Policy

- English. policy A document confirming the conclusion of an insurance contract. P. is issued by the insurer to the insured after the transaction ... business vocabulary

Policy

- M. French. insurance certificate. Dictionary Dahl

Policy

- - originated in Greece ca. 6th c. before R. X. civil-democratic form of government, where the power of the king was eliminated ... Philosophical Dictionary

Policy

- (from Greek polis - city-state (1) and from French police - receipt, receipt (2) - English polis (l) / policy (2); German Polis .... sociological dictionary

Policy

- - a small city-state and adjacent villages in ancient Greece .. and 1 more definition Political vocabulary

POLICY

- I a, m. The city-state in the ancient world (Ancient Greece, Dr. Rome), consisting of the city itself (see METROPOLIA) and adjacent to ... Dictionary of foreign words

policy

- Genus. n. -sa "insurance certificate". From French 1 rolice - the same; see Convert. II, 102.. Vasmer's etymological dictionary

The main form of economic, social, political and ideological organization of ancient Greek society was the policy, the nature and characteristics of which determined all the originality and originality of the Hellenic civilization. Polis is a unique and fundamentally new phenomenon of ancient Greek civilization, its highest achievement. This typical Greek socio-political structure ensured the creation of a rational economy, the functioning of complex forms of social life, republican, including democratic, forms of government, unsurpassed and perfect achievements in the cultural field.

It is generally accepted that the policy is a special type of community, namely the community of citizen farmers; moreover, unlike the communal structures of the Ancient East, which included exclusively the rural population, the Greek policy consisted of both peasant farmers and urban residents. The ancient Greeks themselves did not doubt that the policies within which they live are a certain type of association, a kind of community structure created for the “good life” of citizens, its constituents, a structure capable of independent existence and prosperity.

The main structure-forming elements of the Greek polis, which determined the conditions for its formation and development, were the following. First of all, this is the economic basis of any policy - the so-called. the ancient form of property, in which state property and private property organically merged, and the private property was mediated by the state. From this it necessarily followed that an indispensable and unconditional prerequisite for the right to own land in the policy was belonging to the number of citizens of this communal association. In a classical polis, only its citizen could be the owner of the land and, accordingly, each citizen had to own a plot of land in the polis territory. The supreme right to control and dispose of the land, this main means of production in ancient times, belonged to a collective of citizens, the civil community itself.

The ancient form of property was never static, it developed along with the progressive development of the Greek economy towards complete private ownership. Depending on the level of development of the ancient form of property, the qualitative state of all elements of the polis structure was determined: from the birth of the polis in the archaic era, through the era of its heyday in classical times, to the crisis caused by its evolution to full private property, in which, in essence, already it was impossible to clearly function the ancient policy and its structure-forming components.

The most important integral feature of the polis organization was the institution of citizenship. The population of the policy consisted of their full, incomplete and disenfranchised categories of residents. But only citizens who were part of the polis community possessed the entire amount, the entire set of rights - economic, political, and social. It was the citizens of the policy that were, thus, the most privileged category of its population.

The concept of a citizen included the totality of a number of his indispensable rights and obligations in relation to the civil collective of the policy. The main quality of a citizen was his status as a free man. The fact is that after the abolition of the debt slavery of citizens in Greece, under no circumstances (except captivity) could they lose their freedom. In this regard, the Greek world is gradually becoming convinced that no Hellene can be a slave. Later, this provision will find its theoretical justification in the writings of Aristotle, who formulated the thesis that only barbarians are slaves, and slaves "by nature".

The Greek received civil status by virtue of his birth from citizen parents, although this rule was established in many policies only in the subsequent, classical period. The people's assembly of the policy could grant civil rights, but this practice was already characteristic of the time of the crisis of the policy. In oligarchic states, the status of a citizen could imply certain conditions - a property qualification, the presence of land ownership, the ability to have a set of heavy weapons.

One of the main rights and an indispensable feature of the civil status of a polit was his right to land ownership. Agriculture, labor on the ground formed the economic basis of the policy. Land ownership, which means agricultural labor, has long been one of the main privileges of a citizen of the policy. It was landed property, with which a person was connected either by having his own plot or through a system of public land tenure, that made him a member of the civil collective. Since the peasant economy is self-sufficient and the policy could exist without resorting to external relations, since from the point of view of land as the main means of production, it was a set of peasant closed farms.

It was believed that the economic independence of both the individual citizen and the entire civil collective was a necessary prerequisite for freedom for the policy and political and economic freedom for the member citizens that make it up. In this regard, less prestige, especially during the formation of the foundations of the polis system, was enjoyed by the work of artisans and merchants, who derive income by no means from land ownership. The population of the policies, which did not have civil rights, was allowed to these types of activities.

If we keep in mind the lack of fertile and cultivated land in Greece, the existence of the institution of citizenship provided for the stability and isolation of the collectives of landowners that made up the polis organizations. At the same time, the numerical limits of the members of such collectives had to be strictly controlled. It is important to note that the polis, as a collective of citizen-farmers and farmers, has always acted as both the supreme owner of the land and as a guarantor of the land ownership of its members. It was the policy, and only he could interfere in the property relations of his fellow citizens. Thus, the state in Greece was born and existed as an apparatus of coercion not over the totality of the communities of its subjects (as it was in the Ancient East), but, as it were, grew out of a separate community of its fellow citizens, performing its regulatory and power functions in the interests of individual members of the civil community, and the entire collective of citizens who made it up.

The next characteristic feature of the polis organization of the ancient Greeks is the attitude of citizens towards the military organization of the polis. The most important right and at the same time the duty of every citizen was his personal participation in the defense of his policy. Considering that in the classical policy there was no regular army, all its citizens were potential soldiers, members of the civil militia, called for encirclement as a military threat appeared. The fact is that the Greek policies, as relatively small political entities, could not maintain a standing army, as was the case, for example, in the ancient Eastern states, and the protection of their policy from an external threat fell entirely on the shoulders of male citizens.

In archaic times, in connection with the development of the economy of Greek policies and the growth of the well-being of a significant part of their citizens, heavy weapons, previously available only to representatives of the aristocracy, are becoming more widespread. Now the main figure of the polis army is the hoplite - a representative of the middle class of the peasantry, a warrior who had a set of defensive (shell, helmet, greaves and shield) and offensive (spear and small sword) weapons. The role of the aristocratic cavalry is coming to naught. Due to the fact that it becomes possible to arm a detachment of militias that is significant in number, a new type of combat formation of the army is born - the so-called. Greek phalanx.

Unlike the system of martial arts of aristocrats, which previously determined the outcome of battles, the phalanx, consisting of several hundred, sometimes thousands of warriors, was a kind of single entity that swept away the enemy’s battle formations like a powerful ram. It was precisely in the solidity of the construction, in the simultaneity of the actions of the hoplites that made up the phalanx, that its strength, offensive and defensive capabilities, consisted. From the Falangist, individual courage, personal courage, or any professional skills of a fighter were not required at all. His main duty in battle is courage and discipline, the complete trust of the hoplites in each other. In this battle formation, success was determined by the ability not only not only not to be afraid of the enemy, but also to support the neighbor with one's self-control and courage. Therefore, an important quality that the phalanx taught was not only the self-confidence of the citizen of the policy, but also complete trust in their fellow warriors.

Special forms of self-government in the civil community is another integral feature of the Greek policy. The people's assembly, which united exclusively citizens, is the most important institution of polis administration, thanks to which the will of each citizen, who was necessarily a member of it, was taken into account. Other organs of political administration - the council, the court, an extensive network of polis positions exercising executive power - were also in the hands of the civil collective.

In the polis society, a special system of relations developed between the authorities and the individual citizen. Here, the source of legal norms is the law developed by citizens at the national assembly, which was the highest legislative body. Participation in the adoption of laws or decisions concerning the interests of the entire population was its inalienable right. Political indifference was considered unworthy of the status of a citizen.

No one, except for the citizens of the policy, had the right to own land on its territory, as well as the right to dispose (through the decisions of the entire collective of citizens) of public lands that belonged to the entire collective of citizens-politicians. No one, except the citizens of the policy, had the right to participate in its military and political organization. Therefore, in the classical Greek polis there was a characteristic trinity of appearance of a member of its civil collective: at the same time he was a citizen, an indispensable participant in the political life of his civil community, and an owner, and a warrior.

Another important circumstance, the civil collective of the policy was a collection of free, politically equal, economically independent citizens-farmers.

The policy was a combination of the city and the surrounding countryside (choirs). The economic unity of citizens (or non-citizens, as was the case in Sparta), engaged in agriculture and crafts, was necessary for the implementation of the principle of polis autarky. The city center becomes a place of concentration of handicraft production, and, ideally, small-scale production, designed for direct exchange of goods with farmers, to meet the needs of the rural population.

A typical Greek polis was very small in its territory, covering an area, as a rule, from 100 to 200 sq. km. from 5 to 10 thousand people lived in such a policy, of which only a minority. Approximately 1-2 thousand people had citizenship rights. Such a territory could be crossed using the then primitive modes of transport in a few hours. However, in Greece there were also larger policies, for example, Sparta, which had an area of ​​2500 sq. km.

Each Greek policy was a sovereign state, having its own citizenship, its own laws, authorities and administration, as well as all external obligations. , public water intake facilities, etc.

Greek civilization was essentially an urban civilization. therefore, the city was a component of any Greek policy (perhaps with the exception of Sparta, which was an association of five rural villages). The city was, first of all, both a fortified point, under the protection of the walls of which the entire population of the policy (including the inhabitants of the rural district) could hide, and the center of handicraft production and trade, culture, religious and political life.

Thus, the members of the polis civil community, both townspeople and rural residents, constituted a close-knit, very closed team, strictly guarded and controlled all the rights and privileges of its members.

There are no city-states in modern Greece, but in ancient times, on its current territory, there were many powerful associations called policies. A number of researchers believe that they cannot be called city-states in the established sense of the word, since many of them had rather extensive agricultural lands under their control. However, in fact, policies corresponded to the concept, since powerful cities developed separately from each other, had their own political, economic and social structure, and also entered into friendly or military relations with each other. geographically and in terms of population. Instead, more than a hundred independent cities with small or relatively large adjacent territories were formed on the lands of the modern country. They were located not only pastures and agricultural land, but also smaller settlements. They were called policies and in ancient times retained significant features of tribal associations:

• uniform property rights for all members of the community;
• power in the hands of the council of elders;
• only members of the community could be citizens, and foreigners and slaves did not have the right to participate in social and political life.

By the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. the situation began to change, and large masses of free citizens opposed the supremacy of the aristocracy. This led to the emergence of democracy, which is considered to be the birthplace of Athens, where the power of the people, expressed in the joint management and decision of important issues, was most clearly represented. However, this not only did not stop the slave trade, but, on the contrary, raised this phenomenon to an extreme degree. Since now everyone could dispose of a “living commodity”, as well as own private property, including land, human trafficking and economic benefits have moved into the category of the most important values. In some cities, the situation was different: a leader with unlimited power was chosen from among the people, which marked the beginning of the formation of early tyranny in ancient Greek society.

Policies of Greece

Despite the fact that in modern historiography all the city-states of Greece are usually called policies, their size and structure differed significantly:

• Sparta - 8400 km2;
• Attica - 2650 km2;
• Corinth - 880 km2;
• Samos - 470 km2;
• Aegina - 85 km2.

An interesting example of policies that cannot be called city-states in the traditional sense are Boeotia and Phocis. The first one occupied an area of ​​2580 km2 and included a maximum of 20 independent micro-states, and Phocis with an area of ​​1650 km2 consisted of 22. Despite the fact that they were perceived as a single entity, being part of the association had a certain degree of independence. At the same time, the modest size of the territories does not allow them to be classified as traditional states.
The largest city-states of Greece included:

1. Athens.
2. Sparta.
3. Miletus.
4. Corinth.
5. Thebes.
6. Olympia.
7. Chios.
8. Syracuse.
9. Mycenae.
10. Delphi.

Athens - the main city at all times

The current capital of Greece and at the same time the most famous city-state, has played a dominant role since ancient times and was considered a powerful association. Athens is called the cradle of European civilization, where the foundations of theater, sculpture, architecture, philosophy and, of course, democracy were born.

In the classical period, power was in the hands of the people, that is, all free citizens of the polis who had the right to participate in the social and political life of education. The controlling and judicial bodies were called the "Grand Jury" and had broad powers. Executive power was transferred to phyla, that is, representatives of certain social and professional groups, which formed a fairly large body, which bore the name "Council of Five Hundred". Both authorities were elected by lot - everything was given to the decision of fate.

Thanks to this, any free citizen could become the owner of unlimited power, for example, to receive the position of a central judge or the supreme Athenian ruler. According to the existing norms, a sacred duty
any Athenian was the protection of democratic rights and freedoms. At the general meetings of the two bodies, the issues of peace and war, the social structure and distribution of benefits, as well as the deprivation or granting of citizenship to specific individuals, were resolved.

This was democracy in its purest form, which was never realized in such a global and pure measure either before or after. Its principles and foundations have been transferred to the modern electoral system of most European states, but with significant amendments and restrictions.

Sparta - a military entity with strict rules

Another famous city-state of the ancient world, Sparta, took the opposite path of development, which in no way reduced its achievements. Unlike the democracy of Athens, the regime of the ruling military reigned here. Sparta owes its appearance to the warlike and famously cruel tribe of the Dorians. Having captured the Peloponnese, it turned the locals into helot slaves who had no rights and freedoms. Throughout the development, tribal features were preserved here:

• the power of nominally reigning kings was minimal;
• at the head was a council of elders;
• the real power was held by the gathering of the highest military ranks.

Despite the presence of the ruling elite, the election of which took place without the participation of the bulk of the inhabitants, there were no significant class differences in material terms. The reason for this was the peculiar philosophy of life of the policy: the ascetic way of life, which today is called Spartan, was valued, simplicity in clothing and home improvement, as well as unpretentiousness in food and entertainment. They ate together, using the single provisions provided for all, but did not use money at all, because they did not recognize and did not see value in them.

The main goal and meaning of the life of the Spartans was war and the conquest of new territories. From childhood, the young inhabitants of Sparta were taught to be strong, dexterous, hardy and unpretentious, and instead of games, drill and military training prevailed here. Since the main goal of every man was considered to be the realization of the fate of a brave warrior, all weak and sick boys were killed in infancy or at a very early age, or, as it went down in history, thrown off a cliff. The reason for such a social policy was their unsuitability for war, and they were not good for anything else. It was impossible to send them to agricultural or other physically hard work, since this was considered below the dignity of the Spartan: such work fell on the shoulders of helot slaves.

Miletus - the pearl of Ionia

Miletus, founded in the fourth millennium BC, was considered one of the richest and oldest Greek city-states. According to legend, it was founded by the mythological hero Miletus, who migrated from Crete, and the settlement reached its peak thanks to Thrasybulus, Thoas and Damasenor, one of the most famous tyrants in the ancient world. The association included adjacent lands, as well as about 80 remote colonies located along the Pontic coast and even in Egypt.

Miletus was located in the Asia Minor region: its ruins, where traces of linear writing and Minoan frescoes were found, can now be seen on the territory that belongs to Turkey. In ancient times, this area was called Ionia, so the famous historian Herodotus called Miletus "the Ionian pearl."

Corinth - one of the three leading policies

The strategically important location of Corinth at the crossroads of trade routes played an important role in its formation and fall. In the heyday of the ancient world, he fought for leadership with Thebes and Athens, and in some periods even occupied a leading position. Thus, in the 6th century before the advent of the new era, the Corinthians were known as the largest manufacturers and suppliers of classical ceramic dishes, including those decorated with the famous black-figure vase painting.

As in other large cities, the center of Corinth was the acropolis towering on a hill, where there was a traditional agora - a market square that was also used for meetings, as well as a temple to the goddess of love Aphrodite. It is not surprising that priestesses of love gathered near him, the number of which reached a thousand. All of them wore long black hair uncovered: it was believed that they had miraculous powers. Corinth is also famous for the fact that the famous Isthmian Games were held here: competitions in gymnastics, music, versification and equestrian skill were held in honor of the sea deity Poseidon.

Thebes - famous for numerous myths

Thebes was one of the three largest trade and economic associations of Ancient Greece. The fame and power of the city-state can be judged by how often it is mentioned in myths and legends. Going into the deep past, it is considered the birthplace of the god of wine Dionysus, later Hercules was recorded among its indigenous inhabitants.

There is a legend in which the story is about the military campaign of the kings of seven other policies against powerful and influential Thebes. Also, the writings of Orchomenus of Minius speak of the constant rivalry of the region with Boeotia, which, despite its modest size, had the status of a multi-polis association that could be a serious military competition. In addition, one of the most famous rulers of the ancient world, King Oedipus, also lived here, after whom a very unusual psychological complex is called today.

Olympia - the birthplace of the Olympic Games

Located in the Peloponnese, Ancient Olympia could not boast of great commercial, military and economic potential, but at all times it had the status of an important religious, cultural and sports center. In ancient times, there were some of the most revered sanctuaries dedicated to the goddess of the earth Gaia and her son Kronos, who is mythologically considered the father of Zeus, the supreme god of thunder and the father of many gods of the ancient Greek pantheon.

The location of Olympia in the Peloponnese determined its role not only in ancient, but also in modern history. The peninsula is named after the hero Pelops, who defeated Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, in a chariot race. I must say that in ancient times it was one of the most popular sports, available only to the rich. Significant funds were invested in the purchase of horses and the arrangement of the vehicle. However, most of the money was spent on the maintenance of hired riders, and the loser, or rather his family, sometimes received more than the winner. The fact is that the competition was cruel and did not consist in speed, but in destructive power in the collision of chariots. Therefore, in most cases, they ended in the death of one or more riders.

In honor of the events of antiquity, only chariot races were originally held in Olympia. Later, the disciplines were replenished with gymnastics, strength exercises, running - it was at the Olympia stadium that the reference marathon distance was created, as well as other competitions. Six months before they began, messengers scattered all over Greece from Olympia, who informed and searched for participants: it was considered a grave sin to kill a messenger or an athlete, therefore, military operations were almost always curtailed during the games and preparations throughout the region. It was this factor that formed the basis of the philosophy of the modern Olympic movement, which promotes the peaceful rivalry of athletes and the apathy of the games.

Ancient Greece has always amazed even the imagination of compatriots, not to mention the historians of our time. Their civilization, which originates from simple fishermen and herders, soon became one of the most powerful in the Ancient World. The Greeks were revered as outstanding (and extremely cunning) politicians, excellent sailors and warriors.

They also reached considerable heights in mechanics: some of their devices are not inferior in complexity to mechanical watches of the 19th century. The Greeks were aware of the energy of steam, they created the first prototypes of steam engines in the form of toys.

However, all these and many other achievements would not have been possible without a carefully adjusted social structure of the state, which could educate its citizens and protect them from enemies. Since the polis was the main "cog" of the ancient Greek civilization, this phenomenon should be discussed separately.

What is an ancient Greek polis?

In fact, a separate city was called a policy. But here an important clarification should be made: in those years, cities were often in fact separate states. The same Phoenician Empire was, in the modern sense of the word, a confederation formed by individual countries that could leave it at any time. In addition, the main part of the population of the policy was politically active: any free person considered it his duty to participate in the vote, in making important government decisions.

All this often resulted in fierce disputes and even fights right on the streets, which is why contemporaries considered the Greeks to be "wacky and noisy people." Thus, the policy should be considered a separate, special form of political and social organization. The territory of such an formation was limited not only by the city walls, but also by those lands that the main part of the population of the policy (that is, people who were in the public service) could protect and cultivate.

How did city-states come about?

The policy is unique in that it arose at a turning point in ancient history, during the transition from the tribal and communal system to the first "proto-states". In those distant years, the stratification of society began: they preferred to become artisans and sell the results of their work, rather than give away the benefits they created for nothing. Merchants appeared who knew how to sell handicrafts to other tribes, a “caste” of warriors who defended those same merchants and the general well-being of all members of this “forerunner of the state” became rigidly isolated.

In general, almost all city-states of Ancient Greece had a good army, and therefore, if necessary, they could stand up for themselves.

Of course, all these people preferred not to live in a bare field. Large cities began to emerge and develop rapidly. Due to the fact that artisans and landowners, merchants and warriors, scientists and politicians lived within their walls, they were completely self-sufficient. This is how policies came into being.

But what was the social structure of such amazing (by modern standards) "cities"? Oddly enough, but the bulk of the population of the Greek-style policy was represented by free people, citizens. They participated both in the production of everything necessary (cattle breeders, farmers, artisans), and in the protection of their land. The military estate protected the settlements from not too dangerous threats, while during the time of enemy raids, all its inhabitants came out to protect the walls of the policy.

2.1 Polis of ancient Greece: its general characteristics

There was no single state on the territory of Greece in the period of antiquity. The basic state unit was the policy - the city-state. Greece was a collection of independent policies.

Polis - a city, a state, a special form of economic and political organization of society. The territory of the policy consisted of urban areas and the surrounding agricultural settlements (choirs).

The policy arose in the process of combating the remnants of the tribal system, the growth of commodity-money relations, the separation of craft from agriculture, the intensification of the social struggle of communal farmers and trade and craft layers with the tribal nobility. The economic basis of the policy was the ancient form of landed property, which always appears in a contradictory, dual form - as state (communal) property and as private property, and the latter is usually due to the former. Only a full-fledged citizen of the policy (community), who was such due to his origin, had the right to private ownership of land. Along with full-fledged citizens, the territory of the policy was inhabited by free, but not full-fledged residents - meteks, perieks, freedmen, who were usually engaged in crafts and trade, as well as slaves deprived of any rights.

The policy provided a collective of full-fledged citizens with the right to own land and slaves; the duty of the policy was to take care of the economic support of the citizens of the policy; accordingly, the external and internal economic policy of the policy was aimed at restoring small and medium-sized landed property (bringing out colonies and cleruchia). The policy introduced the so-called. liturgies, distribution of spectacular money, payment for military and state services.

All citizens from 17-18 to 60 years old made up the people's militia. The rich and middle strata of society served as horsemen and heavily armed foot soldiers (hoplites), while the poorer ones served as lightly armed warriors. The specifics of polis relations contributed to the formation of polis ideology, polis patriotism.

In terms of size and population, the Greek policies were different. One of the largest policies, Lacedaemon (Sparta), had an area of ​​8400 km 2 and a population of about 150-200 thousand people. Attica (Athens) as a policy was located on the territory of 2500 km 2 with a population of about 125 - 150 thousand people. However, could policies exist on an area of ​​30-40 km 2 (5x8 km) with a population of several hundred inhabitants. Most of the Greek policies had a territory of 100 - 200 km 2 with a population of 5-12 thousand people, of which full-fledged citizens, male warriors, could be from one to two thousand people.

The political structure of the policies, with all their diversity, represented a certain unity. The state apparatus of the policy consisted of a popular assembly of full-fledged male citizens, a council (Gerusia, Areopagus, Senate) and various elected officials (magistrates). The People's Assembly - the most democratic governing body - was an attribute of any policy. It exercised the right of the citizen to govern the state. Depending on how much weight in political life the trade and craft strata and communal farmers managed to acquire in the fight against the tribal nobility, the policy could be either oligarchic (Sparta) or democratic (Athens). In economic terms, the difference between the policies was determined by the greater or lesser role of the choir, i.e. relationship between agriculture and handicrafts and trade. Sparta was a typical agricultural policy; Corinth, which had an insignificant choir, was a typical trade and craft policy.

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