depending on the forms and types of competition are formed appropriate types of prices. According to the domination of monopolies, the monopoly is dominated by high and monopoly low prices. A monopolis of a high price establishes goods producer, is a monopolist in manufacturing and on the market, limits competition, violates consumers and receives high profits as a result. Prices in the market in conditions of monopolistic (including oligopolistic) competition fluctuate primarily around monopolo and high production prices, which transforms the price of production.
. Monopoly price - Qualitatively new form Prices that are installed monopolies (oligopoly) in the process of buying goods and services and which provides them with monopolous profits
The low and medium firms, small farmers, state enterprises and other economic entities under pressure from giant monopolies establish the low price. Prices for goods and services that produce state-owned enterprises at the same time regulates the state (electricity, communication services and mail and).
Monopolis and high prices lead to a decrease in the effective supply of the population, "attract" competitors, so monopolies should constantly look for the optimal relationship between the number of implemented pricing etc., which allows you to assign maximum arrivals.
the result of monopolization of production, market and ownership of monopoly is assigned high profits. This category was actively used in the Soviet and Western Marxist literature. However, in modern Ukrainian economic literature, it is rarely used even in those works that do not deny the existence of a monopoly. This is theoretical and methodological and practical alogyrism (Nethamide), since the form of economic implementation of the domination of monopolies is not determined. In those works in which the category "monopolistic profit" is called, its interpretation is simplified. So, in the "Big Economic Mom" \u200b\u200bmonopoly profit is defined as an increased income that allows you to obtain monopol control over the market and production.
If you comply with the requirements of a dialectical research method when clarifying the essence economic categories, The monopoly profit in the aspect of public form should be determined as the most important form of economic implementation of the process of domination of monopolistic capital in all spheres of public reproduction over other types and shapes of property. From the point of view of real content, the monopoly profit is the most MSA and the rate of surplus value resulting from the process of monopolizing the most productive forces and primarily a person worker. The synthesis of these two aspects allows you to comprehensively reveal the snis in the monopoly profit.
. Monopoly profit - Assignment of monopolistic capital by the results of the monopolization of the most productive forces in all spheres of public reproduction, as well as the economic subordination of other types and forms of ownership.
Such a definition allows us to find out the structure of monopolistic assignment, as well as the main sources of monopoly profits. The components of the monopolistic assignment are:
1) average incomeobtained by small and medium capitalist enterprises;
2) monopoly superprillage as a result of monopolizing the sphere of direct production, circulation, distribution and consumption;
3) excessive profits as the difference in production costs on advanced (monopolistic, including oligopolistic, enterprises) and enterprises of the non-monopolized sector of the economy;
4) Redistribution of a part of the total surplus value by industrial monopolies in their favor, since they produce the bulk of products in the public or market individual is worth employment, and the high organic structure of capital in the monopolized sector of the economy protects against losses in the formation of production prices. Monopolies (including oligopoly) also make it difficult to intra-separable and we are rigging competition.
the monopoly production price is formed by monopolis-low production costs (individual value at large monopolies) and a monopoly high average profit and excessive profits of Mont Nopol. For small and medium enterprises, the price of production consists of production costs at these enterprises and the average rate of profit of the nonmonopolized sector, partially redistributed for the interests of monopolies. Therefore, for the dominance of gigantic monopolies is set not one, but two norms of the average diz.
The main sources of monopoly arrivals are:
1) the surplus value obtained as a result of enhancing the operation of the most educated and qualified labor force and the synergistic effect resulting from the interaction of such labor with advanced technique
2) part of the surplus value created by employees in small and medium-sized capitalist enterprises and assigned through the price mechanism;
8) part of the cost generated by small commodity producers, including farmers, and assign transport, industrial, bank monopolies;
4) part of the cost generated by employees in economically poorly developed countriesah and we assign due to the operation of cheap labor, nonequivalent exchange in the field of trade, etc.;
5) part of the income from state budgetobtained as a result of the implementation of tax, financial and credit, depreciation and other types of policies
The state should apply the methods of weakening the negative features of the social form of monopolies. Such a task is particularly relevant for Ukraine. The practice of establishing domestic monopoly prices is a consequence of the policies of the monopolization of the economy, often irrational government policies, the lack of real demonopolization of production for almost complete liberalization of prices and other factories.
In the conditions of free competition, the formation of the average rate of profit occurs. However, in the era of the monopolistic capitalism, there is no free competition, the dominant situation in the economy and business belongs to monopolies. Monopolies focus in their hands a huge economic power. This allows them to receive such profits, the level of which significantly exceeds the average profit rate. High profits of monopolies include the following elements:
1) Middle Profit. Its participants of the monopolies are assigned not because they are monopolists, but simply because they are entrepreneurs;
2) Super profits as the difference between the public and individual value of goods. This difference is positive on the best enterprises. Monopolies, possessing significant capital, have more opportunities to use better equipment, technology and management;
3) monopolistic super-profile associated with the establishment of monopoly prices above the cost of goods. Monopolistic super-profile has a specific economic form in which the domination of monopolies is being implemented.
Under the monopoly profit is understood to be all the profits assigned by monopolies and in prices sold by their goods. Monopoly profit differs from average profits in the following areas:
1) by recipients. Average profit receives any entrepreneur who produces production and sales of products in socially normal production conditions. Monopoly profits are assigned only participants in monopolistic unions;
2) largest. Monopoly profit exceeds average profit. It is much more profit of non-monopolized enterprises. Monopolies assign all increasing profits;
3) by sources. The only source of average profit is the surplus value. The monopoly profit also has its source primarily the surplus value. However, the monopoly profit draws not only from the surplus value, but also from the cost generated by the labor of other social groups.
Montopolis and high profits have the following main sources:
1) The surplus value created by hired workers, as well as partially and the cost of labor. On monopolized enterprises is a very high labor intensity, various workflows of labor are applied. Monopolies exploit not only their own workers, but also workers non-monopolized enterprises through the mechanism of selling goods of goods above the cost. The rise of price monopolies on consumption objects leads to a fall wages Below the cost of labor. As a result, monopolies are operated by hired workers as by assigning their surplus labor, and by assigning part of their necessary labor;
2) the cost created by the work of small commodity producers in developed countries. Monopolies exploit not only hired workers, but also small producers of the village (peasants) and cities (artisans). This operation is carried out through the mechanism of setting high prices for goods of monopolized enterprises and low prices for goods that they buy from small producers;
3) the cost created by workers in economically underdeveloped countries. Monopolies receive their profits not only within the country, but also from outside the operation of the peoples of economically underdeveloped countries. It is enough to indicate a non-equivalent exchange, which consists in the fact that monopolies sell their products in the markets developing countries at prices above the cost, and buy goods of these countries at prices below the cost;
4) a redistributed surplus value between entrepreneurs in favor of monopolists. When monopolists sell their products above their value to non-monopolized entrepreneurs, and the latter cannot respond to the same, then the redistribution of the surplus value from nonmonopolistic to the monopolistic bourgeoisie occurs. Here, the source of monopoly arrivals is also the surplus value, but the surplus value created by workers on nonmonopolized enterprises.
The average profit expresses primarily the relationship between the hired workers and entrepreneurs, as well as the relationship between entrepreneurs. Monopoly profit expresses a more complex complex of production relations, namely:
1) between monopolists and a working class;
2) between monopolists and minor manufacturers in developed countries;
3) between monopolists and workers' masses of economically underdeveloped countries;
4) between monopolists and nonmonopolists, as well as between the monopolies themselves, each of which competes with other monopolies, seeking to get maximum profits in its favor.
Natural monopoly profit is a form of realization of a natural industrial monopoly, resulting from the assignment and economic use of the capital of rare and freely irreprenerable elements of the productive forces. This includes, for example, a monopoly rent.
Artificial monopoly profits arises as a result of monopolizing the market or production and market sales of some product. Its occurrence is associated with the advent of monopolies. As capitalism develops, artificial monopoly profits takes the following increasingly developed forms:
1) Random shape of monopoly arrivals. It is formed for the buyer or seller due to the random ratio of supply and demand, as well as due to the accidentally arising monopoly on a certain type of product, for the best technique in this industry, technology, or labor. Other capital of this industry or other industries have the same largest loss, deductions from average profits. Random monopolo high profits of some capital and monopoly low profits of other capital acts as two poles of expression of the average rate of profit;
2) Stable (deployed) shape of the monopoly profit. It gets a mass development at the end of the XIX - early XX century. As a result of a sustainable monopoly on some types of goods, for the best technical equipment, technology and labor in certain sectors. Monopolies made it difficult to overflow of capital and provided themselves at the expense of a non-monopolized sector. They do not apply to the process of leveling profits.
The usual average profit of the monopolies is fixed and accepts the character of a permanent rent. And above it is formed a steady increment - additional profits implemented at a monopol price. She becomes super profits. Industries - buyers of goods produced by a monopoly, initially carry losses equal to monopoly arrivals. They include these losses in the cost of production and price of their products. Thus, shift their losses to other industries. As a result, the mass and the rate of average profits of cumulative capital decreases on the magnitude of the monopoly profit. And the price amount increases as a result of the increase in the production costs of many products. The higher the monopoly profits, the lower the mass and the rate of average profit. Thus, a steady monopoly profit does not perform a form of manifestation of average profits. On the contrary, it denies the latter, distorts and makes it difficult to effect the mechanism of production prices in the nonmonopolistic sector of production. The development of sustainable monopoly profits occurred by disseminating joint stock companies;
3) Universal shape of monopoly arrivals. It arises in conditions when monopolies comprehensively submitted to themselves and as a result, they were on most markets and major sellers, and major buyers. The monopolistic sector competition effectively eliminates the enrichment of some industries at the expense of others. The rate of profits of various in terms of income of industries is no more than 1-2%.
Effective alignment of profits in the monopolistic sector does not mean restoring the action in it of the Middle profit law in its former form. The averaged profit of monopolized industries is nothing more than the average monopoly profit. The more the mass of monopoly profit enters the distribution between monopolized industries by reducing the profits of non-monopolized industries, the higher the mass and the norm of the average monopoly profit.
The shape of the sale of monopoly arrivals is the monopoly price. This is due to the fact that the profits of monopolies equals the difference between the amount of prices sold by their goods and the sum of their production costs.
Monopoly prices are the prices set by monopolies. Monopoly prices deviate from the cost (production price) of goods and ensure the production of monopoly profits. Distinguish two types of monopolized prices:
1) monopolis high prices, i.e. prices set by monopolies on the goods sold by them;
2) Monopoly low prices, i.e. prices installed by monopolies on the goods you buy. The latter include: a) goods produced by peasants and artisans in developed countries, b) goods produced in economically underdeveloped countries.
Two types of monopoly prices are the economic realization of the twofold domination of monopolies. First, the dominance of monopolies in the production and marketing of its goods is implemented by establishing them of monopoly high prices for these goods. Secondly, the domination of monopolies on the market when buying goods from peasants and artisans in their own country, as well as when buying goods of economically underdeveloped countries, is being implemented by establishing monopoly low prices for these goods.
As a result of the establishment of monopoly high and monopoly low prices, the so-called price scissors arise. This is primarily scissors for industrial and agricultural goods. As a rule, industry prices are growing faster than agricultural raw materials.
The price scissors are also between the prices of goods exported from developed countries and the prices of goods imported by them from underdeveloped countries. Over time, entrepreneurs of developed countries for their products acquire more and more products purchased abroad.
As you know, the price of production is the cost of production plus average profits.
The high price monopolo is equal to the costs of production plus average profit and plus monopolistic super-profile. Therefore, a monopoly high price always exceeds the price of production and usually exceeds the value of monopolized goods,
In pursuit of super-profile monopoly systematically increase prices for goods. And the emergence of new large monopolies in one or another industry leads to an increase in prices. This is the most important way to increase the profits of monopolies.
Monopolis and high prices are a special kind of market prices. Prices for the products of the monopolized industry are long rejected from the production price and cost. And of course, here it is not only in the desire of monopolists to swallow prices. To objective conditions that give monopolies the ability to hold prices at an elevated level must be attributed:
1) an artificial limitation of the supply of goods produced by the monopolists themselves;
2) bringing to the ruin of nonmonopolized enterprises, which also limits the supply of goods;
3) restriction of the importation of goods due to the border with the help of the protectionist policy of the state.
Although the monopoly price, as a rule, exceeds their cost, does not mean that the law of value in the era of monopolistic capitalism ceases to act. Really:
1) and in the era of monopolistic capitalism the law of value determines total Commodity prices. True, the total amount of high-price monopolisses exceeds the total amount of the value of monopolized goods. But the sale of these goods above their cost is the sale below the cost of goods of non-monopoly enterprises. Monopolis and high prices do not increase the total amount of commodity costs, but lead to the redistribution of this amount in favor of monopolists;
2) The law of value through the competition mechanism puts the borders to increase prices with monopolies. The exacerbation of competition often leads to the breakdown of monopoly prices. For example, at the end of the 20s of the XX century. Copper prices, which were first highly raised by the International Copper Syndicate, fell under pressure from competition from aluminum and other substitutes;
3) monopolies are not able to constantly hold the prices at a high level due to cyclic oscillations of production. The fact of falling prices during crises suggests that monopolies cannot regulate prices for goods in their arbitrarp. The law of value continues to operate in. Epoch of monopoly capitalism.
The following sources have high monopoly profit indicators:
- 1) The surplus value created by hired workers, as well as partially and the cost of labor. On monopolized enterprises is a very high labor intensity, applied various systems Labor. Monopolies exploit not only their own workers, but also workers non-monopolized enterprises through the mechanism of selling goods of goods above the cost. The rise in price monopolies on consumption objects leads to a fall in real wages below the cost of labor. As a result, the monopoly is exploited by hired workers, both by assigning their surplus work and by assigning part of their necessary labor;
- 2) the cost created by the work of small commodity producers in developed countries. Monopolies exploit not only hired workers, but also small producers of the village (peasants) and cities (artisans). This operation is carried out through the mechanism of setting high prices for goods of monopolized enterprises and low prices for goods that they buy from small producers;
- 3) the cost created by workers in economically underdeveloped countries. Monopolies receive their profits not only within the country, but also from outside the operation of the peoples of economically underdeveloped countries. It is enough to indicate a non-equivalent exchange, which consists in the fact that monopolies sell their products in the markets of developing countries at prices above cost, and buy products of these countries at prices below the cost;
- 4) a redistributed surplus value between entrepreneurs in favor of monopolists. When monopolists sell their products above their value to non-monopolized entrepreneurs, and the latter cannot respond to the same, then the redistribution of the surplus value from nonmonopolistic to the monopolistic bourgeoisie occurs. Here, the source of monopoly arrivals is also the surplus value, but the surplus value created by workers on nonmonopolized enterprises.
The average profit expresses primarily the relationship between the hired workers and entrepreneurs, as well as the relationship between entrepreneurs. Monopoly profit expresses a more complex complex of production relations, namely:
- 1) between monopolists and a working class;
- 2) between monopolists and minor manufacturers in developed countries;
- 3) between monopolists and workers' masses of economically underdeveloped countries;
- 4) between monopolists and non-monopolists, as well as between the monopolies themselves, each of which competes with other monopolies, seeking to get maximum profits in its favor.
Natural monopoly profit is a form of realization of a natural industrial monopoly, resulting from the assignment and economic use of the capital of rare and freely irreprenerable elements of the productive forces. This includes, for example, a monopoly rent.
Artificial monopoly profits arises as a result of monopolizing the market or production and market sales of some product. Its occurrence is associated with the advent of monopolies. As capitalism develops, artificial monopoly profits takes the following increasingly developed forms:
- 1) Random shape of monopoly arrivals. It is formed for the buyer or seller due to the random ratio of supply and demand, as well as due to the accidentally arising monopoly on a certain type of product, for the best technique in this industry, technology, or labor. Other capital of this industry or other industries have the same largest loss, deductions from average profits. There are randomly monopoly high profits of some capital and monopoloil low profits of other capital acts as two poles of the expression of the average profit rate;
- 2) Stable (deployed) shape of the monopoly profit. It gets a mass development at the end of the XIX - early XX century. As a result of a sustainable monopoly on some types of goods, for the best technical equipment, technology and labor in certain sectors. Monopolies made it difficult to overflow of capital and provided themselves at the expense of a non-monopolized sector. They do not apply to the process of leveling profits.
The usual average profit of the monopolies is fixed and accepts the character of a permanent rent. And above it is formed a steady increment - additional profits implemented at a monopol price. She becomes super profits. Industries - buyers of goods produced by a monopoly, initially carry losses equal to monopoly arrivals. They include these losses in the cost of production and price of their products. Thus, shift their losses to other industries. As a result, the mass and the rate of average profits of cumulative capital decreases on the magnitude of the monopoly profit. And the price amount increases as a result of the increase in the production costs of many products. The higher the monopoly profits, the lower the mass and the rate of average profit. Thus, a steady monopoly profit does not perform a form of manifestation of average profits. On the contrary, it denies the latter, distorts and makes it difficult to effect the mechanism of production prices in the nonmonopolistic sector of production. The development of sustainable monopoly profits occurred by disseminating joint stock companies;
3) Universal shape of monopoly arrivals. It arises, provided that the economy completely obeys a monopoly, with the result that in large markets it becomes the main seller and the buyer. It can be said that competition well eliminates the enrichment of some industries at the expense of others, if we talk about the monopolistic sector. In this case, the rate of profit differs in terms of the income of the industries and ranges from 1-2%.
In the monopolistic sector, the incoming leveling of profits does not yet mean restoring the action in it of the law of average profits in its former form. The averaged profit of monopolized industries is nothing more than the average monopoly profit. The more the mass of monopoly profit enters the distribution between monopolized industries by reducing the profits of non-monopolized industries, the higher the mass and the norm of the average monopoly profit.
The shape of the sale of monopoly arrivals is the monopoly price. This is due to the fact that the profits of monopolies equals the difference between the amount of prices sold by their goods and the sum of their production costs.
Monopoly prices are the prices set by monopolies. Monopoly prices deviate from the cost (production price) of goods and ensure the production of monopoly profits. Distinguish two types of monopolized prices:
- 1) monopolis high prices, i.e. prices set by monopolies on the goods sold by them;
- 2) Monopoly low prices, i.e. prices installed by monopolies on the goods you buy. The latter include: a) goods produced by peasants and artisans in developed countries, b) goods produced in economically underdeveloped countries.
Two types of monopoly prices are the economic realization of the twofold domination of monopolies. First, the dominance of monopolies in the production and marketing of its goods is implemented by establishing them of monopoly high prices for these goods. Secondly, the domination of monopolies on the market when buying goods from peasants and artisans in their own country, as well as when buying goods of economically underdeveloped countries, is being implemented by establishing monopoly low prices for these goods.
As a result of the establishment of monopoly high and monopoly low prices, the so-called price scissors arise. This is primarily scissors for industrial and agricultural products. As a rule, industry prices are growing faster than agricultural raw materials.
The price scissors are also between the prices of goods exported from developed countries and the prices of goods imported by them from underdeveloped countries. Over time, entrepreneurs of developed countries for their products acquire more and more products purchased abroad.
As you know, the price of production is the cost of production plus average profits.
The high price monopolo is equal to the costs of production plus average profit and plus monopolistic super-profile. Therefore, the high price monopolo is always exceeds the price of production and usually exceeds the value of monopolized goods.
In pursuit of super-profile monopoly systematically increase prices for goods. And the emergence of new large monopolies in one or another industry leads to an increase in prices. This is the most important way to increase the profits of monopolies.
Monopolis and high prices are a special kind of market prices. Prices for the products of the monopolized industry are long rejected from the production price and cost. And of course, here it is not only in the desire of monopolists to swallow prices. To objective conditions that give monopolies the ability to hold prices at an elevated level must be attributed:
- 1) an artificial limitation of the supply of goods produced by the monopolists themselves;
- 2) bringing to the ruin of nonmonopolized enterprises, which also limits the supply of goods;
- 3) Restriction of the importation of goods from abroad with protectionist policies states.
Figure 1.1 Curves for demand for the product of a completely competitive company (D1) and firms with the monopoly authority (D2)
Although the monopoly price, as a rule, exceeds their cost, does not mean that the law of value in the era of monopolistic capitalism ceases to act. Really:
- 1) And in the era of monopolistic capitalism, the law of value determines the total amount of commodity prices. True, the total amount of high-price monopolisses exceeds the total amount of the value of monopolized goods. But the sale of these goods above their cost is the sale below the cost of goods of non-monopoly enterprises. Monopolis high prices do not increase the total amount commodity costsbut lead to the redistribution of this amount in favor of monopolists;
- 2) The law of value through the competition mechanism puts the borders to increase prices with monopolies. The exacerbation of competition often leads to the breakdown of monopoly prices. For example, at the end of the 20s of the XX century. Copper prices, which were first highly raised by the International Copper Syndicate, fell under pressure from competition from aluminum and other substitutes;
- 3) monopolies are not able to constantly hold the prices at a high level due to cyclic oscillations of production. The fact of falling prices during crises suggests that monopolies cannot regulate prices for goods in their arbitrarp. The law of value continues to act in the era of monopolistic capitalism.
Monopoly, as well as any other firm (completely competitive, oligopoly or monopoly - competitive) seeks to maximize profits. The peculiarity of the monopoly is that the demand curve on its product coincides with the curve market demand on this product. The monopoly can set any price, which will lead to a change in the value of demand. The purpose of the monopoly is to establish such a price at which the profit will be maximum.
Figure 1.2 Change of monopoly revenue when it changes its release
The general rule of profit maximization is the equality of marginal income and limit costs - remains true for monopoly. The difference is that for a completely competitive firm, the limit income line (MR) is horizontal and coincides with the line of market price, according to which this company can sell any amount of its products. For a monopoly, the MR line is not horizontal and does not coincide with the price line (demand curve).
Since the final income is the increment of revenue by increasing the release per unit (MR \u003d DTR / DQ), consider its change with an increase in the volume of the monopoly (Fig. 1.2).
At the initial price, R1 monopoly can sell Q1. In this case, the revenue TR1 \u003d P1 * Q1 (corresponds to the area of \u200b\u200bthe R1E1Q10 rectangle). The monopoly increases the release by d q (Q2 - Q1).
However, to sell more goods, it has to change the price of the DR (P2 - P1). After this monopoly revenue (TR2 \u003d P2 * Q2) corresponds to the P2E2Q20 area. Thus, the gain in revenue due to the growth of the release is equal to the FE2Q2Q1 (DQ * P2) area, and the loss due to the price reduction is the area of \u200b\u200bP1E1FR2 (DR * Q1). Therefore, revenue growth
DTR \u003d DQ * P2 + Dr * Q1.
Since the price decreases, DR is a negative value. The income will be:
DTR / DQ \u003d P2 + (OR / DQ) * Q1
Therefore, when issuing an additional unit of products, revenue increases on the price of the product (P2). At the same time, to sell this additional unit of release, you have to reduce the price of the quantity of the DV / DQ. Since the last price is sold not only the last, but all previous units (Q1), the losses in the revenue will be (DQ) * Q1. Having summarizing the winnings from the growth of the issue and the loss of price reduction, we obtain the amount of limit income, which is less than the price.
Thus, for a monopoly, the magnitude of the limit income relating to each value of the release (except for zero), it turns out less than the corresponding price (Fig. 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Curves for demand and maximum income of the monopoly
By connecting in one chart the demand curves, limit income, limit and average costs, at the point of intersection of curves MR and MS, determine the release (Qm), in which the profit of the monopoly is maximal (Fig. 1.4). On the demand curve there is a monopoly price corresponding to this issue (PM). High-profile monopoly - the difference between its revenue and total costs:
P \u003d TR - TC \u003d PM * QM- AC * QM.
In fig. 1.4 Revenue Complies with 0PMEQM Square, Total Costs - 0CFQM Square. Profit is equal to Square CPMEF.
Figure 1.4 Maximization of profits monopoly
Superprint (ABOVE - Normal Profit or Excess Profit ) - Prior, exceeding the one that needs a firm to continue the production of its goods or services (see normal profits ). Short-term (i.e. temporary) Superprops arising from the nonequilibrium of market demand and suggestions, contribute to the effective raftingness of resources if they stimulate the entry into the market new firms and an increase in market proposal. On-against, long-term (i.e. sustainable) super-profits (prior monopoly ) worsen placement of resources because they are the result of overestimation of the price of the product created by monopolists protected input barriers .
Normal profits (Normal Profit) - profit, sufficient to provide an offer to the company of his product or service. According to the theory of markets, normal primary is part of the production costs (see allocative efficacy).
If the level of profits received at any particular market is too low compared to the level of profit, obtained on another market with the same degree of risk, then the re-sussa firms will go to another scope.
Cm. alternative costs , Exit from the market, superfrequency.
Market theory THEORY OF MARKETS ) - part economic theorydevoted to how rare (see rarity) production factorsare posted in many product markets. Oso-lawy attention in this theory is given to the issues of determining prices and issues of goods and services, prices for factors of production and the use of the latter.
The theory of markets distinguishes the types of markets in accordance with their market Structure. The main structural difference is the steen concentration of sellersand relative sizes of markets. Other structural features that are given to VNII are given to the nature of the goods offered (exists product Differentiationor that homogeneous pro-droot)and K. input conditionsin this industry. Having these structural differences, the theory explores how the market structure in cooperation with market behaviorbolds-gives concrete forms market efficiency.
see also perfect competition , monopoly competition, oligopoly, monopoly, placement of resources, paradigm "Structure market-behavior-performance", factors market, price system, Pareto optimality.
Placement of resources (Resource Allocation ) - accommodation production factorsin the economy between alternative methods of use in accordance with the structure of the consumer demand (which, in turn, reflects some specified level national income And its distribution). Optimal resource accommodation is achieved when the proportions in which factors are combined in the manufacture of goods and services, reflect their relative costs in such a way that the cost of production is minimal, and when you start the goods and services fully reflects the ratio of strength preferences regarding these goods and services (see pareto optimality).
In particular, the optimal placement of resources is achieved when the price of a product or service is fully in the smallest economic costs of their production.
Cm. accommodation efficiency , efficiency of production, distribution efficiency, price system, market theory ,.
Perfect competition or Atomistic competition (perfect Competition or Atomistic COMPETI - Tion ) - a type market structure comprising following ha-richestics:
(but) large number of firms and buyers , i.e. a large number of independent firms and swimpoints, while all of them are so small that they are not able to influence the product price;
(b) uniformity of Pro-Dukta , i.e. products offered by competing firm-mi, not only identical in physical parameters, but also re-accepted by buyers as the same, so the latter do not prefer between products of various producers;
(in) free entrance to the market and market exit , i.e. no barriers input (obstacles to the entry into the market of new firms) or obstacles to exit from the market of presenting firms;
(d) perfect awareness pro-Ladzartov and buyers about the state of the market.
In the market of perfect competition, individual sellers do not control the prices for which they implement their pro-duction, since the price is determined by the conditions of total market demand and suggestions. Each company produces such a small part of the total volume of the sectoral issue, which increases or decrease the amount of products, producing my separate company, will not have a tangible impact on the overall proposal and, consequently, prices. Moreover, in the presence of infinite cross elasticity aspar for inter-uniform goods of competing sellers, no seller will be able to raise the price above the steady-night price, without losing All His customers. In this way, curve demandthe product of this company is a horizontal straight line corresponding to the setting market price. As a result, the limit revenue ( Mr.) equals average revenue ( AR). Competing firm at-bottomas something lying outside the control and bu-choices to regulate its volume of production, trying to secure maximum profit at the price, i.e. the company will continue to produce additional units of products until the price (\u003dMr. = BUT R.) Excends the limit to-spending. When the limit costs are equal to the price, the profit of the company will be maximum. In fig. 116A depicted a state of competitive equilibrium in a short period for a company and for the industry.
Graphs of individual proposals (MS) firms summers are horizontally to obtain a market prison curve (SS. ). With this industry demand (DD ) The equilibrium price and the volume of production in the short period is equal to corresponding R E. and Q. E.. At this price, the competing firm will reach the volume of production at the levelQ. F. (P \u003d ms)and in this case will get superprint ( P. F. xyz.).
The status of equilibrium in the last period can also be determined. Based on the prerequisite about the maximization of profits, perfect information and free entry on fish and exit from the market, we can conclude that if the income from use production resources The industries are not equal to income that can be obtained from the same resources in other sectors of the economy, the part of the resources enters this industry or leaves it. Generally speaking, the release will adapt to demand until the average cost of production of this issue will not be equal to the sale price as a result of measurements of the issue and prices.
Fig. 116. Perfect competition, but. Equilibrium in a short period, b.Equilibrium in a long period.
If, as in the example of the above, already existing sellers achieve the state of production of superconduct, new resources are involved in the industry, which increases the overall market proposal and reduces the market price. This pro-process will continue until excess profit becomes zero. In fig. 1166 shows a state of competitive equilibrium in a long period for a typical firm and for the industry. With unchanged sectoral demand ( DD) the equilibrium price and the volume of release in the long period-de for the industry are equal, respectivelyP. E. 1 and Q. E. 1 . At a given equilibrium price, the firm will reach the maximizing the release volume at the pointQ F. 1 where P \u003d ms.at the point of mini-rigid average costs of a long period.
Static market theory assumes that perfect competition leads to more efficient market efficiency than other market structures (especially compared to monopoly). Specifically, market release is optimized at the level corresponding to the minimum cost of production. Consumers are offered prices, exactly equal to minimized production costs, and manufacturers get normal profits . Output on the optiotality of perfect competition, however, is based on assumptions, of which individuals are rather controversial, in particular, this, according to which the structure of the cost of a small competitive firm identichna the structure of the costs of oligopolistic and monopolistic produkers (see oligopoly, Saving). In addition, such important dynamic factors, as part of this theory, are ignored technological progressiveness . Cm. monopolistic competition .
MONOPOLY Monopoly ) - a type market structures characterized by the following features:
(but) one firm and a lot of baths , i.e. there is a single producer selling its products in the market that sells its products to many small customers, independently of each other;
(b) outstraction of substitute goods , i.e. there are no close replace-lei products of the monopolist;
(in) blocked input , i.e. the entry barriers are so significant that the entrance of new firms to the market is not possible.
The monopolist has the ability to assign a market price. With perfect competition (see perfect competitors), the curves of the limit and medium revenue of the monopolist do not coincide with each other. The monopolist faces a wondering curve of demand ( D. in fig. 72a), and to sell up to-full products, it is necessary to reduce the price, all units of this product should be sold according to which. It is assumed that the purpose of the monopolist, as well as a competitive firm - the maximization of profits andwhat he acting, lagging required information about costs and demand. The mynopolist will strive to produce with such a combination of the price and release that is equalized limit costs and limit revenue. In fig. 72A depicted balance of the Mo-Nopolist in a short period. Monopolist suggestsQ. E. sE-NIC issue for the price R E.. With an equilibrium price, the monopolist provides a receipt super profile. Unlike the CI-Tuition of the competitive firm, where the entrance to the market is free, Ba-Riera entrance in the conditions of monopoly is so significant that they do not allow the emergence of new manufacturers. Thus, the penetration into the industry of additional production resources is impossible, as a result of which the monopolist will continue to receive super-profits and in a long period (before the radical conditions of demand and the presentation) will be changed). In accordance with the theory of markets in identity, the costs of costs and demand of the monopoly leads to a more you-juice price and lower volume than perfect competitor.
Equilibrium with perfect competition is established when the amount of demand is equal to the volume of the proposal. This is a catch-streaming in Fig. 726, where the proposal curve with perfect competition is a curve Ms.(Combining curves of pre-delivered costs of all individual manufacturers). Production volume with free competition -Q. C., what about the price - R from. Since the proposal curve represents a set of limiting curves, then with an equilibrium state, the maximum costs are equal to the price.
Suppose now that this industry is monopolized, let's say, as a result of the acquisition by one company of other manufacturers, and the curve of the costs of ka-hard from the plants was not influenced by this change, i.e., coordinated planning of production by a monopolist did not affect savings from scale, n. loss of scale . Thus, the costs for the monopolist will remain the same as the competing, and, the investigator, but, curves Ms.in both cases identical. As noted above, a monopolist, striving for maximizing profits, will try to establish equality of marginal costs of not the price, but an extreme revenue. Consequently, when equilibrium, the volume of the industry has dropped fromQ. C. before Q. M., and the market price increases with R from before R T..
Moreover, a monopolist in the absence of any competitive pressure that encourages minimizing costs, it can produce any given volume with costs per unit of products exceeding the minimum possible, without any damage for itself (see x-inefficiency).
However, the conclusion of the conditions of competitive optimality is based on a number of assumptions, some of which are very controversial, in particular the assumption that the cost structures are identical for completely competitive minor firms and large-scale oligopolistic and monopolistic produce-lei. Based on static ideas, this conclusion ignores the impact of such important dynamic factors , as technical progress.
In a static analysis of the monopoly, the main assumption co-worth the fact that the average production costs increase with relatively low levels Output. It follows that the firm reaches a state of equilibrium at the MAS-headquarters of activity, a small compared to the market. Pre-put, however, that production in this industry is characterized by significant savings from scale. This means that individual firms can reduce the specific costs, producing a much larger amount of products. I will show it, it is suggested that the industry, which was in the co-standing of perfect competition, was purchased by a monopolist. In this case, it is extremely unlikely that the change in the scale will not affect the costs. In fig. 72V.the case is shown when the reduction of specific costs as a result of savings from the property association causes an increase in the volume of production and lower prices compared with the initial situation of perfect competition.
Reducing the specific costs as a result of monopolization shifts the limiting curve of the monopolist (MS. T.) right from the source curve supply ( S. PC.), this makes more products ( Q. M.) at a lesser price (R T.). We still assume that the limiting costs in the corresponding range of changes in the volume of production are growing. In the last period, this assumption follows from the approval that with a certain amount of production, savings from the scale stops and is replaced by losses from the scale. Losses are usually associated with administrative and managerial difficulties arising in too large complex organizations. However, it becomes more and more obvious that the curve of the average cost of a long period (which means that the curve Ms)for many capital industries hasL. - Form. In these industries, no cost conditions, but the total demand and individual market share shares are the most important factorslimiting the firm size. Thus, the firm can expand to this limit of the volume of the issue, in which further expansion will be non-free. But at the same time, the company can become so large in relation to the market, which will be able to affect the price. This does not deny the possibility of further increasing the monopolist of the volume of the issue and lower price, if it does not seek to maximize his profits. Such a state is nevertheless not the result of returning to perfect competitors. The following happens: the firm in the desire to find the highest favorable position refuses the status of an insignificant small competitor. This is achieved by this not necessarily by targeted attempts to dominate the market. On the contrary, it is the internal conditions of costs in the market of the SECE-Mulse this growth. In this industry, a situation is quite possible in which small firms "competitive values" are not able to survive. Moreover, to the extent that the specific costs below at higher production volumes, a large firm is technically more efficient pro-hydrogen unit.
The case of significant savings from scale can be characterized as a situation in which the atomistic competition becomes and technically impossible, and inherent in the criteria of efficiency. Analysis of competitor optimization does not take into account this kind of complication.
The above analysis also neglects the dynamic aspects of functioning market system. As noted by a number of well-known economists:
1) The most important improvements in consumer welfare occur mostly as a result of technological innovations, t. e. increasing the co-course of resources and the emergence of new technologies and products over time, and not adjustment designed to provide the maximum issue volume with specified (statically) resource costs;
2) The function of monopolistic elements is the preparation of conditions and ensuring the protection of innovative acts. Competitive firms, of course, have versions of Muli to the introduction of the most effective production from the well-known technologies, as it is necessary for their survival. But their inability to maintain the preparation of super-profits limits both resources and the initiative necessary for the development of new technologies. On the contrary, a pure monopolist, semi-tea super-profits, has more financial resources for technical progress, but its incentive to innovation can be a plan in the absence of effective competition. Nevertheless, technical progress is a means of reducing specific costs and, consequently, increasing profits; These profits do not have a transitionality due to the existence of entry barriers. Moreover, technical superiority in itself can be one of the monopolistic entry barriers; Thus, the monopolist must have stability and pre-tense in the field of technical progress to maintain their dominant position.
One of the most famous defenders of the idea that from-ray with strong monopolistic elements is capable of introducing production technologies inaccessible to competitive manufacturers was Schumpeter. To the extent that the invention and the introduction of new processes and products are concentrated in a large oligopolistic company, a comparison of oligopoly / monopoly with perfect competitors at a fixed state of technology systematic-ski smumes the public contribution of the first.
Graphically, the hipothesis of Schumpeter is shown in Fig. 72B. Competitive market producesQ. PC., where the limit costs of a short period are equal to the price. If this field of monopolis is aimed, it would be possible to expect prices to P. 1 M.and reducing the volume of production toQ L. M.. Nevertheless, if the monopolist in this industry introduces reduction costs of innovation, the crime of general limit costs can decrease so much that the monopolist is able to actually make pain ( Q. M.) and at a lower price (R M.), than in the initial competitive industry, even if the monopolist fully uses its market strength.
Of course, the possibility of a host of monopoly society is stored, even if the monopoly conducts innovation: the benefits of the latter may be less than the cost of monopolis-tickening exploitation.
see also monopoly.
MONOPSONY (monopsony) - the form of the concentration of buyers, in other words, the market situation, when one buyer is withstanding a large number of small producers. Monoposonists are often able to achieve conditions for themselves from suppliers in the form of discounts with wholesale purchases and extended loan time.
Buying (Corner. ) - Purchase or attempt to buy the entire proposed number of a certain product on the market, as a result of which there is a temporary monopoly, aimed at operating the market.
Search for terminology, biographical materials, textbooks andscientific works on economic school sites:
3. Oligopolistic super-profile below monopolistic.
P. varieties of oligopoly
Three main varieties of oligopoly:
Uncoordinated oligopoly. Lack of collusion and common goal of firms. Schedule for the choice of the optimal volume of production during non-plain oligopoly. Features: the broken nature of the demand curve, loosal income breaks. Loss of price flexibility and blocking the mechanisms of market self-regulation with a non-ordinated oligopoly (Western and Marxist interpretation of the consequences).
Cartels. The purpose of the participating firms is monopolistic profit. A typical agreement: production quotas or markets, single prices, general policies in relation to suppliers of production factors (first of all - trade unions). Cartel as the most common form of real market monopolization. The interwar period is the "golden age" of cartels. Bars of cartels in most countries. Syndicates in the Russian Empire and cartels in modern Russia.
Kartel-like market structure. The goal of participating firms is Koro, maximizing oligopolistic profit. The principle of predictable behavior (leadership in prices, the "costs plus" scheme). The scheme of "costs plus" in the USSR and Russia.
III. The problem of the effectiveness of the oligopolistic market. The role of large enterprises in the Russian economy
The inevitability of oligopolyization in conditions of large production. Oligopo-lyrics and productivity (world and Russian historical experience). Communication of the consequences of oligopolyization with a type of oligopoly. Savings on the basis of production at the level of the company, a special role of quasi-permanent costs. Theory of Investment by A. Chandler. Investments in three main spheres: production, sales network, capable management. Large enterprises as the core of the Russian economy. Strong I. weak sides large Russian enterprises.
Topic 10. Monopoly
I. Behavior of a monopoly firm in the short and long term
The main features of the monopoly. Barriers industry:
1. The benefits of large production (up to the natural monopo
Leah).
2. Legal barriers (monopoly ownership of sources of raw materials, land,
RMS for scientific and technical achievements authorized by the state
clarifying rights).
3. dishonest competition.
Market balance in monopoly. Consequences of monopolization: a sharp understatement of production, overestimation of prices, monopoly super-profits, X-inefficiency. Price discrimination and its varieties. Price discrimination in Russia. Long-term curve costs on the monopolized market.
II. Principles of antimonopoly policies
The need and complexity of demonopolization policy. The inability to transform the monopolized industry to the industry of perfect competition. The main goal of the antimonopoly policy is the limitation of monopoly abuse. Natural monopoly. Antimonopoly policy in relation to natural monopolies. Main tool - Price regulation. Two target price levels: the maximum voluntarily supported level of production (rregulir- \u003d ms \u003d d) and zero economic profit (regulation- \u003d d \u003d duct), their
advantages and disadvantages. Reforming the structure of Russian natural monopolies. The problem of privatization and nationalization of natural monopolies in the world and Russia. Antimonopoly policy for artificial monopolies. The concept of artificial (entrepreneurial) monopoly. Signs of market monopolization. The degree of concentration and its measurement (Herfindelle-Hirschman index). The degree of concentration of the Russian industry. Weave with competitors. Two approaches to regulation: a behavioral criterion for applying sanctions (in the case of monopoly abuses) and a structural criterion for applying sanctions (in case of exceeding the limiting market share). The advantages and disadvantages of both approaches. Antimonopoly measures with respect to existing and formed monopolies. Capture control and mergers. Antiper measures.
III. The problem of monopolizing the Russian market
The concept of a single national economic complex of the Socialist Economy. The only manufacturers of products in the conditions of a planned economy: the inability to overestimate the price, improving the volume of production, the absence of super-profits, significant X-inefficiency. The explosion of monopoly trends with the beginning of reforms (oversight of prices, a decrease in production, the appearance of super-profits, preservation of X-inefficiency). Difficulties of demonstration policy:
1. The ineffectiveness of the dismemberment of single complexes;
2. Lack of investment to create new competing
production;
3. Two role of imported competition (the need for moderate and
Danger excessive).
Monopolization I. economic crisis. Features of antitrust policy in Russia. Strategy "Sequential Steps".
Subject 11. Labor market and wages I. General problems of demand for economic resources
Subjects of resource markets. The demand for resources in the socialist and market economy. The secondary demand for resources in relation to the demand for finished products. Production function. Production factors. Market factors production. Maximum product and limit product in cash. Graphics
the limits of the limit product in cash for the conditions of perfect and imperfect competition. The rule of equality of the limit product in monetary form and limit costs for the resource (MRP \u003d MRC) as a method for maximizing profits (minimizing losses). Optimal proportions of using different resources.
II. Factor "Labor" and its price. Forms of wages
Salary as the price of the factor "Labor". Special role Labor market (work is a universal production factor, the salary is the main source of income of the population). Employment structure in the world and Russia. Nominal and real wages. Salary and level of qualification. Salary level in Russia. Differentiation of wages. Non-competitive groups. Timeless and piecework salary. Their comparative advantages and disadvantages. Sophisticated wage systems. Wage systems in the USSR and Russia.
III. Marxist understanding of wages and operation of labor
Work force. Salary as equivalent to the cost of labor. The magnitude of wages and its components (physical reproduction of labor, the content of the family, education and training, cultural and historical factor). The ratio of the cost of labor and the cost generated by the workers. Prostitive value (profit) and labor operation of capital.
IV. Labor market in the context of competing and
nEOPSONIY
The limiting product curve in cash as a schedule for the demand of the company for labor. The ratio of demand and proposal of the factor "Labor" in the context of competing competition (for the company and for the industry). Market balance in the labor market in the context of competing. Lack of deficiency and excess labor and their negative consequences. Causes of equilibrium stability. Perfect competition in the labor market in Russia. Monopsony. Accelerated growth of limit costs for the resource. Market equilibrium in monoppsies (accommodation of wages and the number of employed, broken curve of demand for work), schedule. MONOPSONIY IN RUSSIA: Employment problems in areas of northern territories, on city-forming enterprises and natural monopolies.
V. Labor market in the conditions of trade unions and
Mutual monopoly
The goals of trade unions in the labor market (salary increase, an increase in employment) and their contradiction. Closed (workshop) and open trade unions. The consequences of the domination of trade unions in the labor market (wage overestimation, an employment link, a broken proposal schedule). Trade union activities in inflation. Spiral "Wages - Prices", the reasons for its occurrence. Inflation and unemployment. Mutual monopoly. Market equilibrium schedule under mutual monopoly. The consequences of mutual monopoly.
Vi. Trade union movement and state regulation of the labor market
Short story trade union movement:
1. The birth and phase of persecution by the state and employers
(laws on monopoly, yellow liabilities, accelerations of trade unions, pocket prof
Unions, Professional Straighting) "
2. Stage of developed trade unions, their positive role in the economy. Confession
from the state and employers (collective agreements, trilateral
mission). Negative aspects of trade union activities (violations of the trade union
democracy, "pressure on the nation"). State regulation of the labor market.
Minimum wages, its advantages and disadvantages.
VII. Labor market in Russia
Labor market in the USSR. His advantages (full-time employment, confidence in tomorrow) and disadvantages (understated wages, workforce deficit, weak labor motivation). Trade unions and the state in the Soviet system. Labor market in modern Russia (wages, excess employment, danger of social explosion). Informal (shadow) employment. Working movement in the era of reforms. Public service Employment in Russia. Labor Exchange.
Topic 12. Capital Market I. Concept of capital and its structure
Capital as a factor of production. Physical capital. Capital definition (marginistanist and Marxist options, their shared features and differences). Extended reproduction of capital. The problem of the initial accumulation of capital, redistributive and savings mechanisms. Initial accumulation and privatization in Russia. Vouchers and post-voucher privatization, its move, achieve and contradiction.
Capital enterprises and its structure. Current and fixed capital (funds). The working capital market as a typical resource market (position with perfect competition, monoppsies, monopolies, mutual monopoly). Coverages. The problem is loss own funds russian enterprises.
P. market of fixed capital. Discounting
Time factor as the main reason for the modification of the market of fixed capital. The problem of the current value of the income of next year. Presented (discounted) cost. Current discounted cost (PDV), its formula for one year and for a long-term project. Current discounted cost of an infinite period (PDVQ Eck, \u003d TR Const / i). Clean cash flow. Pure discounted cost (NPV). Criterion for the economic validity of the investment project (NPV\u003e 0). Factors of demand for investment resources (level of intended income and percentage). Schedule of investment demand. Curve Offers investment Capital. Equilibrium in the market of fixed capital. The problem of investment activity in Russia: state Strategy Reduced interest rate and its chances of success. Negative role high rates GKO.
III. The concept of interest as income of the factors "Capital"
Narrow and widespread value of the "percentage" category. Wide understanding Percentage as fees for the factor "Capital". Theory of origin of interest:
2. The theory of pure capital performance. Percentage as a result of Invest
styles.
3. The theory of utmost utility. Percentage as an abstinence fee. Per
Selic usefulness of the modern and future good.
Synthesis of theories of pure capital performance and utmost utility as the basis of modern theories of percent.
Topic 13. Natural Resource Market
I. Earth as a factor of production.
Types of natural resources
Factor "Earth" in a wide and narrow sense. Natural conditions. Natural resources, their classification. Real and potential resources, renewable and non-renewable.
P. Market of non-renewable natural resources
Limit of reserves and time factor. The problem of choosing between the use and conservation of non-renewable resources. Preservation of resources as an investment project, discounting. Risk factor. Long-term equilibrium in the market of non-renewable resources.
The role of non-renewable resources in modern russian economy. Natural resources of Russia, the export of non-renewable resources. Raw exports as a crisis shock absorber. The growth of economics vulnerability due to the raw material orientation of exports. Weakness of economic mechanisms for preservation of resources in Russia, the causes of this phenomenon. The need for state regulation of use natural resources.
III. Market renewable natural resources. Land rent and its types
Agricultural sector of the economy, its historical and modern value, features. Subjects of the agricultural market. Landseller and tenant.
Economic rent As an excess on the value of the resource involvement in production, schedule. Land rent, absolute inelasticity of land supply (chart). Criticism rent - Marxists, G. George (economically not justified, unfair enrichment of landowner, increasing costs). The advantages of rent (improving land use efficiency). Differential Rent I (for fertility and location). The connection of the size of the rent with the break-even use of the worst lands. Differential rent P. Differential rent outside agriculture. Pure (absolute) rent. Features assignment different species Rent. Communication of the timelines for rent and progress in agriculture. Rent and rent. Equilibrium in the land market. Land price. (P ZESH \u003d PDV6 Eck. \u003d TR Const / /).
Difficulties of development agriculture in Russia. The main subjects of the agrarian market of Russia. Former collective farms and state farms, farm farms, household economies. Problem private property to earth in Russia: chances and risks for
economy.
Topic 14. Firm as the main subject of microeconomics
I. Nature firm
The concept of an enterprise (firm). External and internal environment. The role of the company (enterprises) in the economy. Spontaneous order and hierarchy. Firm as a hierarchical system. Transaction costs and their role in the economy. Transaction costs as a factor in the selection of economic institutions. Causes of company efficiency. The borders of the efficiency of the company. Uncertainty: technological, internal and external environment. Risks. Insurance. Socialist economy As a superfirm ("single factory"). External and internal firm environment.
II. Types of organization of enterprises
Classification of enterprises. The value of the size of the company. Small business. Small business in Russia, the sphere of its activities. Morms of the organization of small business ( individual enterprise, partnership). The advantages and disadvantages of these forms.
Big business. Concentration and centralization of production. Horizontal, vertical and diagonal integration. Diversification. Joint-stock companies as the main form of a large business organization. Their advantages and disadvantages. Types of joint-stock companies. Management of Joint-Stock Company, the main bodies of AO and their functions. Control and locking stakes, controlling package In the conditions of spraying capital. Manager revolution.
Joint Stock Company In the Russian economy. The problem of power in privatized JSC. The problem of the effective owner.
Opening and closing of enterprises, sanations and bankruptcy. The problem of the economic security of the company's economic activity.
Association of enterprises, the essence and causes of their education. Financial and industrial groups (FIGs) in the world and in Russia.
State as an entrepreneur. Causes and borders of public entrepreneurship. Forms of public entrepreneurship. State sector in Russia.
III. Securities and Stock Exchange
Securities and their types. Stock. Nominal value and course of stocks. Types of stocks. Bonds. Stocks and bods market. Classification of securities markets (primary and secondary, organized and unorganized market). Stock Exchange And its functions in the economy (capital accumulation, inter-sectoral overflows of capital, transfer control to an effective owner). Exchange speculation.
Exchange I. securities in Russia. The degree of maturity. Financial and speculative orientation and problems with the execution of basic functions.
Seminar's plans
Topic 1. Introduction to economic theory
1. Stages of formation of economic theory as science.
2. Prehistory of economic science. Mercantilism.
3. Classic political economy. Marxism.
4. Marginalism.
5. Leading modern scientific schools: Keynesianism, Neoclassica (monetarism),
institutionalism.
6. The main stages of the development of Russian economic thoughts.
7. Economic theory in the system of sciences.
8. Subject of economic theory.
9. Three fundamental problems of the economy.
10. Methods of economic theory, economic laws and categories.
Basic literature 1.
1. Microeconomics. Theory and Russian Practice: Textbook / under. ed. A. G. Gryazno
howl, A. Yu. Yudanova. - M.: Knurus, 2004. - Ch. one.
2. Economic theory course: textbook / under the general ed. M.N. Chepurin, E.A. Kisa
left. - Kirov: Asa, 2002. - Ch.1-2.
3. McConnell K.R., Bruz S.L. Economics: principles, problems and politics: in 2
Mach / lane. from English 13th ed. - M.: Infra-M, 2001. - T. 1. - GL. one.
4. Nureev P.M. Course microeconomics: textbook for universities. - M.: Norma infra
M, 2002.-Gl. one.
5. Economy: Tutorial / Ed. A.S. Bulatova. - M.: Lawyer, 2002. -
GL 3, 7.
6. Economic theory: textbook / ed. A.G. Mudnova, T.V. Chechelian. -M.:
Publishing house "Exam", 2003. - Introduction, ch. one.
ADDITIONAL LITERATURE
1. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. - M., 1994. - C.275-277,
647-659.
2. In search of a new theory: a book for reading on economic theory with problems
situations / ed. A.G. Mudnova and N.N. Duma. - M.: Knurus, 2004.
- GL.1.
3. Dumana N.N. Drama of the Russian economic theory - the second act? // Bulletin
F. -2000. - №1.
Further and question the prerequisite for the maximizing the usefulness of the behavior of an economic person, offering it to replace the principle of satisfactoryity. In accordance with the classification of Tren Eggerson, representatives of this area form their own direction in institutionalism - a new institutional economics, whose representatives can be considered by O. Williamson and S. Simon ...
For the production of various goods and distributing them for consumption in the present and future between various people and groups of society "(1992, p.7). 4. The method of economic theory The first task of modern economic science is to describe, analyze and explain the dynamics of economic processes occurring in production, during the distribution of the product produced ...
On nonlinear and unstable processes characterizing the behavior of some economic and mathematical models. Note that the number of studies applying the synergistic paradigm has increased dramatically last years. It seems that the economic science has passed a peculiar "point of bifurcation" and rapidly mastering a new episheological approach. In this regard, the work of E.A. deserve attention ...
