Civilian, family, economic and many other legal relations entail financial obligations. Their occurrence and impairment generates such concepts as debt and debt. Despite the semantic similarity, these terms have two different meanings.
Concept and signs of the current commitment
Conclusion loan agreement, leasing, the design of the loan suggest that the borrower lens means and undertakes to return them in a timely manner in compliance with the agreed conditions. This is a debt, that is, the current commitment to return the property or monetary assets received. The meaning of the term only confirms the legal fact, but does not imply that the agreement is violated or not respected.
Based on occurrence:
- Mutual agreement - contracts, loans, loans;
- Legitimate grounds - alimony, fines, judicial decisionTaxes.
In other words, the concept is interpreted as the obligation to pay anything in set time In agreed or enshrined legislation in strict accordance with the payment procedure.
Violation of agreements
Debt is a non-timely completed or ignored commitment, that is, the amount of money payable in order to be covered.
Signs:
- This is not the current obligation to pay, but its violation;
- Applied to legal and individuals (payables and receivables);
- Provided legal responsibility.
Examples are non-payment of taxes, evasion of alimony, the lack of payments on the loan.
Debt is always expressed in monetary sum. To protect their interests, the lender has the right to apply to the court, which means the probability of recovery not only the principal amount, but also accrual penalties in the form of penalties, interest and missed benefits.
DEBT
(Greek Deon; Lat. Officiuum, Obligatio; PFLicht; English. Duty, Obligation; FR. Devoir, Obligation; IT. Devere) - One of the fundamental concepts of ethics, which means morally argued coercion to actions; moral, acting as a subjective principle of behavior. D. embodies the imperativeness of morality. Actions themselves, since they are motivated by D., referred to as responsibilities; "" It suggests that (what action) is committed, and the concept of D. - about why it is done: to serve the Fatherland, to fulfill the promises, take care of children there is a duty, to do it on moral grounds there are D. Action is performed on moral grounds then when it is committed not because of the external considerations towards it (by order, for the sake of benefits, due to the inclination, etc.), but on the grounds that it itself contains moral, is for the subject personally significant .
Rus. "D." It has another second (what is taken loose and must be returned, ch. Money). D. value, in the sense of relations between the lender and the debtor, allows to open the historical roots and socio-communicative moral significance. At least, in part "in the debt right, the seating by the world of moral concepts" ",", "Debt", "Debt Sacredness" (F. Nietzsche). Debt liabilities have become a prototype of obligations whose execution is unconditional. We are talking about such unconditional, which cannot be reliably guaranteed externally. This requires another coercion, imposing a duty regarding the duty itself, which is the meaning of moral D.
The beginning of the theoretical understanding of D. goes back to the stoic school, to the proposed Zeno from the kitiona, the allocation in the human behavior of two slices: actually moral and proper. Appropriate (nature-like) actions and there is morally due, it; Altogether morally due in this case acts as actions, unfortunate. Such a theoretical design allowed the rational-pragmatic validity of the actions to supplement them with a reasonable-moral rationale and comprehend as D., duties. Cicero transformed the doctrine of D. So that two ways of motivating behavior were interpreted as two different stages of moral behavior. His kn. "On duties" and meaningfully, and terminologically became a kind of canon of philosophical and cultural arguments about D. Up to I. Kant.
The teachings of Cicero about D. borrowed Ambrosy Mediologian and transferred it to medieval soil. The new concept of D. is comprehended within the concept of natural law. D. Yum writes that "we have no other motives to fulfill promises, except for debt." T. Gobbs, as impossible in the event that he contradicts what he argued earlier and the public is impossible if a person arbitrarily destroys what he had previously done; The fact that in scholastic disputes is referred to as absurdity, in worldly disputes is called injustice, illegality, violation of D. Contractual D., according to which the procedure of the Agreement imposes a commitment to a person with respect to the obligations of the Agreement, is quite logically derived from the socio-treaty society and state -You, but in this theory itself, as it was embodied in the works of philosophers of the new time, thinking of still ontologically and full pathos of truth and good, was only scheduled in general terms. The contract version of D. became the basis of an independent theory in our days within the framework of the so-called. Discursive ethics (K.O. Apel, Yu. Habermas).
The most developed theory D. offered Kant.
Because, Kant believes, acts in the form of a categorical imperative, unconditional coercion to the act, the only subjective basis, thanks to which he acquires effectiveness and becomes human moral law, is D. D. There is a coercion to the act by moral law. D. Dan is only in correlation and confrontation with inclinations. D. does not cancel the other maxims that everything can be interpreted as Maxima selflessness, he only plays them with thedzer. Compliance with the criterion of general accountability and, in the case of a positive result, there are their moral sanction, which is a supplement and strengthening of these. The procedure of such weighing is reduced to a mental experiment, during which a person as a reasonable creature should answer itself on, he would have made the corresponding also in the event that he had no benefit to him or if he contradicted his inclinations. Moral, according to Kant, you can recognize only such an act that is not just consensy D., but is committed for the sake of D.: "Duty is the need for a deed from respect to the law." Subsequent reflections about D. were the form of mitigation of the ethical Rigorism of Kant (in the schools of neocantianism) or his criticism (almost all subsequent original ethical systems).
Modern, which is customary to be called postclassical, in an ethical aspect as a whole is characterized by antinormativism. This is found, in particular, in criticizing the imperative form of morality, reducing the value status of D. and its displacement to the periphery of moral life. The concept of D., and in particular, remain for the philos. Ethics open problem.
Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivin. 2004 .
the category of ethics in which the morals are expressed. a task departure Individual, groups of persons, class, people in specific social conditions and situations that become internally accepted by the obligation (This D. differs from the more abstract concept of due, hugging the area in general all the requirements for people in the form of norms). In the history of morals, the consciousness of mankind D. was interpreted differently, in accordance with the socially valuable or class understanding of the duties lying on a person in one or another era; It has always been associated with specific problems of time and this society. According to your universal. The content of the concept of D. includes the execution of a number of historically developed "the simplest rules of human. hostels. " As for the nature of D., then this has always been a collision of various schools and directions of F-Los. ethics. The bases of D. bind to a form of the interpretation of the art. necessity (execution of deities. Veneers, K.L. Kosmich. Or otherworldly laws, officer or nonophice. societies. Institutions, self-effectiveness internal Personality I. t. d.). In Marxist ethics, Moral D. is considered as specifying the general requirements of morality with historical. Origin, in relation to the circumstances, the situation, the ability and capabilities of a person who determine and the measure of his personal responsibility and make up the content of its motives and conscience. In D., t. about., It is expressed by art. The specificity of the socio-ideological position of the individual in relation to the established societies. situations, conflict and alignment of class forces and t. P., internal beliefs and ways to implement them.
In the communist morality, D. man is comprehended primarily in terms of the struggle for the destruction of exploitation and the construction of socialism and communism.
Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. GL Editorial: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .
advanced as an internal experience of coercion to act in accordance with the needs emanating from ethical values \u200b\u200band build it in accordance with these requirements. According to the Ficht, for which everything is "the material execution material", there is only one - debt. The only belief: with joy and unbiased to do what, in any case, prescribes debt, do not give up doubts or thinking about the consequences.
Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010 .
For most School schools. Bourges. Ethics, especially for pragmatism, existentialism, hedonism is characterized by a complete ethic. , giving up to denial D. "A sense of duty, - writes t. V. Smith, is the last silent witness of the past, and the sooner we will overcome and forget it, the better" ("ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES", V. 5- 6, NY, 1950, p. 294). Various schools of positivistic ethics reduce the problem of D. to logic. analysis, to clarify the ratio of fact and urlanting; They are completely indifferent actual. Human content. behavior. So, representatives of the school ethić. IntuiviShism prove that D. self-shaped, do not delete, is not based on social needs and non-estee. Another school in Sovr. Bourges. Ethics - - argues that the feeling of D. is only an expression of our tendency, psychological. "Settings"; It does not reflect any objective content. The judgments, in which D. is formulated in the pic, are unreasonable, arbitrary and even meaningless. However, the burzh. Moral saves and uses bourges in order to strengthen. orders of relig. Moral with her concept D. before God. So, Sovr. Protestant proves that D. absolute, because dictated by super-prior authority - God and at the same time relatively, because True only for a given person and only in this and cannot be an universal norm for all people. Extractically connecting absolutism, characteristic of intuivists, and elements of relativism, characteristic of emotivists, protestants-theologians justify the "superwandism" of the rules of the Bourges. morality and justify the moral unprincipledness of the bourgeoisie. A significant contribution to the development of D. made Rus. revolution. Democrats. Withdrawing D. from the urgent needs of the revolution. Fight for the interests of Nar. The masses against serfdom and autocracy, they at the same time saw in D. expression inside. The needs and aspirations of a person. "... one can call the man true moral, - wrote N. A. Dobrolyubov, - who only tolerate the debt velves, as some kind of hero, as" moral versions ", namely who cares to merge The demands of the debt with the needs of the inner being of their own, who tries to recycle them into their flesh and blood internal process of self-consciousness and self-development so that they not only become instinctively - needed, but also delivered internal "(Filos. Mr., vol. 1, 1948, p. 213).
The consciousness and feeling of the Communist Party, the consciousness and feeling of D. Before society, is one of the most important moral forces that prompt owls. people will work in good faith for the benefit of the people. Consciousness D. Sovie people manifests itself in motion for communist. Labor, in the struggle for technical. nar. H-Wa, for the further flourishing of the culture and welfare of the people. As successfully moved to communism and the development of socialist. Statehood in societies. Communist. self-government Consciousness and feeling D. will play in the behavior of members of society more and more important role. In communist. Society people will perform their own morals. Responsibilities consciously and in habit.
LIT: Marx K. and Engels F., German ideology, cit., 2 ed., Vol. 3, p. 235-36; Lenin V.I., State and Revolution, Op., 4 ed., Vol. 25, ch. five; His tasks of youth unions, there, t. 31; Program of the CPSU, M., 1961; Kalinin M. I., On Communist Education and Military Duty, M., 1958; Glushchenko M. G., Public debt of the Soviet man, Kiev, 1953 (author. Cand. Diss.); Kon I. S., Marxist and the problem of debt, "Vop. Philosophy", 1954, NO 3; Shishkin α., Basics of Communist Morality, M., 1955, p. 144-99; His, from the history of ethical teachings, M., 1959 (see the reference pointer); Podberezin I. M., the motives of debt and moral responsibility in the assessment of the actions of schoolchildren, "Uch. Zodv. Santa-Ossetian state. Ped. In-Ta", Ordzhonikidze, 1956, vol. twenty; Morozov V. I., the problem of military debt in Marxist ethie, M., 1956 (author. Cand. Diss); Ρazmutov B. α., The problem of debt in ethics M. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubova, "Tr. Voronezh Un-Ta", 1957, vol. 60, one; Drobkhnitsky O. G., to the question of the category of debt in Marxist ethie, "Philosophical Sciences", 1960, NO 3; Kant I., criticism of practical mind, lane. , SPb, 1897, § 7-8; Smilets S., Debt, SPb, 1904; Gyuo J. M., morality without commitment and without a sanction, per. from Franz., M., 1923; Golbach P.A., System of Nature, Per. [from Franz.], M., 1940; WENDT H., Die Sittliche Pflicht, Gött., 1916; Ross W. D, The right and the good, oxf., 1930; Ayer A. J., Philosophical Essays, L.- N. Y., 1954.
O. Drobnitsky, V. Morozov. Moscow.
I. Kon. Leningrad.
Philosophical encyclopedia. In 5 tons - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinova. 1960-1970 .
Debt (Greek Δέον, lat. OfficiUm, Obligatio; PFLicht; English. Duty, Obligation; Franz. Devoir, Obligation; Ital. Dovere) - However, from the fundamental concepts of ethics, which means morally argued coercion to actions, moral necessity Fixed as a subjective principle of behavior. Debt expresses the imperative form of morality. The actions themselves, since they are motivated by duty, referred to as responsibilities.
In addition to the "duties, the Russian word" duty "also means" What is taken loan "(ch. Oh. cash debt). The semantics of the word associated with the relations of the lender and the debtor, allows you to open the historical roots and the socio-mutual context of its moral value. As F. Nietzsche pointed out, "in the debt right, the seatingman of the world of moral concepts of" wine "," conscience "," Duty "," Debt Sacredness "" ("To the genealogy of morality", 2, 6.-cit. At 2 tons. , t. 2. M., 1990, p. 445). In a difficult, unusually branched and subordinated network of obligations addressed to certain, there are commitments that perform the role of supporting structures within the latter. Staying, as well as all obligations, voluntary, they act as subject to unconditional implementation (within the framework of property relations, in particular, are obligations related to the loan, loan). However, the required unconditional execution cannot be reliably guaranteed exterior. This requires even internal coercion, imposing responsibility for the duty itself, which is the meaning of moral debt.
The beginning of the theoretical understanding of debt dates back to the Stoic School, to the proposed Zeno from the Kitya is the allocation in the human behavior of two sections: the actual moral κατορ-οωμα and proper καβκον. In ancient Greek, the correct (due) actions were marked by a number of words, including Δέον (literally: violent entry); From him, Bentham was formed by deontology for the designation of debt teachings; This word was described by state and military duties, correct, timely actions. In itself, the moral meaning is first found in two statements of democritus, in the future such a word consumption has become frequent. In the 1st book of the "states" Plato, Frasmen, achieved from Socrates, what is, saying: "Yes, do not try to say that this is due ..." (336d); In Fedon, it is argued that "everything is associated and held by good and due" (99c). Aristotle in "Nikomakhova Ethics", emphasizing the enormous impact of knowledge on, notes: "And as if the arrows, seeing the target in front of him, no more would be achieved?" (1094a); As due, he also qualifies the middle (1121, 1123a). Through the word Δέον "the thought of due as such as such has found a linguistic expression" (Schmidt,. 345). Antique authors often used the communion προδηκον (possible translational) to characterize decent praise of life situations and actions. It is similar to the word "καΰήκον", introduced as a new term (specific debt designation) with the steels, which developed the teaching, which has reached the study of debt as an ethical concept.
According to the first Stoika, the benefit is, evil is a vice, everything else is indifferent. However, in the sphere of indifferer, items are preferred and avoidable: it is preferable to all the human life in its physical and social dimensions (health, power, wealth, about parents, beauty, etc.), the opposite is avoided. This is produced by different criteria: in the first case, according to the ethical criterion of self-sufficiency, allowing to allocate in the behavior morally due; In second, according to the pragmatic criterion of nature-like feasibility, the class of proper actions. Aimed at preferred things, proper actions are expedient from the point of view of the preservation and reproduction of life and amenable to justify. "According to the school tradition, Zeno removed this concept from κα-βήκω (impose):" proper "is that" is imposed by "nature" (Stolyarov A. A., p. 184). Appropriate actions are ethically neutral, they cannot affect human virtue. However, this does not mean that they themselves do not depend on the moral quality of the person. The question remains with the extent to which the proper actions depends on due actions. In any case, there is no doubt that there are two dimensions (two points of review) of the same reality: a person is not detected in some particular set of actions that exist, along or independently of proper actions, avasy internal attitude to the latter. Proper (nature-like) actions and there is an objective region of morally due, its matter; Altogether morally due in this case acts as their principle, an unbelievable form. Such a theoretical design allowed the rational-pragmatic validity of the actions to supplement them with a reasonably moral substantiation and comprehend as debt, duties. The staic "κατόρθωμα" expresses the universum; What seems unreasonable from the point of view of the human mind turns out to be reasonable on the criteria of the cosmic mind. Representatives of the middle stand in understanding morally due to the dogmatic sequence and the regulatory severity of the founders of the school, strengthened their eudemonious teleologism. Indeline, located on the other side of the good and evil, was placed between them. Cicero Stoic "κΰΰΰΰον" translated to Latin as "officium" (etymologically dates back to opiphium - production, work). His book "On Duties" (de Officiis) is also meaningful, and terminologically became a kind of canon of philosophical and cultural arguments about the debt right up to Kant. The doctrine of Cicero's debt transformed T. about. That two ways of motivating behavior were interpreted as two different stages of moral behavior. It divides the responsibilities for "perfect" and "ordinary", or "medium". "The perfect" duty, he calls direct and relates it to "κατόρθωμα", and the "ordinary" identifies with the "Caenet"; The first one can achieve the sage, the second concerns all people and are widely used ("about duties", I, 8; 111, 14). Such a question has discovered the possibility of morally qualifying the manifold of specific duties of a person arising from public, private, home, judicial and other aspects of his life than and is engaged in Cicero in his book. Changes in the method of justifying the duties were associated with a change in the regulatory ideal: a worthy citizen came at the proud autarchy (Vir Bonus).
The doctrine of Cicero's debt borrowed Amvrosiy Mediolsky, who suffered on medieval soil; The work of the latter "On the responsibilities of churchmen" (de fficiis ministorum) was a Christianized crossing "about duties." The highest good, whose service is obligations, Ambrose understands as a god-filue and tolerates the world. The division of responsibilities for the perfect ("Officia Perfecta") and imperfect, medium ("Officia Media"), it specifies on the example of the decaloga and the Nagorno sermon. Complete duties, or duties in the narrow, proper sense of the word are the Ten Commandments, and imperfect (responsibilities in the broad sense of the word) of mercy. The first are aimed at overcoming sins, correction of shortcomings, the second-on acquisition of merit, improvement; The first clearly denotes or prohibited actions, the second leaves the individual to the individual; The first tightly prescribed (Praecepta), the second only recommended (Consüia Evangelica). The stoic doctrine of the debt due to this two-stage scheme was adapted to religious Christian-building; Its teleological basis at the same time not only did not disappear, and in a certain sense was strengthened. The objective and teleological substantiation of debt received a methodically systematic design at the foma of Aquinsky, which has substantiated duties within the logic of a hypothetical imperative, which is typically for eudemonically oriented ethics: "If you want to achieve the goal a, you must take actions a, b ..." but t. . Goal, because it comes to God and the divine device of the world, it is necessary necessary, then everyone aimed at achieving action, which become duties, debt. The opposition to the teleological justification of the debt was the theological substantiation (Augustine, Duns of Cattle, Okka), according to which the source of norms and duties is nothing complicated by God. The advantage of such a position was that the debt was directly indicated, but it is fraught with complete relativities of moral norms. OKKOM, for example, in theological voluntarism reached the approval that God is not even connected even the first two commandments; It does not prevent the assumption that God could prescribe not to himself, but the opposite is. Such an approach undermined the possibility of rationally reasonable debt teachings.
In the new European philosophy, the idea of \u200b\u200bfree willing and voluntary self-balanceing of individuals, taking into account the general, lying outside the individual inclinations of interest (see a public contract) amounted to the canvas of the natural and legal justification of debt. Yum indicates that "we have no other motives that would encourage us to fulfill promises, except for a sense of debt" (about morality, 2, § 5.-cit. In 2t., T. L. M., 1966, p. 674 ); Gobbs carries out a comparison: as a dispute is impossible if a person contradicts the fact that it was impossible to say that the public life is impossible before, if a person arbitrarily destroys that what he voluntarily did; The fact that in scholastic disputes is referred to as absurd, in worldly disputes is called injustice, unlawfulness, violation of debt. The contract version of the debt, according to which the procedure of a honest agreement itself imposes a commitment to a person in relation to the obligations referred to in the Agreement, is quite logically derived from the socio-contractual theory of society and the state. In the work of the philosophers of the new time, which thought was still ontologically and were full of pathos truth and good, this version was only scheduled in general terms. She became the basis of independent theory today within the framework of the T.N. Discursive ethics (K.-O. Apel, Yu. Habermas), which happened after deontology tried to completely clear from eudemonious teleologism and passed the highest point of development in the ethics of Kant.
Kant binds to the concept of debt specificity of morality: the moral acts in the form of a categorical imperative, Adolg-in the quality of his subjective support. The moral law is the law of pure mind. However, a person is an imperfect reasonable creature, because he also affects the inclination (feelings, needs, interests, etc.), and for him the moral law appears in the form of a categorical imperative, that is, unconditional coercion to the act. Accordingly, the only subjective basis, due to which the moral law acquires effectiveness and becomes human moral law, is a debt. He is forcing the act of moral law; Debt and - essentially the same thing. Debt takes into account only Maxims be the requirement of universal legislation, as the first formulation of a categorical imperative. In fact, there are no human actions, the subjective principle of which would be exclusively debt, because of the will, since it is human, cannot be free from the influence of the inclinations that attach concreteness, one. Therefore, debt is given only in correlation and confrontation with inclinations. The debt does not cancel the other maxims that everything can be interpreted as Maxima selflessness, it only plays them from the point of view of compliance with the criterion of generalocilities and, in the case of a positive result, they are moralizing, the addition and strengthening of these Maxim. The procedure of such weighing is reduced to a mental experiment, during which a person as a reasonable creature must answer the question, he would have made the corresponding act also in the event that he had no benefit to commit it or if he had even contradicted his inclinations. Moral, according to Kant, you can recognize only such an act that is not just consensy, but is committed for the sake of debt. Kantsky duty is formulated - he imposes the form of the law to Maxim. But this form is not completely empty, it is meaningful: the test of maxims from the point of view of it to be a universal and non-governmental requirement means the requirement to honor a reasonable creature as reasonable, that is, to honor (which in the language of Kant is synonymous with rationality) in each individual incarnation. The second wording of a categorical imperative just impresses into duty to treat humanity (humanity) represented by each individual as a goal and never refer to it only as a means. Although the debt is completely closed on the moral law, it is not an external forced instance or the authorized representative of such an instance in the individual, as the third wording of the categorical imperative, considering the moral law as the autonomy of the will. According to Kant, "everyone understood that a person was connected with his debt to the law, but did not guessed that he was subordinated only to his own and nevertheless general legislation" (cit. At 6 tons, t. 4 (1). M., 1965, p. 274). Debt is a moral law, yielded as a human. How can the law be directly determining the foundation of the will, the motive is, according to Cant, who is unresolved for the human mind problem. It is possible only to trace how this motive acts in the soul of man. The term of debt-respect for moral law and the dignity of man, since it has the autonomy of the will and creates this law from himself. Respect for the moral law and there is a moral feeling; It does not precede the moral law and does not follow out, it means that the moral law itself is a motive, which is practiced. The concept of "respect", attached to two other concepts - "The need for a degree" and "law" - gives a debt, according to the Kant, as "the need to act from respect for the law" (ibid, p. 236). Originality, strong and weak sides the Kant substantiation of debt is that it turned over traditional ideas On the relationship between being and ownership. At least in human experience, the duty, according to Kant, originally and fundamental. In the general philosophically, he maintains with Being (sources goes to the new world, in the final results, through God, it is connected with happiness), but this connection is problematic, is formulated in the subjunctive ignition and is preserved only for the sake of logical integrity of the system.
From this "disadvantage" sought to liberated I. G. Ficht, justifying the absolute independence of morality from anything other than me; He developed a system of ethical idealism, in which moral is considered as endless emancipation, and the world-as the incarnation of unconditional debt. The deonticism of Fichte appeared a kind of caricature on the Kantovo doctrine of the debt; Kant did not recognize himself in him, the late Fichte itself also retreated from the hypertrophic voluntaryism of the early period. Subsequent reflections on the debt were the form of mitigating the ethical Rigorism of Kant (in the schools of neocantianism) or its criticism (almost all subsequent original ethical systems).
According to Schopenhauer, the teachings of the Kant on the debt is logically mistaken: to bring debt out of the absolute need for moral law-means to anticipate the foundations, and to use the concept of unconditional change - it means to pay in definition. He believes that the imperative shape of Morals Kant borrowed from theological ethics and that is why he was forced to turn to the postulates of the immortality of the soul and the existence of God. The chief shopenhauer is that, to understand the metaphysical, stretching in the ethical significance, the act is completely insignificant, so that morality has the form of commands and obedience, law and responsibilities.
Modern philosophy in an ethical aspect is characterized in general antinormativism. This is found, in particular, in criticizing the imperative form of morality, reducing the value status of debt and its displacement to the periphery of moral life. Communist ethics (K. Marx, F. Engels) saw the expression of its alphabia from real individuals in the imperativeness of the morality, believing that the specific people in the form of the communist fraternity removes their abstract community defined by the overnight standards. F. Nietzsche believed that the person was destroyed when he acts without pleasure as the automatic "debt" that "the people go to death if he mixes his debt with the concept of debt at all" ("Antichrist", § 11.-op. in 2t., vol. 2. M., 1990, p. 639); Nietzsheansky does not accept the imperativeness of morality, he has no other debt, except for his own will to power. Axiological ethics (M. Sheerler, Rainer, etc.) sees the basis of moral norms in the life of values, its central concept - moral, the victim (educational) of values, the duty appears here as the moment of the volitional desire predetermined by the ontological order of the values \u200b\u200bthemselves. Metaethics (J. Moore, E. Ayer, etc.), based on the fact that there is no logically substantiated transition from the proposals with a bundle "is" to proposals with a ligament "should", approved the regulatory neutrality of philosophical ethics; She denied the concept of debt in scientific sanctions. In a number of ethical teachings (Spencer, sociological concepts, Soviet, etc.), debt is considered in its ordinary meaning as a person's subordination to society, duties, the method of socialization, the discipline of the individual, integrating into society. Recognizing the value of the postmanship interpretations of debt in their critical part, it should be noted that in the positive part they do not contain new ideas, except for the very criticism of the unconditional imperativeness of morality.
Lit.: Fragments of early Stoikov, Per. and
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DEBT - Greek. Deon; Lat. Officiuum, Obligatio; it. PFLicht; English Duty, obligation; Fr. Devoir, Obligation; IT. Devere is one of the fundamental concepts of ethics, which means morally argued coercion to actions; moral necessity acting as a subjective principle of behavior. Duty embodies the imperativeness of morality. The actions themselves, since they are motivated by duty, referred to as responsibilities; The concept of "duty" suggests that (what a specific action) is committed, and the concept of debt is about why it is committed: to serve the Fatherland, to fulfill promises, take care of children there is a duty, to do this in moral grounds there is a debt. The action is performed on moral grounds when it is committed not because of the external considerations in relation to it (by order, for the sake of benefits, due to the inclination, etc.), but on the grounds that it itself contains moral Value is personal meaningful for the subject.
Types of duty
Russian word DEBT It has another meaning - what is taken loose and must be returned, mainly. Debt value in terms of relations of the lender and debtorIt allows you to open the historical roots and the socio-communicative context of its moral value. At least, in part "in the debt right, the seating of the world of moral concepts of" wine "," conscience "," Debt "," Debt Sacredness "(F. Nietzsche). Debentures became a prototype of obligations whose execution is unconditional. We are talking about such unconditional, which cannot be reliably guaranteed externally. This requires even internal coercion, imposing a duty in relation to the duty itself, which is the meaning of moral duty
The beginning of the theoretical understanding of debt dates back to the Stoic School, to the proposed Zeno from the kitiona, the allocation in the human behavior of two slices: actually moral and proper. Proper (nature-like) actions and there is an objective region of morally due, its matter; Altogether morally due in this case acts as the principle of actions, an unbelievable form. Such a theoretical design allowed the rational-pragmatic validity of the actions to supplement them with a reasonably moral substantiation and comprehend as debt, duties.
