Hungary is an industrial country with highly developed agriculture. Highly developed gardening and viticulture. Mechanical engineering, production of communications, measuring instruments, machine tools, chemical, pharmaceutical, metallurgical (especially aluminum, based on bauxite deposits), textile, and food industries are developed. Since 1989, production in the materials in consideants and energy-intensive industries, created with the support of the USSR, is reduced.
In the USSR, such export products of the Hungarian industry as buses of Ikarus and canned brands Globe was well known. International tourism is of great importance. A stable position in economics and society has made Hungary in recent years one of the most attractive countries in Eastern Europe. Monetary unit - Forinth.
The country is a member of the UN since 1955, joined Gatt in 1973, joined the IMF and IBRD in 1982, the Council of Europe in 1991. Since 1999, NATO member since 2004 - EU. From January 1, 2011, Hungary presides in the European Union for six months.
Hungary GDP in 2006 amounted to 100.3 billion US dollars, per capita - $ 9910. Hungary GDP on PPP per capita in 2006 amounted to $ 14900. The structure of GDP (for 2006): rural and forestry - 6.7%, industry and construction - 34.5%, services - 58.8%. The most noticeable changes in the structure of Hungary GDP in the 1990s. There was a reduction in the share of the agricultural sector and an increase in the share of services.
Private sector share in GDP - more than 80% (in 1990 - 10%). Privatization peak came to 1995, and by 1999 this process was mainly completed. In 2002 in state owned There were 190 enterprises (most of their low-profitable).
Industry of Hungary
The industry has the most developed manufacturing industries (provide 90.6% of gross industrial products), including car, and machine-and-instrument making (42.6%), food industry (15.0%), petrochemistry (13.8 %). After the decline of the con. 1990s. Stabilizes production in metallurgy and working almost exclusively on the Davalic raw materials of the light industry. The share of energy and water supply is 8.9%. In the extractive industries, production is gradually folded.
At large enterprises (the number of more than 300 people occupied.) 2/3 of all industrial products are produced, the process of production concentration continues, especially in mechanical engineering, energy and petrochemistry. The Hungarian industry is quite dependent on the state of the global market: more than half (52%) of all industrial production goes to export. Large enterprises are exported - depending on the industry - 60-80% of their products. The needs of the domestic market are mainly small and medium-sized enterprises (the number of employed up to 50 and to 300 people, respectively).
Statistical indicators of Hungary
(as of 2012)
Automotive industry. Among the largest enterprises are highlighted by car plants in the German "Audi" in the city of Gyor, Japanese "Suzuki" in the city of Estergom, American "General Motors" in the city of Sentsgotthard and the German "Daimler" in the city of Kechkemet. Among the enterprises producing autocompletes, plants of the American Ford are allocated in the city of Tekesfehervar, the Hungarian "Rab" in the city of Gyor, the Japanese "Dance" in the city of Tekesfehervar, American "Alcoa" in the city of Shakesfeherwar, Austrian "Magna Rotte" in the city of Gyor.
Electrical and electronic industry. Among the largest enterprises are allocated plants of the Finnish "Nokia" in the city of Komar, American "General Electric" in the cities of Budapest, Tatabani and Orostlan, Korean "Samsung Electronics" in the cities of Budapest, Good, Sigetsentmiklosh and Yasfensar, Dutch Philips in the cities , Singapore "Flexstronics" in the cities of Budapest and Tab, Swedish "Electrolux" in the city of Yasser, American "San Min-Si-ah" in the cities of Tekesfechervar and Tatabania, Hungarian-Singapore "Orion Electronics" in the city of Budapest, Luxembourg "Elkotek" in The city of Pec, American "Nashnel tools" in the city of Debrecen, Korean "Mirae" in the city of Komar, American "Alcoa" in the city of Mor, Dutch "En-Iks-Pi Semi-Condactors" in the city of Shakesfeherwar, Japanese "TDK Electronics" in Retasha Chinese "Huavei Teknolodzhis" in the city of Budapest, German "Inphineon Teknolodzhis" in the city of Zegeled, American "Jaibil Surkit" in Tisuwaros, German "Freudenberg" in Pezel, Singapore "Ji T Electronics "in the city of Budapest, American Ay-Bi-Em in the city of Tekesfeherwar.
Chemical industry. Among the largest enterprises are highlighted by an oil refining plant "Moles" in the city of Sazhalombatt, the Chemical Plant "TVK" (group "MOL") in the city of Tisuyvaros, Pharmaceutical plants "Hinoin", "Gideon Richter", "Hungarofarma" and "Egis" in the city of Budapest, Chemical plants "Borsodham" in the city of Kazinzbarcica and "Yas Plastic" in the city of Yasbena, the Korean Tyr Tyr Tine Plant in the city of Dunauwaros, a paintwork of Japanese "Musashi" in the city of Oroslan.
Metallurgical and metalworking industry. Among the largest enterprises are allocated by the Metallurgical Plant "Danubeferr" (Ukrainian Group IFD) in the city of Dunauvaros, Aluminum Plant of the American "Alcoa" in the city of Shakesfehervar, the Metal Field Plant of the Finnish "Rukki" in Biaatrbada.
Agriculture of Hungary
70% of the territory of Hungary occupy agricultural land. Forests cover 17% of the territory. The main agrarian districts of the country are on the plains of the central and eastern parts of Hungary.
In 1945-1948, the program of the Communist Party called on the section of large places, the elimination of "feudal remnants" in rural areas and the creation of independent small owners. The land was distributed among the peasants under the slogan: "The land belongs to those who processes it." In 1952, about a quarter of agricultural land and the fifth of the peasant families were officially united into collective farms. However, the volume of agricultural production has decreased. In 1953, with a more liberal "new course", about 2,000 cooperatives were dissolved and the volume of agricultural products increased to 18%. "Collectivization" sharply went on a decline after the 1956 revolution, however, by 1963, about 97% of the agricultural land of Hungary were at the disposal of collective farms.
In the post-communist period, which began in 1990, the Government made a large-scale restructuring program and privatization of agriculture. The landowners were returned to their property, many cooperatives were dissolved, and their lands were privatized. It was not about returning to the old fine-earth agriculture; The transition to a mixed system consisting of private and family farms, land associations and reorganized cooperatives based on equity and market-oriented production was seemed reasonable. Already in 1995, only about 30.6% of suitable lands were cultivated by cooperatives, 17.6% were in state ownership, the rest of the land belonged to individuals and enterprises.
Despite the strong drought in the early 1990s and the difficulties associated with the transition to a market economy, agricultural products continued to remain an important export item.
Agriculture of modern Hungary is of great importance for its economy. Fertile soil and mild climates contribute to the development of agricultural crops.
Hungary in terms of agriculture, self-sufficient country. Today in Hungary, such cultures, like wheat, corn, rice, vegetables, fruits, rye, barley, sunflower, oats, beets are grown. Buy vegetables wholesale in Hungary can be at any time. Many dairy and meat products are produced. The Hungarian agriculture employs 7.1% of the country's operating population, this structure includes 960,000 private farms and approximately 8,200 agricultural enterprises. The Hungarian Food Industry provides 17% of the total volume of industrial production and about 10% of exports. Hungary Food Industry is in demand in many foreign countries, such as Russia, Romania, Croatia. Good suppliers of vegetables from Hungary are known all over the world.
In Hungary, a high level of food concentration, this is due to large mergers and connections of many companies, among which there are foreign ones.
Hungary is also a country of winemaking. An old tradition and a wonderful climate for winemaking contributes to this. In the 90s, many state winery were given to private hands. As a result, a significant part formed very successful enterprises that produce high-quality wines. And overseas investors helped noticeably upgrading the production of wine.
At the same time, Hungary's agriculture with the beginning of the processes of socio-political transformation is experiencing problems. The main reasons include hasty elimination of agricultural cooperatives, omission in conducting land policies, insufficient level of industry financing, as well as droughts for a number of years. This led to a reduction in the specific gravity of agricultural products (without food industry) in GDP (in 1993-2002 from 17.7% to 4.3%), the shares of agricultural products in export, the number of occupied, the size of agricultural products, the livestock of animals and T.P.
National and Foreign Capital of Hungary
Among the largest Hungarian companies, the oil and gas group "MOL" is allocated (about a third of its shares belong to the Russian "Surgutneftegaz" and the Czech "Chase Group"), Bank "OTP", Energy Corporation "MVM", "Tigaz", "Beam" and "Fevarosi" , Pharmaceutical companies "Gideon Richter" and "Hungarofarma".
Among the 50th largest companies Hungary most belongs to foreign capital - automobile "Audi" (Germany), electronic "Nokia" (Finland), energy "E." (Germany) and "Plrylgaz" (belongs to the Russian Gazprom and German "E.") , Telecommunication "Magiar Telecom" (belongs to the German "Deutsche Telecom"), Electrotechnical "General Electric" (USA), electronic "Samsung Electronics" (Korea), Electrotechnical "Philips" (Netherlands), Automotive "Suzuki" (Japan), Trade "Tesko" (United Kingdom) and "Shp" (Netherlands), metallurgical "Danubeferr" (belongs to the Ukrainian group "ISD"), fuel "OMV" (Austria), pharmaceutical "Hinin" (belongs to the French "Sanofi Aventis"), electronic " Flexstronics "(Singapore), car" General Motors "(USA), fuel" Shell "(United Kingdom-Netherlands), trading" Ashhan "(France), chemical" borsodhom "(belongs to the Russian Gazprom), electrical" electrolyc "( Sweden), aluminum "Alcoa" (USA), trading "Metro" (Germany ), electronic "Sanmina ES-SI" (USA), telecommunication "Telenor" (Norway) and "Waterboron" (United Kingdom).
Also among large Hungarian companies, the Malev air carrier is allocated (belonging to the Russian "Vnesheconombank" and "Aeroflot"), the Food and Chemical Company "Yunilever" (United Kingdom-Netherlands), the Electrotechnical Company "GANC" (belongs to Czech Holding "Skoda"), trade Network "IKEA" (Sweden), "Bark" and "Match" (both belong to the Belgian group "Louis Delhayze"). IN banking sector Hungary presented German "Deutsche Bank", "Bayeris Landesbank" and "Commercial Bank", Austrian "Erst Bank" and "Raiffeisen Bank", Italian "Intes Sanpaolo" and "UniCredit", French "BNP Pariba" and "Credit Agrikol", Dutch Ing, American "Sitibank". Among the insurance companies of the country dominated by the German "Allian", the French "Aksa", Italian "Generally", the Dutch "Aergon".
Transportation of Hungary Hungary
Hungary has a well-developed network of transport communications. The length of the general use of more than 30 thousand km, 90% of them have a hard coating. Railways - 7.9 thousand km. The length of the inland waterways is 1.6 thousand km. The main river port is Budapest. Internal airlocks are not implemented, there is a network of small airfields for receiving small aviation. Ferieceed International Airport is located near Budapest.
A convenient transportation arrangement helps to increase the transit role of the country. Through the territory of Hungary, the "Friendship-I" (from Ukraine), "Friendship-II" (from Slovakia) and Adria (from Croatia), the Gas pipelines "Brotherhood" (from Ukraine) and Baumgartner-Gyor (from Austria ); The total length of pipelines is 7.2 thousand km. The construction of high-speed motorways is actively underway in the framework of the country of the so-called. Helsinki transport corridors: In 2002, 60% of the Hungarian sections of "corridors" have already complied with the established European requirements.
Total freight turnover 26.9 billion TKM (2002). Structure by type of transport: automotive - 51%, rail - 30%, pipeline - 15%, water - 3%. Structure in the direction of transportation: international - 60%, internal - 40%. Water and air transport in domestic freight transportation are practically not used. Passenger traffic on long-distance transportation 785 million people, at intracity - 2.8 billion people. (2002).
Banking system of Hungary Hungary
Since 1987, a two-level banking system has been operating in Hungary: the Hungarian National Bank (VNB) carries out emission and credit policies, overall control over the financial market, and authorized financial institutions credit directly economic entities.
In 1991-94, a government bank consolidation program was implemented, aimed at improving the crisis state of most banks and an increase in their assets, rehabilitation loan portfolio. Since 1995, the sale of packages of shares of consolidated banks by solid Western financial institutions began. By 1998, the privatization of Hungarian banks was almost over. The level of presence of foreign capital in the banking system is 63%. On start The 2000s, the Hungarian system of credit institutions consisted of 43 banks (90.3% of all financial and credit operations), 226 savings cooperatives (5.6%), 9 specialized financial institutions (3.6%) and 4 housing and savings boxes .
Tourism in Hungary
The area of \u200b\u200btourism is one of the most dynamically growing sectors of the Hungarian economy. It employs 300 thousand people. (7% of the economically active population) and it creates almost 10% GDP Countries. Developed travel infrastructure (hotels, catering, beach, wellness, entertainment complexes, swimming pools, hunting houses, fishing grounds, etc.) is focused on visitors with different sufficiency. Hungary annually takes 10-15 million foreign tourists. Currency revenue from tourism is $ 3.4 billion (for 2002).
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Russian diplomats have always carefully approached the analysis of cases in the Hungarian Half of the Danube Empire. In addition to the traditional collection of information about the country of location of the diplomatic mission, several specific factors appeared here. The first is the attitude to Austria-Hungary, as a completely likely enemy, with which sooner or later, Russia can enter into hostilities that required comprehensive information about the economic potential of the empire, without which it was impossible to conduct strategic planning of the scenario of a possible armed conflict with Austria-Hungary. Hence, the Russian military department was one of the main consumers of information coming from the Russian Consulate General in Budapest. It should be noted that the military department sought and independently collect information about Austria-Hungary, using the contacts of naval and military attache, held at the Russian Embassy in Vienna.
The territory of Hungary was almost closely adjacent to the borders of the Russian Empire, which once again updated for the Russian political and military escapes the significance of the study of Hungary and its economy. In Russia, the economic successes of Hungary took carefully. Hungary was the main producer of food in Austria-Hungary. In Hungary, new high-tech industries and, above all, electrical and defense were developed. Hungary mined minerals that have exceptional military-strategic importance for a warring country and in this connection Russia was interested in the Mining Metallurgical Industry of Hungary. In addition, Russia was interested in the development of the country's transport infrastructure, including the possibilities of the port in Fiume. It was associated with the assessment of the mobilization abilities of Austria-Hungary and its army. Hungary, by virtue of his geographical location, was between the Russian and Balkan fighting theaters and from its transport systems, the speed of movement of the troops of the Habsburg Empire was largely depended.
However, the Hungarian economy attracted the attention of not only Russian diplomats and military, but also representatives of Russian business. At the end of the XIX century. Economic relations between Russia and Hungary begin to gradually leave the state of the stupor. And although their volume was still insignificant and did not match economic potential The two countries and in Hungary, and in Russia among a significant part of business representatives showed mutual interest. Therefore, the economic circles of Russia demanded complete information from diplomats about the development of the national economy of Hungary.
Special attention to Hungary was heated by another circumstance. The development of the economies of the two countries coincided in many positions. Russia and Hungary relatively late entered the path of industrialization, in both countries the agricultural sector and agricultural exports had exceptional importance. And in Hungary, and in Russia, the task of modernizing agriculture was keenly, both countries depended on external investments. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century. In two countries begin to take into account each other's experience in conducting economic policies. Therefore, the Consul General in Budapest V. Lvov sought to provide St. Petersburg with full information about the successes and failures of the Hungarian economy. Results of 1900. Prince V. Lvov for the national economy of Hungary assessed skeptical: "Never Hungary was under pressure from such an oppressive economic Regulations, never so deeply realized her weakness, never had it more without her condition, and the prospects for the near future were not marked by greater dimming, as at the time of summing up the expired year (1900 - I. K.). " The Consul General allocated two cuts of the causes of such a state of affairs in Hungary. On the one hand, these were the miscalculations of the Hungarian government, on the other hand, the crisis in Hungary was exacerbated by the situation in world markets and could not influence Budapest to this circumstance.
The economic rise in Hungary of the late XIX century, in the opinion of the consul, faced the limited abilities of the country's consumer market. A significant part of the population of Hungary had a low level of income, so they did not act as active consumers of industrial products. In addition, in the conditions of the economic crisis, which struck Hungary at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, there is a drop in the standard of living of the wide segments of the population, which could not not be aggravated by the situation in the country's consumer market. Hence the Hungarian industry did not have more opportunities for further expansion of production.
The situation in the national economy of Hungary, according to Lviv, was complicated not by the definity of the economic relations of Austria with Hungary, as well as the growing competition from the Austrian industry. At the beginning of the twentieth century In Austria, antivenger sentiments are growing, including among representatives of the Austrian business. They looked at Hungary as a dependent in the Danube Empire and Austria, being the Economic Center for the Empire, carried more than 60% of general-ampic expenses. In addition, Vienna quite satisfied the position when Hungary was an agrarian appendage of Austria.
All this, in the opinion of the consul, contributed to the spread of ideas in Hungary on the full economic independence of the Kingdom of St. Ishthan from Austria. The Consul General in this state of affairs saw a greater danger of the unity of the Empire. "In Austria, they do not want to understand that open and secret hostility towards Hungary should encourage her to radical resolution of the highest economic task (obtaining the full economic independence of Hungary from Austria. - I. K.)." In the case of the rupture of Austria and Hungary of the Economic Union, both parties would lose. In this case, Austria lost the caustic market for its industrial goods, where competition from other states was limited by customs barriers, and Hungary was deprived of a profitable sales market for their agricultural products, lost its necessary Austrian technologies, investments and loans to it. Thus, the Consul General did not belong to the number of those politicians and diplomats, which believed that in case of obtaining Hungary, its full economic independence national economy It will receive some benefits, rightly noting the huge negative consequences for the Hungarian economy in the event of a rupture of economic ties with Austria.
The collapse of a single economic space was questioned the existence of the most dualistic monarchy. V. Lvov with understanding referred to the economic ambitions of Hungary. He believed that Hungary could no longer be an agrarian-raw crust of Austria, as the world's profitability fell in the world, European agrarians did not endure competition with agricultural producers of the New World countries and primarily with the United States. Regarding the active penetration of agricultural products from the United States to Europe V. Lvov: "There is no possibility that exacerbate competition to curb reaction legislative measures, it is possible to deal with it only through the development of productive forces, through the liberation of consumers from excessive eligible burden and, finally, through the unification All industries, with the ultimate goal of the Economic Association of Europe. From here, the industrialization of Hungary became the most important strategic task for Budapest.
This statement of the Consul General can well be attributed to the revolutionary for its time, when high customs duties and the construction of other prohibitive barriers in Europe and the United States were considered as the main panacea from competition with foreign manufacturers. V. Lviva can be rightfully attributed to the number of pioneers ideas of European integration in the Russian Foreign Ministry, these glances V. Lvov expressed more than once. V. Lviv believed that prohibitive customs duties are unable to improve the economy, only the modernization of the national economy and the growth of the cultural level of the population were able to withdraw Hungarian and other European economies from the crisis. Arguing about the industrialization of Hungary V. Lviv, constantly noted the vital necessity for the country of modernization of its agriculture. In his opinion, something in this direction did the Hungarian government. In particular, he positively assessed the regulation by the state labor relationship In the agrarian sector, the construction of irrigation systems, the patronage of the distinguished industry, the expansion of lending to agricultural producers, an attempt to create a system that facilitated the sale of agricultural products in Hungary and beyond, expanding the budget financing of agriculture. At the same time, the consul wrote: "... But it is impossible not to note with the unfortunate that Hungarian agrarians continued to be tireless agitation against other industries of the economic life of the state, namely industry and trade." At the glance, V. Lvov Agraria should have not been forgotten that Hungary's agriculture would fail if the progress in the agricultural sector of the country would not be accompanied by the rise in the industry and trade of Hungary. The country's agriculture could not successfully develop locally offline with other sectors of the economy.
World economy at the beginning of the twentieth century. It turned out to be in a difficult situation. Anglo-Board War, political instability in China, a wave of a strike movement in the leading countries of Europe, a coal crisis, a panic on the stock exchanges led to destabilization of the economic system. Under these conditions, investors begin to panic and withdraw their assets from developing economies, including Hungary, Russia, the Balkan Peninsula countries. Hungary belonged to those countries that had very limited internal investments, they largely depended on their economic development from the inflow of foreign capital, so his outflow hurts at the beginning of the century on their economy. Domestic investors could not fill the losses associated with the flight from the country of foreign investors, with which Hungary faced in 1900-3901. "All the aforementioned phenomena completely destroyed the influence of someone else's welfare and accumulation of foreign capital," V. Lvov wrote on this occasion.
The Consul General allocated intravenger factors that led to the economy to the deep crisis. First of all, this included internal political instability and split the ruling elite in the matter of the paths of the further economic development of Hungary. The interests of the Agrarians, industrialists and representatives of the trading business were intersected here. With all its sympathy for industrialization of Hungary V. Lviv believed that there was a dangerous distortion in favor of industry and to the detriment of the interests of agriculture.
The Consul General paid great attention to the anti-crisis policy of the Hungarian government. Only a perplexity of the diplomat caused the appeals of Hungary's politicians and businessmen to the consumer, about the need to acquire only domestic goods. It was, in his opinion, absolutely meaningless. First, the Hungarian industry was weak and she could not fully fill out the consumer market of the country. Secondly, the consumer in its market preferences is not focused on patriotism, but to such categories as the quality and price of goods.
V. Lviv with great attention related to other manifestations of the anti-crisis policy of the Hungarian government, the construction of new industrial enterprises, support for small industries, stimulating technical and vocational education Workers, the development of the marine fleet, all that in the future could lead to economic raising of Hungary. Moreover, there was one important prerequisite for this, despite the crisis, the Hungarians did not lose optimism and faith into the great future of their country.
Highly appreciating the efforts of the Government of Hungary on the conclusion of the country from the crisis, V. Lviv could not not pay attention to the alarming symptoms. So, Budapest conducted a policy on combining small traders into large associations. The government believed that these measures would save small merchants from ruin and will lead to further development of trade. But the consul drew attention to two dangerous moments associated with this process. First, the associations of merchants were created strictly according to a confessional principle, and not on the basis of economic feasibility, and, secondly, the associations immediately demanded subsidies from the state, which minor traders never did. The topic of excessive dependence of the Hungarian business from the state V. Lvov will be developed in detail in 1902
Considerable attention V. Lviv took the analysis of cases in certain sectors of the national economy of Hungary. In the country's industry, he noted contradictory processes against the background of a general decline in industrial production. In the conditions of the coal crisis in Europe and miner strikes in Bohemia in Hungary, the mining of stone coal increases, it even uses the term "coal boom". In addition, production growth was noted in the sugar, distinguished industry and in those enterprises that were under the control of syndicates. In the monopolization of the Hungarian industry, the consul saw one way to strengthen its positions within Hungary and beyond.
The economic crisis, which began in 1899, has developed in such industrial production sectors as the construction and production of building materials, metallurgy and mechanical engineering. In the conditions of the economic crisis, the interest of consumers is always reduced to the acquisition of real estate, which touched upon Hungary at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. The decline in the construction sector reached a threatening scale. Reduced construction in Hungary Railways, according to the consul, led to the deep crisis of metallurgy and mechanical engineering of Hungary. This situation was exacerbated by the collapse of the Austria-Hungarian Iron Syndicate, which led to the exacerbation of competition in Metallurgy Austria and Hungary. The industrial decline led to an increase in the number of unemployed among the Hungarian workers, which could not exacerbate social tensions in the country. It was combined with a drop in the level of wages in Hungary and the increase in the cost of life.
This circumstance forced the Government of Hungary to conduct an active social policy. Evaluating her results Consul wrote: "The Hungarian Government during the reporting year (1900 G. - I. K.) perfectly regulated the situation of agricultural workers. As for the factory workers, the Hungarian industry, unfortunately, is too weak to take on the same serious obligations that lie on the industry in Austria and Germany. " V. Lvov as a whole assessed the efforts of the Government of Hungary on the development of social legislation, which confirm the subsequent reports. However, he perfectly understood that the development of social legislation is directly related to the level of labor productivity in industry, any reduction in working day and raising the salary is impossible without an industrial production to a new quality level. Unaffected by technological innovations, social benefits lead to collapse industrial production of any country, especially such "young" industrial countries, like Hungary. The Consul General showed a gap in the industrial development of Austria and Hungary, so Austria, unlike Hungary, could conduct a more decisive social policy, including in the "working question".
In agriculture, the harvest of 1900 was very mediocre, not justifying those hopes that Hungarian Agrarians lay on him at the beginning of the year. It was about 3% lower than the average for the last 5 years. All this was accompanied by low prices for the grain, which were in the world market and the drop in wool prices, despite some of their growth at the end of the XIX century. True, progress was noted in the production of grapes to countries, the consul emphasized the high quality of grapes in 1900. The same successes were noted in the production of fruits and vegetables.
Economic instability affected the development of the country's financial and banking system. The balance of payments of Hungary is constantly covered by loans and temporary budget articles. The population savings practically did not grow, the volume of credit operations of Budapest banks decreased, if on January 1, 1899 they amounted to 515 million kroons., On January 1, 1900, only 480 million kroons. All this led to the fall of the Hungarian course valuable papers and the volume of transactions in the Hungarian stock exchanges. True, among the reasons for the exchange crisis, the consul has allocated not only economic instability. The Government of Hungary introduced an exchange tax and limited the independence of the Exchange to combat exchange speculation, which could not also not affect the volume of exchange transactions. The crisis has affected the country's insurance sector. Despite all the difficulties, the Hungarian banks managed to avoid significant losses, and this was largely caused by the actions of the State Bank of Austria-Hungary, who soften the effects of the economic crisis and accumulate the Gold reserves of the Danube Empire.
In the transport of the country also occurred ambiguous processes. In 1900, traffic volumes on railways increased. At the same time, the river fleet was experiencing stagnation, and the sea fleet, on the contrary, increased traffic. It was connected with some increase in the export of Hungarian goods outside the Danube Empire. True, Hungary's trade balance itself caused serious concerns from the consul. The country has completely depended on the export of sugar, coal and forest, which made it vulnerable to its position in the world market, it was necessary to diversify Hungarian exports, but for this it was necessary to develop industrial production focused on the production of export products, and with this there were problems even with Austria.
A great concern for the Hungarian elite and V. Lvov caused an increase in Germany of customs duties to import Hungarian agrarian products. In Budapest and St. Petersburg, they perfectly understood that this would lead to the exacerbation of competition of Russian and Hungarian producers in the markets of other European countries and that the interests of Russian and Hungarian agrarians will suffer in this struggle. It was afraid of this and Lviv, bringing their warnings to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire.
The interests of the Russian side to cases in the Hungarian economy says the fact that the Consulate General in Budapest has crossed the annual reports of the Ministers of Commerce and Agriculture of Hungary in the Parliament of the country, the materials of the parliamentary debate on this issue and a number of analytical materials of the Budapest Chamber of Commerce for 1901 G. All this went without bills and own comments, which increases the importance of these documents as historical sources.
Becomed 1902 later pushed the news of the economy to the background. The Consulate General in Budapest was more interested in interethnic relations in Hungary, who are beginning to sharpen. In 1902, the work of the Serbian National Church Cathedral once again failed. This actualized the problem of the provisions of the South Slavs in Hungary. The Viennese authorities have intensified their penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which also increased the friction of the administration with a part of the local Slavic population. In Hungary herself, the discussion on the nature and strategy of national politics was aggravated. These and other political events dominated the deposits and messages of the Consulate General in St. Petersburg.
In general, in the economy of Hungary in 1902, V. Lviv stated the continuation of stagnation, the reasons for which three negative factors were included. The first is an excessive guardian state guardianship. joint stock companies and individual enterprises with a wide system of benefits and government orders, which generated dependent sentiment among them, suppressed a private initiative and reduced competitiveness. This point of view was shared by many economists and politicians within the empire of the Habsburgs and beyond. However, the Government of Hungary was afraid to completely release his industry in " free swimming", Fearing that she will not be able to compete with the Austrian industry on equal terms, not to mention such leaders like Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States. By the way, in Russia itself, the situation in this regard did not differ from Hungary.
The second factor, such a repetitive in the reports of such a plan, is the continuing uncertainty of economic relations with Austria. And the third factor, perhaps, who sounded the first time, the failure of Magyar entrepreneurs against the background of the success of their Jewish colleagues. V. Lvov came to the disappointing conclusion for Magyar: they were inferior to Jews in all indicators (entrepreneurial initiative, the desire for innovation, the lack of fear of free competition, etc.). Magyarsky business was little effective and explicitly lost to the Jewish business. These arguments of the consul had a good basis. Indeed, the Jewish community of Hungary by virtue of their abilities, energy, knowledge took a significant place in the economy, culture, social sphere Countries, playing a big role in Hungary's successes at the end of the XIX - early XX century.
In agriculture, the results of the year were contradictory. On the one hand, in Hungary, 1902 was a yield, and the prices for agricultural products did not fall, since the demand for Hungarian agricultural exports in the United States increased in Austria in Austria. But, on the other hand, in the European market Hungary did not strengthen its position, as cheap products from Russia and Romania flooded it. The results of the foreign trade activities of Hungary Consul assessed positively as the work of state railways.
In one of the reports of the Consulate General of Russia in Budapest, there are very notable assessments of the prospects for the development of economic relations between Hungary and Russia. In his report of January 27, 1902, Prince V. Lvov made a conclusion that in Austria is growing among politicians and business representatives interest in the development of economic relations with Russia, but these aspirations did not find support among the Hungarians. On the one hand, the political elite in Budapest feared that the development of economic relations with Russia could lead to cooling relations with Berlin. On the other hand, Hungary was afraid that in the context of expanding the economic contacts of two neighboring empires, it may encounter tough competition with Russian agricultural products in the Austrian market. Consequently, the main threat to the development of good-neighborly relations between Austro-Hungary and Russia, Prince V. Lvov, saw in the position of the Hungarian leadership and business. By the way, this position was quite common not only in the Russian Foreign Ministry, but also in the socio-political and business circles of the country as a whole.
Russia carefully followed the discussion in Hungary and beyond the feasibility of the construction of a canal connected to Oder with the Danube. In addition to the development of economic relations of Austria-Hungary with Germany, this channel had an important strategic importance in the event of war. It was not passing by the attention of the Russian diplomat and the plan for the construction of railways in Bosnia and Herzegovina approved by the Hungarian Parliament. Thus, the consulate very carefully tracked any information on the development of transport arteries of Hungary and adjacent territories. Russian diplomats in Vienna collected the same information.
The consulate was given in 1902 a significant attention to the prospects for the development of the economic relations of Hungary with Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition to the noted plan for the construction of railways, which, in the opinion of the Consul, testified to the economic relations of Hungary with Bosnia and Herzegovina, V. Lviv stated the fact of expanding the Hungarian penetration into the occupied provinces. In particular, the increase in Hungarian exports in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 19.8 million kroons in 1898 to 24 million kroons in 1900 was bright. The consul in the future predicted the further development of the relations of Hungary with Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Thus, the Consulate General of Russia in Budapest in 1900-3902. It stated in the economy of Hungary stagnation after a long-term economic lift in the last third of the XIX century. The reasons for this phenomenon were under itself as long-term foundations: unfavorable conjuncture on the global agricultural market, acute competition from the Austrian industry, lack of investment, excessive state intervention in the national economy, the narrowness of the domestic market and short-term foundations in the face of the uncertainty of economic relations with Austria, Tactical miscalculations of the Hungarian government. At this time, the period of the previous economic agreement with Austria was completed, and according to a new agreement, the parties could not come to a compromise. With the exception of some estimates V. Lvov, in general, gave objective information about the economic development of Hungary.
However, he often could not disparate facts to collect in a kind of holistic system. The castle in the details, the consul did not see many obvious facts, including in principle the high rates of economic development of Hungary at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, despite some "overheating" of the economy. In 1897, the gross domestic product of Hungary was 340.41 million kroons, in 1900 - 371.84 million kroons, in 1901 - 375, 83 million kroons, in 1902 - 396.07 million kroons . And nevertheless, this circumstance in no way begins the advantages of the information materials of Russian diplomats working in Budapest. Until now, they are an important historical source when studying major trends and contradictions of the development of the Hungarian economy in the era of dualism.
For two decades, after the end of World War II, Hungary has turned from a predominantly agrarian country into an industrial-agricultural country. In 1968, Hungary began to carry out an economic reform, known as the "New Economic Mechanism" title. Industrial and agricultural enterprises were provided with large autonomy in the production and decision-making and sales issues; Trade with Western countries has significantly expanded; Domestic prices have come closed more with prices in world markets, and people gave broad freedom to engage in all kinds of small private business.In 1990, Hungary began a transition to a free market economy. Some important economic measures were adopted in the early 1990s, but the main reforms began in 1995, when the Finance Minister Layos Brojok presented his radical program.
The new government has begun to introduce a market economy by reducing the share of state ownership, increasing the share of foreign capital in investments and removing obstacles to liberate the market and introducing open competition. By 1994, the share of the private sector in the inner gross product increased to 45%, and foreign direct investment increased from 200 million to $ 5 billion. However, a sharp transition caused significant budget deficit And put many on the face of survival. In 1995, after the introduction of the reforms of the driver, the promotion of Hungary on the way to a market economy scored the pace. The growth of foreign investments was continued, which constituted half of all foreign investments in the countries of the former Eastern bloc. In 1995, more than $ 4 billion were sent to Hungary. Direct foreign investment (FDI), in 1996 and 1997 $ 3.6 billion were invested.
National income. In the 1980s, Hungary was the only country of the Soviet bloc (except for Romania), which published national income statistics that correspond to the generally accepted world. In 1980, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Hungary is the cost of goods and services produced within the country - was approximately equivalent to $ 20 billion or about $ 2,000 per capita. In the late 1980s, the stagnation of GDP began, and during transition period The 1990s in the economy the volume of gross domestic product began to decrease. In 1991, GDP was 11.9% below the level of 1990. By 1996, the Ground National Product of Hungary increased to an equivalent of $ 75 billion (or $ 7500 per person).
In 2003, Hungary's GDP became equal to 139.8 trillion dollars or 13,900 per capita.
Labor resources.In the post-war period, the main structural change in the labor resources system was the working strength of the workforce from agriculture (in which more than half of all employed countries worked in 1949. In 1949-1983, the number of people employed in the mining and manufacturing increased to 857,000, whereas in agriculture decreased to 1,113,000 people. Registered in 1992 the number of employed was distributed as follows: 29% - in industry; 15% - in health care, social infrastructure and culture; 14% - in rural and forestry; 13% - in trade; and 9% - in transport and in the field of telecommunications. Another important change in the structure of employment was the increase in the share of women; In 1949, they accounted for only 25% of employed, but in 1994 this figure was 52.8%. The appropriate trend slowed down in the second half of the 1990s, as a result, the proportion of women among those employed decreased to 49.8%.
The transition to capitalism in the early 1990s caused a sharp rise in unemployment level: the number of registered unemployed increased from 79,521 people in 1990 to 657,331 people in late 1993. However, since 1994, the unemployment began to slowly decrease and reached 10% at the end of 1998.
Agriculture. 70% of the territory of Hungary occupy agricultural land. Forests cover 17% of the territory. The main agrarian districts of the country are on the plains of the central and eastern parts of Hungary.
In the post-communist period, which began in 1990, the government took a large-scale program of restructuring and privatization of agriculture. The landowners were returned to their property, many cooperatives were dissolved, and their lands were privatized. It was not about returning to the old fine-earth agriculture; The transition to a mixed system consisting of private and family farms, land associations and reorganized cooperatives based on equity and market-oriented production was seemed reasonable. Already in 1995, only about 30.6% of suitable lands were cultivated by cooperatives, 17.6% were in state ownership, the rest of the land belonged to individuals and enterprises.
Despite the strong drought in the early 1990s and the difficulties associated with the transition to a market economy, agricultural products continued to remain an important export item. In 1992, about 16.5% of GDP accounted for agriculture, but the production of fixed crops decreased, since attempts to master new markets and new methods of agriculture led to an inevitable temporary decline.
In 1997, Hungary processed 717,000 tons of grapes, of which 612 T went to the manufacture of wine. Wine production in 1997 amounted to 394 million liters, about the fourth part of it goes to export.
At the same time, livestock livestock increased significantly, especially the pigstock of pigs. In 1997, Hungary had 4.93 million pigs, 871,000 heads of cattle, 858,000 million sheep and 31 million birds.
Fisheries. Fish ponds supplied by fry from incubators occupy more than 25,300 hectares, i.e. 0.3% of the country. Fish for commercial purposes is also caught in the Danube and on Lake Balaton. In 1992, the total fish catch, first of all Karp, was 20,000 tons.
Forestry. Hungary gradually restored its forests, which in 1998 covered the area of \u200b\u200bmore than 1.6 million hectares, i.e. 17% of the country. Every year, the country imports a large number of timber.
Mining industry.Hungary has very limited mineral resources. The only mineral fossil detected in significant quantities is bauxites mined near Lake Balaton. In 1983, Hungary was the seventh manufacturer of bauxite - it was produced 2.9 million tons. However, by the end of the 1990s, many mines were closed, and the production of bauxite decreased to about 1 million tons - compared with 1.7 million. T in 1992. Near the sir and Comles in the south-west there are small reserves of low-grade anthracite, and in the Budapest area - large deposits of brown coal (lignite). In 1985, 2.6 million tons of anthracite and 21.4 million tons of brown coal were produced in Hungary; In 1991, their production decreased to 1.6 million tons of anthracite and 15.3 million tons of brown coal. The railway deposits are located in the Miskolts region (in the northeast). Hungary miners a small amount of oil and natural gas from the well in the Segeda basin and the hall area in the south-west of the country. In 1998, 3.5 million tons of oil and 4.7 billion cubic meters were produced here. m natural gas. In Hungary there is a Uranium Ore, but all information about its extraction is classified.
Energy. In 1997, about 69.3% from hydrocarbon sources, 12.6% of coal, 10.1% of nuclear energy, 7% of the exported electricity, 1.0% of the exported electricity were obtained from the total energy consumed energy.
In 1997, Hungary consumed 37,215 megawatts of electricity hours, 93% of which was produced in the country. In 1983, a nuclear power plant was entered into operation, on the Danube, south of Budapest. The 4,968 megawatts of electricity produced in 1997 to produce 4,968 megawatts, providing approximately 38% of the energy consumed in the country as a whole.
Manufacturing industry.Up until the 1970s, followed by one after another five-year-old plans sent a significant part of the investment in the heavy industry, especially in the industry that produced cast iron and steel, industrial equipment, trucks and buses, cement and chemicals. After the introduction of a new economic mechanism in 1968, more attention began to be paid to the development of the food industry - the main source of export sales in capitalist markets - and the production of computers, products of accurate engineering, research appliances, industrial and consumer electronics, pharmaceutical goods, communication equipment and consumer goods. Although most Hungarian factories were so outdated and ineffective that their products could find export markets only within the Soviet bloc, Hungary for the mid-1980s developed modern industries that demanded high qualifications of workers, which made it possible to enter international markets.
Although more than one fifth of the national income of Hungary gave the manufacturing industry, the heavy industry by the beginning of the 1990s was in a deep crisis due to the high level of production costs, limited reserves mineral resources, and outdated equipment and mechanisms. Key industrial complexes In Debrecen and Diere continued to work, but in traditional metallurgical centers, like DunuyavoSho and Mischlin, the level of unemployment rapidly increased rapidly.
Transport. Budapest is the central node of the Hungarian transport system, which in 1995 included 1576 km of shipping waterways, 69,957 km of roads and 7635 km of railways (1998), of which about 29% were electrified. Budapest airports Ferihyded-1 and Ferieceed-2 serve both domestic and international airlines.
In the 1950s by railways Almost 80% of all goods were transported, and cars were only 13%. By 1992, only about 41% of all cargo was transported by railways and 40% - by road. However, railway transport continued to transport the bulk of long-distance cargo. Water transport is especially important for the carriage of heavy loads, such as iron ore and coal. Excluding the coldest part of the winter, Danube is shipping all over in Hungary, and Tisa to Solnoka.
Domestic trade and services. Since the end of World War II, all the wholesale and almost all retail trade was carried out by the state from the end of the Second World War. In 1989, almost 40,000 retailers and food points were privately owned. In 1992, their number reached 111,513, and by 1997 - 152,000 (two thirds of all stores).
By 1997, more than four fifth officially registered services market occupied private firms.
Foreign trade and payments. Until the Second World War, Hungary traded mainly with European countries, and the Soviet Union accounted for less than 1% of its trade. In the first decade after the arrival of the Communists to power about 90% foreign trade Hungary accounted for countries of the Soviet bloc. The main export items were equipment for heavy industry, vessels, locomotives and transport equipment, chemicals, textiles, oil and oil products, ore and products; Imports - machines, agricultural equipment, coke, iron, cotton, wool and wood. After 1958, Hungary expanded trade with the West and the countries of the Third World. By 1982, the countries of the Soviet bloc accounted for 55.2% of foreign trade.
In the 1980s, West Germany became the main trading partner of Hungary outside the Soviet bloc. In 1992, Germany accounted for 23.5% of imports and 27.7% of exports; The successors of the former Soviet Union are 16.9% of imports and 13.1% of exports. Other important trading partners in the early 1990s were Austria and Italy. Business relations developed with the United States, although the volume of trade was not so significant (2.9% of imports and 3.2% of exports).
In 1995, the total external trade of Hungary was $ 28 billion. Exports reached $ 13 billion, and imports - $ 15 billion. Main export items - Machinery and transport equipment, clothing, shoes, chemical products, medicines, petroleum products, Iron and steel. The main objects of import are oil and petroleum products, natural gas, textiles and products from it, iron and steel, machines, vehicles and spare parts for them.
Until the early 1970s, exports and imports were balanced. However, during the 1970s, imports, especially on oil, grew significantly faster than export revenues. Already in 1981, Hungary had to export goods by 25% more to cover the volume of imports. As a result, a serious trade deficit was formed, which was covered at the expense of foreign loans. They were obtained almost entirely at Western banks and the International Monetary Fund, which led to an increase in Hungary debt with less than $ 1 million in 1970 to $ 25.5 billion in 1997.
Tourism. In the 1950s, most tourists came from other countries of the Soviet bloc, but in the 1960s Hungary began to encourage tourists' arrival from Western countries. The number of such tourists has increased from 244,000 to 1960 to 37.6 million in 1990 and to 40 million in 1996.
Hungary - the eighth in the degree of attractiveness of the country of the world. In Hungary, there are a number of resorts that are equipped with modern physiotherapy products, and Lake Balaton with its hotels and a wide range of recreation sites enjoys the greatest attention of tourists. The greatest number of tourists arrives from Romania (mainly because there is a significant ethnic Hungarian minority), Germany, Austria, Yugoslavia and the republics of the former Yugoslavia. The number of tourists from America reached in 1996 390,000. In 1996 and 1997, annual revenues from tourism amounted to 2.2 and 2.6 billion dollars, respectively.
Currency and banking. The monetary unit is a forint. Until 1976, Forinth had several parallel exchange rates. One course was set relative to the "solid" currencies, which could be used for procurement of goods in the West; It was the so-called "foreign" exchange rate. The non-profit course was used for tourism and the transfer of money from abroad, and the commercial course - in foreign trade and was half a non-profit course. In 1976, a foreign exchange rate was abolished, and in 1981, non-commercial and commercial courses were merged.
In the mid-1990s, most of the major banks of Hungary belonged to the state. The National Bank covers a central place in the management of the Hungarian economy. In addition to their own banking functions - the issue of money and establishment interest rateHe leads to the management of a commercial banking business, adopts deposits, provides loans to corporations and cooperatives on investing and working capital, and also engaged in foreign trade transactions. Many banks take the main types of credit cards, but most consumer transactions in Hungary are carried out with cash. Currency reserve of Hungary in 1998 was 8.8 billion dollars.
Public Finance. The state budget still has the prevailing effect on the economy. In 1998, the expenditures of the Central Government were 56% of the officially approved gross national product (GNP). The budget deficit in 1998 was 2.9% GNP, sharply decreased to this figure (from 8.4%) in 1994. One of the main goals of the program program - the liquidation of the budget deficit.
The greatest part of government costs, about 40% in 1997, is under subsidies to budget organizations. Approximately 24% stand out on social insurance and assistance programs, 27% - for servicing debts and interest payments, 8.4% is spent on subsidies to public enterprises, agriculture and support for consumer goods. Tax receipts account for approximately 14% of the tax on the income of state and cooperative enterprises, 37.4% of taxes on individual consumption (additional investment of luxury goods, excise fees), 18.2% of families (taxation of personal property, social insurance and T .d.), 13.9% of payments budget organizations, 9% of the fees for paying capital debt and interest on public debt and 7.5% of taxes on privatization.
Hungary - The new post-socialist country of Central Europe with the economy in which the basic market principles have already been established. The modern level of economic and social development of Hungary experts consider one of the highest among the countries of Central and Southeast Europe. The Hungarian economy is largely focused on the European Union. In early 2000, the conjuncture in EU countries contributed to the accelerated economic growth and in Hungary: in the first quarter of GDP increased by 6.6% compared to the same period 1999. Antended by the end of 2000. The slowdown in the economic growth in the European Union played defining The role in reducing growth rates and in Hungary.
Nevertheless, in general, in 2000, Hungary managed to retain one of the leading places among the countries of the region in terms of economic growth (5.3% at an average rate of increase in Central European countries about 4.2%).
The forced inflow of foreign capital led to the root restructuring of the structure of the Hungarian economy. In recent years, an industrial-agrarian structure of the Western European type economy has been formed: industry and construction provide more than 30% of manufactured GDP, agriculture is about 5%, and the service area is 65%.
The current monetary and financial situation of Hungary is quite strong and sustainable. Despite the significant deterioration for the country, the conditions of foreign trade, under admissible limits, it is possible to maintain the shortage of foreign trade and balance of payments of the country.
The degree of liberalization of the foreign trade regime carried out in Hungary is assessed by the WTO Secretariat mainly positively, although a relatively high average level of customs duties applied by Hungary as part of the greatest favored regime is noted.
Industry of Hungary
Country of hotness natural resourcesBut it has favorable agro-climatic and recreational conditions, it is advantageous geographically.
The only minerals discovered in significant quantities are bauxites mined near Lake Balaton in 1983 Hungary was the seventh manufacturer of bauxite - it was produced by 2.9 million tons. However, by the end of the 1990s, many mines were closed, and Bokuxite production decreased to about 1 million tons - compared with 1.7 million tons in 1992
The main mineral of Hungary - coal. Completed mainly brown coal and lignites. Mining is carried out in the area of \u200b\u200bthe cities of Tatabania, Roads, Shalgatarean, Diendies, Ozd, Miskolc. Also in the mountains of swords mined stone coal. In the Miskolts region (in the northeast) there are deposits of iron ore. Hungary also has metal reserves such as iron, gallium, molybdenum, copper, zinc, gold, manganese. Hungary miners a small amount of oil and natural gas from the well in the Segeda basin and the hall area in the south-west of the country. In 1998, 3.5 million tons of oil and 4.7 billion cubic meters were produced here. m natural gas. Manganese and iron ore are being developed. In Hungary there is a Uranium Ore, but all information about its extraction is classified.
The industry has the most developed manufacturing industries (90.6% of GDP) the leading industry of the manufacturing industry - mechanical engineering, including:
- automotive construction (Ikarus plant in Budapest and Texfeherwar - the largest bus manufacturer in Europe).
- Production of locomotives, ships, cranes.
- Electrical and electronic industry (including the production of communications, computing equipment, medical equipment and appliances (Budapest, Temkesfehemar)).
- Stankostroita (Budapest, Miskolc, Estergom).
- Production of agricultural machinery and equipment for light and food industry.
Electrical products, electronics, engines, diesel locomotives, motorcycles, buses, river ships, industrial equipment, televisions and radio receivers, household appliances, etc. There are companies in black and non-ferrous metallurgy.
In the chemical industry, the production of mineral fertilizers, plant protection products, organic synthesis products, develops rubber industry, occupies an important place. different kinds Plastics, synthetic materials. A relatively high level has reached pharmaceutical production (15% of the cost of industrial products). With long traditions, this industry relies on a powerful research base, with which more efficient means of combating various diseases are constantly being developed.
Significant food industry: large meat and canning enterprises. From the light industry industries are the most developed sewing, leather-shoe, knitted. Hungarian fabrics, ready-made clothing, shoes, furniture, as well as the products of meat processing and canning industry enjoy well-known fame in many countries of the world.
The food industry relies almost completely to the domestic raw material base, the individual light industry industries need significant imports of raw materials and semi-finished products. Hungary imports cotton, wool, flax, crude skin, wood, cellulose.
After the decline of the late 1990s. Stabilizes production in metallurgy and working almost exclusively on the Davalic raw materials of the light industry. The share of energy and water supply is 8.9%. In the extractive industries, production is gradually folded.
The Hungarian industry is quite dependent on the state of the global market: more than half (52%) of all industrial production goes to export. Large enterprises are exported - depending on the industry - 60-80% of their products. The needs of the domestic market are mainly small and medium-sized enterprises (the number of employed up to 50 and to 300 people, respectively).
In addition, handicrafts received widespread in Hungary :: embroidery, ceramics, curtains, wooden toys, dolls, wicker baskets, porcelain, goose fluff.
