in organizational structures under the influence of the spread of information technologies have occurred not only in the economic sphere. Our society itself is increasingly turning into a society of network structures. In our daily lives, we are increasingly confronted with networks in the political and information spheres. The processes of formation of network structures deeply intrude into the spheres of culture and power. Communication is mainly carried out through a network of mass media (television, radio, press) and new electronic media (Internet). Power is increasingly concentrated around the media and rooted in the structure of information flows. The sphere of politics is increasingly immersed in the virtual space.

covered structures. They are capable of expanding to include new nodes if they perform similar tasks and profess similar values.

AT In recent years, network forms of organization have been increasingly mastered by representatives of non-governmental organizations. A significant number of human rights, environmental, pacifist organizations are actually decentralized and formed "from below" networks of interest. To the tasks that networks are called upon to solve in the modern world, in an organizational sense, they are much better adapted. New non-governmental organizations respond more quickly to the changing situation, make decisions based on a larger volume and better processing of information. And most importantly, by accumulating the capabilities of the groups that make up separate independent nodes of the corresponding network, these non-governmental organizations are exerting an ever more effective influence on the governments of various countries of the world. Their opinion becomes impossible to ignore when making decisions on political issues. Network non-governmental structures are beginning to play an increasing role in modern international relations. Often they are called actors without sovereignty, transnational forces, international pressure groups that radically transform the entire system of international relations, forcing states to give up - in the field of protecting human rights, humanitarian activities, in the field of ecology - the "sacred principle" of sovereignty. Their strength lies primarily in their numbers and in their ability to mobilize broad public support for their own initiatives. The decisive activation of non-governmental network structures in recent years has put on the agenda the question of the formation of the so-called non-governmental order. A number of researchers believe it is even possible to talk about the emergence on the wave of globalization of a single global civil society, one of the most important components of which are non-governmental network structures. They associate the spread of non-governmental networks with the triumph of the principles of "direct democracy", subsidiarity(from Latin subsidiarius - auxiliary, reserve), with the ability to create "from below", from grassroots cells and links, large organizations covering almost the entire space of our planet, which are directly connected with national institutions of civil society. In their opinion, world politics is beginning to be perceived by people in a completely new light. The world appears as a single integrated social system, permeated with networks of cooperation, competition and exchange.

Civic political participation, that is, the participation of citizens in political decision-making today, is an integral element of the political process in the countries of the modern West. It is a response to the totality of the latest challenges to traditional democracy. The main character of "participatory democracy" is an ordinary citizen of a given country. And she herself is the direct, direct participation of "ordinary people" in the political process, in the redistribution of resources and power, the expression of their interests and requests in the face of power. According to some participants in civil associations and new social movements, the influence of global civil society may lead in the future to change the nature of globalization and eliminate many of its negative consequences. The followers of this concept were called alter-globalists (from the Latin alter - another).

NETWORK TERRORISM IN THE BACKGROUND OF GLOBALIZATION

There are several features of terrorism that clearly distinguish it from all other forms of political and non-political (criminal, etc.) violence. These include the use of terrorist methods solely to achieve a specific political goal(s); consideration of the civilian population or symbols of statehood as objects of influence; addressing terrorist acts ultimately to the authorities of a particular country or country as a whole (a particular terrorist act may have other, "auxiliary" addressees; for example, it may be indirectly addressed to competing groups or even members of one's own organization - in in order to radicalize it or strengthen the unity of the ranks).

against the civilian population, political leaders and symbols of statehood.

A striking example is the clash between the United States and the al-Qaeda terrorist network after the bloody terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. When comparing the resources and capabilities of al-Qaeda and the United States, the very idea of a clash of these two disparate entities may seem absurd. The problem, however, is that Al-Qaeda is a network structure that does not bear any obligations either to the population of certain countries, or even to its ordinary members, and is not limited in the choice of goals and means. Al-Qaeda does not have a single base zone, its financial resources are dispersed over different geographical areas. Until recently, she had the opportunity to receive covert support from her supporters even in the United States and Western Europe. While the United States or any other country in the world is a state with broad obligations both internal (unconditionally ensuring the security of its own territory, citizens, etc.) and international legal plan, moreover, burdened with a bureaucracy that is not inclined to international cooperation and adhering to the traditional bureaucratic style of doing business.

There are two main types of terrorist activity - domestic and international terrorism. However, in modern conditions, such a division loses its meaning. In the traditional sense, the type of terrorist activity that was carried out by

The connection between modern international terrorism and the processes of globalization can be traced quite clearly. The so-called "new" international terrorist organizations have been able to adapt surprisingly easily to a changing world with porous borders and eroding state sovereignty, learn new techniques and methods of organization, as well as adapt to the rapid development of communication and information technologies. The terrorists have succeeded in exploiting the growing and poorly controlled cross-border financial flows for their own purposes. They adapted well to the advanced principles of self-organization, creating very extensive transnational network organizations. Terrorist networks are adapted to corrupt practices, to infiltrating government and administration bodies, they are stable and have the ability to regenerate. They are more viable than rigidly centralized organizations built on the principles of hierarchical subordination. In some cases, one can also talk about the financial self-sufficiency of terrorist networks due to the actual merging of individual links of transnational crime and transnational financial business with terrorist structures. Powerful terrorist groups now have sufficient financial resources at their disposal. According to published estimates, the total budget for terrorist activity fluctuates annually from $5 billion to $20 billion.

in drug trafficking, as well as at the expense of some charitable organizations and foundations openly based in a number of Western countries and the Middle East. In the presence of transnational financial flows, it is very difficult to trace the sources and schemes of financing terrorist organizations without international cooperation. With the start of the global anti-terrorist campaign, work to combat money laundering through the banking sector has intensified sharply. However, there are still many reserves for improving interaction. In addition, the fight against terrorism is impossible without a coordinated information policy in various countries of the world. The goal of antiterrorist operations is to isolate terrorists from society and deprive terrorist organizations of access to external sources of supply. The main difficulty lies in the fact that one or another terrorist movement can be suppressed only if public opinion in the country (and now, in the context of globalization - and beyond its borders) considers terrorists to be criminals (and not freedom fighters, victims of imperialism, tyranny and etc.) and actually acts on the side that opposes terrorism (on the side of a state or a group of states). Poorly coordinated actions in this area can reduce the effectiveness of counter-terrorism operations to almost zero. Activations interstate cooperationwa, thus there is no alternative.

1111 Basic concepts: political networks, terrorism, extremism.

|Ц§ Terms: subsidiarity.

Test yourself

1) What is a political network? 2) In what areas of human activity do they most actively manifest themselves

network structures? 3) List the features and distinctive features of modern political terrorism. 4) What is the danger of terrorist networks?

Think, Discuss, Do

Network forms of organization are becoming more and more popular.
widespread, especially among non-governmental
organizations. What exactly are the properties of political
networks, could you explain the popularity of the network
type of organization?
Is there any relationship between global
lysis, informatization and distribution of network
forms of organization? Justify your point of view.
Until now, it is widely believed
according to which the fight against terrorism is the business of
including special services and law enforcement agencies.
What do you think the role of civil society might be?
society and individual citizens in opposition to terrorists
chesky threat?

Work with the source

Read an excerpt from an American sociologist's work on network structures.

Networks are open structures that can expand indefinitely by including new nodes if they are capable of communication within the network, that is, they use similar communication codes (for example, values or production tasks). A network-based social structure is highly dynamic and open to innovation without risking losing its imbalance. Networks turn out to be institutions that contribute to the development of a number of areas: a capitalist economy based on innovation, globalization and decentralized concentration; the world of work, with its workers and firms, based on flexibility and adaptability; the sphere of culture, characterized by the constant dismemberment and reunification of various elements; spheres of politics focused on the instantaneous assimilation of new values and public mindsets; social organization, pursuing as its task the conquest of space and the destruction of time. At the same time, the morphology of networks acts as a source of far-reaching restructuring of power relations. Network-connected circuit breakers (for example, when it comes to taking control of the financial structures of a particular media empire that influences political processes) act as tools for exercising power, available to

only the chosen ones. Who controls such a switch, he has the power.

caste le manuel, Formation of a society of network structures// New post-industrial wave in the West.

Anthology / Ed. V. L. Inozemtseva. - M.: Academia, 1999. -

§ 39. Integrity and inconsistency modern world

Remember:

In what cases have you come across the expression “global problems of our time”? What do you think is the essence of the environmental problem? What other problems of the modern world have you heard or read about?

The processes of regionalization and globalization are increasingly affecting recent times on the role and functions of both individual states and the international political system as a whole. The result of their influence is, in particular, the fact that the well-being of ordinary citizens no longer depends solely on the actions taken by the governments of their own countries. Issues such as a decrease or increase in prices for oil and gas, coffee and meat are not determined by the government of any particular country, but within the framework of world markets for the relevant goods or at the level of international organizations (such as the European Union, OPEC, etc.). ). The same can be said about the problems associated with the provision of markets for manufactured and exported goods, with the conditions under which investments can be attracted, with the transfer of technology. financial, currency, credit policy states are dependent on actions and decisions taken far beyond their borders, by other governments or international organizations. This state of affairs has become a visible manifestation and consequence of the process of globalization.

The whole world is now gradually turning into a single complex, all parts of which are closely connected with each other. With the progressive blurring of boundaries between national economies, problems previously considered

exclusively domestic political, gradually acquire an international political character. There is a transnationalization and globalization of the most important economic, social, environmental, political and other problems.

GLOBAL PROBLEMS OF MODERNITY

AT In the conditions of growing contacts between people, mutual influence and interdependence of countries and regions of the world, individual events, contradictions, conflicts inevitably outgrow the local framework and acquire a truly global character. Suffice it to recall that the basically local political conflict in the Middle East has largely provoked the phenomenon of international terrorism, and the outbreak of bird flu in Southeast Asia may well cause a global pandemic.

Another cause of global problems is the active economic activity of people. Suffice it to recall that the man-made Chernobyl disaster almost led to the fact that half of Europe would be uninhabitable. The level of social organization, political thinking, spiritual and moral guidelines of our time are very far from the destructive possibilities, from the destructive potential that individual people and humanity as a whole possess.

The result was the emergence of global problems, which, as a rule, include overcoming the ecological crisis and preventing depletion. natural resources, stabilization demographic situation on the planet, narrowing the development gap between the leading developed countries of the West and the poorest developing countries.

ECOLOGICAL PROBLEM

You already know that the problem of pollution environment and human violations of existing ecosystems arose far from today. There is a completely scientific version according to which the disappearance of some large animals during the Paleolithic was associated with human activity, with the activity of primitive hunters who exterminated, for example, herds of mammoths on their migration routes. Throughout history, man has provoked ecological crises associated with depletion and desertification of soils, deforestation, pollution and shallowing of rivers and

lakes. However, the most acute crisis of the situation manifested itself in recent decades. And this is due to the spread of industrial production and urban lifestyle. For the last 200 years, while industrialization has triumphantly marched around the world, the situation of nature has become more and more menacing. The threat to the environment is due to the extraordinary expansion of the scale of production and technological intervention in natural processes.

Before the advent of industry, human impact on nature was limited. Nature has influenced human life to a much greater extent than man could have had an impact on nature. However, with the development of industrial civilization, soil depletion, climate change, and the thinning of the ozone layer have become the price for the development of industrial production. The logic of the development of the historically established market model, which gave rise to the global industrial economy turned out to be incompatible with the possibilities of restoring the natural balance on our planet.

For the first time ecological problems on a global scale attracted wide attention of the world community and became the subject of serious scientific discussions in the late 60s and early 70s. 20th century If before that progressive moods dominated in science, the assumptions that new technology will be able to solve all problems, then by the 70s, on the contrary, pessimism about the dominant model of human development became predominant. This is understandable. By this time, the imbalance in society's relations with nature had reached alarming proportions, and there were practically no adequate actions to correct the situation both at the national and international levels. As a result, the environmental problem quickly received a wide response, primarily in developed countries ahs of the world, where the high rates of socio-economic development faced natural limitations, and the consequences of the unrestrained exploitation of the natural environment were most acutely felt.

Some environmental problems have been concentrated in certain regions of the world. For example, the excess content of harmful impurities and substances in water and air, as well as carbon dioxide, is characteristic of almost all modern megacities of the world. Environmentally unfavorable area during the 70-80s. 20th century remained the northeast of the United States, where acid rain periodically fell out and the level of harmful emissions from cars and industrial enterprises remained high. A high level of water and air pollution by industrial waste was also inherent in some areas former USSR. However, the locality of such ecologically

unfavorable areas should not be misleading. A feature of ecological processes is kumurelative effect(accumulation effect). Even regional problems, when accumulated, often acquire a global character. The scale of economic activity and the area of degrading human habitats have now reached their limit values. In a limited, "closed" planetary space, the effect of imposing the environmental problems of some regions on others has arisen. For example, the United States and the most developed countries of the West have remained the main source of environmental pollution until recently. However, the impact of these pollutions was not local. It led to the destruction of the ozone layer, which protects our Earth from the effects of harmful ultraviolet radiation, to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which poses a threat of global warming. Air pollution in the northeastern United States has led to acid rain in southern Canada, and the burning of huge amounts of coal in China leads, according to many scientists, to an increase in the greenhouse effect around the world, etc.

There are several main varieties of causing irreparable damage to the environment. First of all, this is the creation of waste that cannot be eliminated in a short time or recycled. In addition, the depletion of irreplaceable mineral and other natural resources as a result of human economic activity is of great importance.

When talking about waste, they imagine the mountains of garbage that are produced daily by any industrial society. Household waste is actually a serious problem. The inability of many recycling countriesdumping waste becomes a real disaster. But the main pollution, of course, is carried by cars and industrial enterprises. This kind of pollution has created serious problems on a global scale. carbon dioxide has become main reason the process of global warming, and freon, according to scientists, contributes to the thinning of the already shrinking ozone layer around the Earth.

In addition, the continued spread of modern industry across the globe has to a sharpdemand for non-renewable natural resources- energy carriers and industrial raw materials. Obviously, their stocks are limited. Thus, at current rates of consumption (without further growth!) All currently known oil reserves in the world can be completely used up by 2059. It is very likely that by this time it will be possible to discover new oil reserves or invent alternative sources

energy. But at the same time, it is quite clear that the moment will come when some of the key resources of the Earth will finally be exhausted, if their consumption is not limited already today.

This is not the end of global environmental problems. In recent decades, dramatic reduction in the area of forests, these lungs of the planet, degradation of soil fertility, desertification of large areas, which leads to climate change, threatens the existence of all mankind as a whole.

Thus, global warming can lead to a whole chain of dramatic changes in the environment, which can raise the question of the very existence of human civilization in its current forms. Let's just focus on one of possible consequences- the dangers of an almost "universal flood" awaiting the planet as a result of global warming. The fact is that warming will inevitably lead to the melting of the polar ice caps and the rise in the level of the World Ocean. Many cities located on the coasts or in the lowlands will be flooded and uninhabitable. At the same time, due to the increase in average annual temperatures and extraordinary heat, large tracts of fertile land on different continents can no longer be effectively used for food production, and possibly quickly degrade, turning into deserts. In this case, a significant part of humanity will be threatened with imminent death.

Scientists, politicians, public figures are looking for a way out of this situation. In 1992, the UN-sponsored World Environmental Forum in Rio de Janeiro approved the concept of sustainable development, according to which it is necessary to move from the costs of restoring the environment to the gradual abandonment of technologies that destroy it. At the same time, hopes were pinned on the development of a new philosophy of development, designed to oppose the unrestrained aggressive consumerism with moderation, the harmonious development of the individual and the team, nature and society.

In 1997, the famous Kyoto Protocol was signed, which provides for significant restrictions on emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere by the leading countries of the world. In 1999 countries European Union(EU) signed an agreement to reduce harmful emissions from freight and passenger transport by 60% within 5 years. In general, in almost all developed countries of the world, it has long been customary to install special filters on exhaust pipes, and

The fuel consumption of modern vehicles is generally substantially lower than that of their predecessors.

And these measures are bearing fruit. So, in the United States in the Great Lakes area by the end of the 80s. 20th century the fish reappeared. In Germany, the forests almost destroyed by acid rains have turned green again. In a word, considerable efforts are required from all of us to protect nature. It is important not only to see the pantry of resources in nature, but also to perceive it as your own habitat.

DEMOGRAPHIC PROBLEM

One more global problem modernity is demographic problem. Two centuries ago, the English economist T. Malthus came up with a theory according to which the population the globe is growing faster than the capacity to provide it with food. Hence the need to make political decisions aimed at limiting the rate of population growth. Ideas of this kind, actively developed by the followers of T. Malthus, acquired the collective name "Malthusianism" and became quite widespread in the middle of the 19th century. Then, for some period, the rapid development of technology and technology, including a change in agricultural practices (green revolution), sharply increased productivity and food supply for people, removed the acuteness of the issue, and Malthusianism naturally disappeared from the historical stage. However, due to the sharp increase in the population of the Earth in the second half of the XX century. in developing countries ah, again there was talk of a coming catastrophe associated with overpopulation of the planet. Such fears gave life neo malthusianism and, in addition, brought demographic problems into the focus of attention of the world community.

The issues of increasing the population of the planet and the environment are obviously interconnected. Population growth affects the environment in at least two ways. First of all, an increase in the population of our planet inevitably entails the consumption of more food, energy and other resources. In addition, there is an automatic increase in economic activity, which affects the pollution of the environment (air, water resources, etc.). In order to imagine the scale of human use of natural resources, we note that the average American during his life consumes 4000 barrels of oil, 25 tons of plant foods, 28 tons of animal products (equivalent to slaughtering approximately

2000 livestock) and produces thousands of tons of waste. So an increase in the standard of living of people whilenom rapid population growth can create a realproblems for the very existence of humancivilization. At the World Ecological Forum in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, it was noted that in order to raise the living standards of 80% of the world's population to Western standards, it would be necessary to increase the extraction of natural resources by about 20 times. The idea was clearly expressed at the forum about the impracticability and, moreover, the disastrous nature of such a formulation of the question.

Today, no less of a problem than the rapid growth of the population of developing countries is demographic gap between developed and developing countries. Developing countries continue to experience high birth rates and large families. In developed countries, these figures are extremely low. Suffice it to say that the birth rate existing in the countries of the rich North does not even ensure a simple reproduction of the population, not to mention an increase in its number.

Extremely high birth rates in developing countriescountries exacerbates poverty population, because families need to support a large number of young children. At the same time, this circumstance sharply exacerbates housing problem complicates the education and health situation in the respective countries. The populations of China and India, for example, together account for approximately 37% of the world's total population. At current population growth rates, each of these countries will have 1.5 billion people by 2025, or together, approximately 35% of the world's population. And they will need to be provided with food, housing, clothing and, most importantly, work.

Obviously, this will have a significant impact on global needs for food, energy, industrial raw materials and, ultimately, the state of the environment.

In all this tangle of demographic problems, there is, perhaps, the only positive trend. Scientists have revealed a fairly stable relationship between the rate of urbanization, the level of GNP per capita and the decline in the birth rate. With an increase in the proportion of urban dwellers in the population of a country, a tendency to a decrease in the birth rate is manifested. The same thing happens when countries reach certain levels of GNP per capita. As a result, such countries pass through

so-called demographic transition 1 (from English demographic transit). The countries of Europe and the USA went through a demographic transition in the period from the second half of the 18th to the first half of the 20th century. Most of the rest of the states are still in the phase of demographic transition or have not even approached it.

Another manifestation of the global demographic crisis is downward trend in numbers andaging of the population in developed countries. In 1900, the population over the age of 65 in the United States was about 4%. Now - more than 15%. The contrast is even more striking in Europe, where, according to demographers, by 2025 the share of people over 60 in the total population will reach 37%. The number of pensioners already now exceeds the economically active population in some countries. A way out to delay the inevitable crisis of the system social security in European countries, becomes work migration to the EU zone of immigrants from the regions of Asia and Africa.

Without migrants it is absolutely impossible to imagine the countries of Europe. So, in France, migrants and descendants of migrants (mainly from North Africa - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia) make up almost a fifth of the country's population. In general, more than 25 million legal immigrants from other regions of the world currently live in Western Europe. On the one hand, the arrival of able-bodied migrants makes it possible to fill social funds and fulfill social obligations to the ever-increasing army of pensioners. But, on the other hand, it gives rise to a whole tangle of new social, ethno-confessional and other problems. Migrants do not always adapt well, fit into the framework of their host communities. Moreover, recently more and more often they prefer to live in closed ethno-national communities, guided by their own norms and rules of life. Large-scale immigration causes concern in the host countries regarding the threat of loss of control over the institutions of the state, national borders. There is fear and rejection of new styles of life for the respective countries, religious and cultural norms, and behavioral stereotypes.

In accordance with statistics and existing development forecasts, one of the manifestations of the demographic problem is the problem of overpopulation in a number of countries of the world. The share of the population of industrialized countries in the number

demographic transition from high birth rate and mortality to low levels birth and death rates of the population.

The population density of the planet has been steadily declining over the past half century - from about 20% in 1951 to less than 15% in 1990 and will be reduced, according to forecasts, to 10% by 2025. Among the 20 most populous countries in the world, only the United States will remain by this time and Japan. 9/10 of the world's population will live in conditions of poverty, high unemployment, disease and social and political instability. It is quite obvious that the poor South will not be able to manage without the development of a clear program of action and development assistance measures from the rich North. However, the search for solutions in this area is slow and very painful.

1 ... 16 17 18 19 20

And experts, the public consciousness of the world as a whole. Modern terrorism entails significant political, economic and moral losses, has a strong psychological impact on society, and claims more and more lives of innocent people. Being a radical reaction to existing political relations and gaining ever greater scope over time, terrorism poses a threat both to individual states and to the entire international community.

However, in the broadest sense, terrorism is understood as the use of violence against civilians, political figures and symbols of a state, aimed at achieving predetermined political goals.

There are several features of terrorism that clearly distinguish it from all other forms of political and non-political (criminal, etc.) violence. These include the use of terrorist methods solely to achieve a specific political goal(s); consideration of the civilian population or symbols of statehood as objects of influence; addressing terrorist acts ultimately to the authorities of a particular country or country as a whole (a particular terrorist act may have other, "auxiliary" addressees; for example, it may be indirectly addressed to competing groups or even members of one's own organization - in in order to radicalize it or strengthen the unity of the ranks).

Leah is against the civilian population, political leaders and symbols of statehood.

A striking example is the clash between the United States and the al-Qaeda terrorist network after the bloody terrorist attack of September 11, 2001. When comparing the resources and capabilities of al-Qaeda and the United States, the very idea of a clash of these two disparate entities may seem absurd. The problem, however, is that Al-Qaeda is a network structure that does not bear any obligations either to the population of certain countries, or even to its ordinary members, and is not limited in the choice of goals and means. Al-Qaeda does not have a single base zone, its financial resources are dispersed over different geographical areas. Until recently, she had the opportunity to receive covert support from her supporters even in the United States and Western Europe. While the United States or any other country in the world is a state with broad obligations both internal (unconditionally ensuring the security of its own territory, citizens, etc.) and international legal plan, moreover, burdened with a bureaucracy that is not inclined to international cooperation and adhering to the traditional bureaucratic style of doing business.

Xia Yi was prepared on the territory of more than one state or by citizens of more than one state. It is clear that during the last decades of the XX century. even those groups that pursued domestic political goals were increasingly based, fundraising, conducting propaganda activities, planning and preparing operations on the territory of several states at once. Thus, there is a blurring of the boundaries between domestic and international terrorism, internationalization and transnationalization of various aspects of the activities of terrorist organizations and groups.

The connection between modern international terrorism and the processes of globalization can be traced quite clearly. The so-called "new" international terrorist organizations have been able to adapt surprisingly easily to a changing world with porous borders and eroding state sovereignty, learn new techniques and methods of organization, as well as adapt to the rapid development of communication and information technologies. The terrorists have succeeded in exploiting the growing and poorly controlled cross-border financial flows for their own purposes. They adapted well to the advanced principles of self-organization, creating very extensive transnational network organizations. Terrorist networks are adapted to corrupt practices, to infiltrating government and administration bodies, they are stable and have the ability to regenerate. They are more viable than rigidly centralized organizations built on the principles of hierarchical subordination. In some cases, one can also talk about the financial self-sufficiency of terrorist networks due to the actual merging of individual links of transnational crime and transnational financial business with terrorist structures. Powerful terrorist groups now have sufficient financial resources at their disposal. According to published estimates, the total budget for terrorist activity fluctuates annually from $5 billion to $20 billion.

Nichestvo in drug trafficking, as well as at the expense of some charitable organizations and foundations, openly based in a number of Western countries and the Middle East. In the presence of transnational financial flows, it is very difficult to trace the sources and schemes of financing terrorist organizations without international cooperation. With the start of the global anti-terrorist campaign, work to combat money laundering through the banking sector has intensified sharply. However, there are still many reserves for improving interaction. In addition, the fight against terrorism is impossible without a coordinated information policy in various countries of the world. The goal of antiterrorist operations is to isolate terrorists from society and deprive terrorist organizations of access to external sources of supply. The main difficulty lies in the fact that one or another terrorist movement can be suppressed only if public opinion in the country (and now, in the context of globalization - and beyond its borders) considers terrorists to be criminals (and not freedom fighters, victims of imperialism, tyranny and etc.) and actually acts on the side that opposes terrorism (on the side of a state or a group of states). Poorly coordinated actions in this area can reduce the effectiveness of counter-terrorism operations to almost zero. Activations interstate cooperation, thus there is no alternative.

1111 Basic concepts: political networks, terrorism, extremism.

|Ц§ Terms: subsidiarity.

Test yourself

1) What is a political network? 2) In what areas of human activity do they most actively manifest themselves

Network structures? 3) List the features and distinctive features of modern political terrorism. 4) What is the danger of terrorist networks?

Think, Discuss, Do

1. Network forms of organization are getting more and more popular.
widespread, especially among non-governmental
organizations. What exactly are the properties of political
networks, could you explain the popularity of the network
type of organization?

2. Is there any relationship between global
lysis, informatization and distribution of network
forms of organization? Justify your point of view.

3. Until now, it is widely believed that
according to which the fight against terrorism is the business of
including special services and law enforcement agencies.
What do you think the role of civil society might be?
society and individual citizens in opposition to terrorists
chesky threat?

Work with the source

Read an excerpt from an American sociologist's work on network structures.

Only the chosen ones. Who controls such a switch, he has the power.

caste le manuel, Formation of a society of network structures// New post-industrial wave in the West.

Anthology / Ed. V. L. Inozemtseva. - M.: Academia, 1999. -