The fiscal policy is the measures that the government is making in order to stabilize the economy by changing the magnitude of the income and / or state budget expenditures. Therefore, fiscal policy is also called budget and tax policies.

Fiscal policy is a government regulatory policy primarily in total demand. Regulation of the economy in this case occurs through the impact on the amount of cumulative expenses. However, some fiscal policy tools can be used to affect the aggregate supply through the impact on the level of business activity. Fiscal politics holds the government. Fiscal policy can be both beneficial and sufficiently painful to influence the stability of the national economy.

The budget and tax policy is aimed at resolving numerous tasks facing the society that form the so-called tree of goals. The main ones are:

• 1. In the short term:
  • - effective formation of the budget revenue;
  • - implementation of the budget policy of the state;
  • - adoption of measures to reduce the budget deficit;
  • - public debt management;
  • - Smoothing of cyclic oscillations of the economy.
• 2. In the long term:
  • - maintaining a stable level of total output (GDP);
  • - maintaining full resource employment;
  • - maintain a stable price level.

Figure 1.1 - Fiscal Policy Goals

application - A source:

Modern fiscal policy determines the main directions of the use of state financial resources, financing methods and main sources of treasury replenishment. Depending on the specific historical conditions in individual countries, such a policy has its own characteristics. At the same time, a common set of measures is used. It includes direct and indirect financial methods for regulating the economy.

Direct methods include ways of budget regulation. Funds of the state budget are funded:

• - extended reproduction costs;
• - non-productive state expenses;
• - development of infrastructure, scientific research, etc.;
• - carrying out structural policies;
• - the content of the military-industrial complex, etc.

With the help of indirect methods, the state affects the financial capabilities of manufacturers of goods and services and the size of consumer demand.

An important role is played by the tax system. By changing tax rates on various types of income, providing tax breaks, reducing the non-taxable minimum income, etc., the state seeks to achieve the most sustainable rates of economic growth and avoid sharp rises and drops of production.

Among the important indirect methods that contribute to the accumulation of capital include the policy of accelerated depreciation. Essentially, the state frees entrepreneurs from paying taxes from a part of profits, artificially redistributed to the depreciation fund.

The above targets are also achieved using fiscal policy tools that include:

• - Tax regulators: manipulation of various types of taxes and tax rates, their structure, objects of taxation, sources of taxes, benefits, sanctions, terms of collection, methods of making;
• - Budget regulators: the level of centralization of funds by the state, the relationship between the federal or republican and local budgets, the budget deficit, the relationship between the state budget and extrabudgetary funds, the budget classification of articles of income and expenses, etc.

The most important complex tool and indicator of the effectiveness of the fiscal policy is the state budget that combines taxes and expenses into a single mechanism.

Various tools affect the economy in different ways. Government procurement, form one of the components of the total costs, and, consequently, the demand. Like private expenses, government procures increase the level of total expenses. In addition to government procurement there is another type of government. Namely - transfer payments. Transfer payments indirectly affect consumer demand, increasing the disposable income of households. Taxes are a negative impact tool for cumulative expenses. Any taxes mean a decrease in the size of the disposable income. A decrease in disposable income in turn leads to a reduction in not only consumer spending, but also savings.

The impact of fiscal policy tools on cumulative demand is different. From the formula of aggregate demand:

Ad \u003d c + i + g + xn, (1.1)

where C is the value of consumer spending;

I - investment costs;

G - government procurement;

XN - taxes and transfers.

it follows that government procurement is a component of aggregate demand, so their change has a direct impact on aggregate demand, and taxes and transfers have an indirect impact on aggregate demand, changing the amount of consumer spending and investment costs.

At the same time, the growth of government procurement increases the aggregate demand, and their reduction leads to a decrease in total demand, as government procurement is part of the cumulative expenses.

Transfer growth also increases aggregate demand. On the one hand, since with an increase in social transfer payments, personal income of households increases, and, therefore, with other things being equal, the disposable income is growing, which increases consumer spending. On the other hand, an increase in transfer payments to firms (subsidies) increases the possibilities of internal financing of firms, the possibility of expanding production, which leads to an increase in investment spending. Reduction of transfers reduces the cumulative demand.

Tax growth is valid in the opposite direction. The increase in taxes leads to reduction and consumer (since the disposable income is reduced), and investment costs (since retained earnings, which is a source of net investments) and, therefore, to reducing total demand. Accordingly, the decline in taxes increases the aggregate demand, which determines the growth of the real GNP.

Therefore, fiscal policy tools can be used to stabilize the economy at different phases of the economic cycle.

And, from a simple Keynesian model (the model of the Keynesian Cross), it follows that all the tools of fiscal policy (government procurement, taxes and transfers) have a multiplicative effect of exposure to the economy, therefore, according to Keynes and its followers, the regulation of the economy should be carried out by the Government with The help of fiscal policy tools, and above all by changing the magnitude of government procurement, as they have the greatest multiplicative effect.

Depending on the cycle phase, in which the economy is located, the fiscal policy tools are used in different ways. Allocate two types of fiscal policy:

• 1) stimulating;
• 2) restraining.

Figure 1.2 - Types of Fiscal Policy

Note - A source:

The stimulating fiscal policy is applied in recession (Figure 1.2 (a)), aims to reduce the recession discontinuity of the issue and reducing the level of unemployment and is aimed at an increase in total demand (cumulative expenses). Its tools are:

• - an increase in government procurement;
• - tax reducing;
• - Increase transfers.

The restraining fiscal policy is used in the boom (with overheating of the economy) (Figure 1.2 (b)), aims to reduce the inflationary rupture of the issue and a decrease in inflation and is aimed at reducing total demand (cumulative expenses). Its tools are:

• - reduction of public procurement;
• - increasing taxes;
• - Reducing transfers.

In addition, the fiscal policy distinguish:

• 1) discretionary;
• 2) automatic (non-discretion).

Discretionary fiscal policy is a legislative (official) change in the government of the magnitude of government procurement, taxes and transfers in order to stabilize the economy.

Automatic fiscal policy is associated with the action of built-in (automatic) stabilizers. Built-in (or automatic) Stabilizers are tools, the value of which does not change, but the very presence of which (embedded them in the economic system) automatically stabilizes the economy, stimulating the business activity during the decline and holding it away during overheating. Automatic stabilizers include:

• - income tax (including household income tax and corporate income tax);
• - indirect taxes (first of all, value added tax);
• - unemployment benefits;
• - Poverty benefits.

Consider the mechanism of the impact of embedded stabilizers to the economy.

Income tax acts as follows: During the decline, the level of business activity (y) is reduced, and since the tax function has the form:

T \u003d T * Y, (1.2)

where T is the value of tax revenues;

t - tax rate;

Y - the magnitude of the cumulative income (release),

the amount of tax revenues is reduced, and with the "overheating" of the economy, when the value of the actual release is maximum, tax revenues increase. Note that the tax rate remains unchanged. However, taxes are withdrawal from the economy that cut the flow of spending and, therefore, income (recall the model of the circuit). It turns out that when dropping seizures is minimal, and when overheated is maximal. Thus, due to the presence of taxes (even accordant, i.e. autonomous), the economy is automatically "cool" with overheating and "heated" during recession. The appearance of income taxes in the economy reduces the multiplier value (multiplier in the absence of an income tax rate is greater than with its availability:\u003e), which enhances the stabilization effect of influencing the income tax economy. It is obvious that progressive income tax has the most powerful stabilizing effect on the economy.

Value Added Tax (VAT) provides built-in stability as follows. Under recession, sales is reduced, and since VAT is an indirect tax, part of the price of the goods, then with the fall in sales, tax revenues from indirect taxes (withdrawal from the economy) are reduced. With overheating, on the contrary, since aggregate income grow, sales increases, which increases income from indirect taxes. The economy automatically stabilizes. Fiscal policy Capital Economics

As for unemployment benefits and poverty, the total amount of their payments increases during the decline (as people begin to lose work and phenomenon) and are reduced during the boom when "superpost" and income growth is observed. Obviously, in order to receive unemployment benefits, you need to be unemployed, and to get a poverty allowance, you need to be very poor. These benefits are transfers, i.e. Injections to the economy. Their payment contributes to income growth, and, consequently, the costs that stimulates the rise of the economy during the decline. A decrease in the total amount of these payments with a bug has a deterrent effect on the economy.

In developed countries, the economy by 2/3 is regulated by discretionary fiscal policy and 1/3 by the action of built-in stabilizers.

It should be borne in mind that such fiscal policy tools as taxes and transfers operate not only on cumulative demand, but also to the aggregate offer. As already noted, tax cuts and an increase in transfers can be used to stabilize the economy and combat cyclic unemployment during the recession period, stimulating the growth of cumulative expenses, and, consequently, business activity and employment levels. However, it should be borne in mind that in the Keynesian model simultaneously with an increase in the total issuance, the decline in taxes and increasing transfers determines the rise in price levels (from p 1 to P 2 in Figure 1.2 (a)), i.e. It is a delimitation measure (provokes inflation). Therefore, during the period of boom (inflationary break), when the "Overhell" economy (Figure 1.2 (b)), as an anti-inflationary measure (price level decreases from P 1 to P 2) and tools for reducing business activity and stabilization of the economy can be used to increase taxes and Reduced transfers.

However, since firms consider taxes as costs, the growth of taxes leads to a reduction in the aggregate supply, and the reduction of taxes to the growth of business activity and production volume. A detailed study of the impact of taxes on the aggregate offer is owned by the economic advisor to the President of the USA R. Raigan, an American economist, one of the founders of the concept of "economic theory of proposals" Artur Laffer. A. Laffer built a hypothetical curve (Figure 1.3), with which the impact of changes in the tax rate on the total amount of tax revenues to the state budget has shown. This curve is called a hypothetical curve because its findings laffer did not on the basis of the analysis of statistical data, but on the basis of the hypothesis, i.e. Logic reasoning and theoretical conclusion.

Figure 1.3 - Lapfer Curve

Introduction

1. Fiscal policy as a system of state regulation of the economy

1.1 Essence of the Fiscal Policy of the State

1.2 Principles and mechanisms for the impact of fiscal policy on the functioning of the economy

1.3 Fiscal Policy Tools

2. Features of the fiscal policy in the Russian Federation

2.1 Need to reform fiscal policy

2.2 ways and methods for improving fiscal policy

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

I consider the topic of this course very relevant today. The fiscal policy is one of the main instruments of state regulation of the economy and in the conditions of the continuing economic crisis in Russia plays a significant role in the restoration of the national economy.

The difficult situation of the economy predetermines the fiscal policy, directed, on the one hand to stop the decline in production and to stimulate production (for example, in the form of individual tax benefits to manufacturers), on mobilizing financial resources in order to effectively invest in separate sectors of the economy, and on the other - on the other Coherent in all social programs, reducing defense costs, etc. Accordingly, when the economy transitions to another state, the directions of fiscal policy are changing.

Recently, a tendency towards strengthening the role of the government in regulating the national economy through the financial system, namely, the state's spending on social security programs, to maintain an average level of income, health care, education, etc.

Meanwhile, since the beginning of economic reforms in Russia, the government took a guide to the introduction of extremely high taxation on income of firms, which has adversely affected the state of the national economy and the prospects for its lifting. Not accidentally response is the active development of the shadow economy. As a result, the Government of the Russian Federation is not able to assemble in the revenue part of the budget and half of the proceeds provided.

In this regard, the fiscal policy of the Government of the Russian Federation needs further reform both in the field of taxation and in the field of public spending.

So, the purpose of this work is to comprehensively consider the fiscal policy of the state as a method of state regulation of the economy. First, I will be disclosed by the very concept of fiscal policy, its main components are allocated, the principles, mechanisms and instruments of the impact on the economic system of society are identified. Secondly, I will analyze the modern fiscal policy in the Russian Federation: the objective causes of the need to reform the existing fiscal policy, the transformation carried out by the Government of the Russian Federation at the present time, as well as possible ways of further improvements in the field of fiscal policy are highlighted.

When preparing for writing this work, I studied an extensive series of literary sources, with a complete list of which can be found in the final part of the course project. However, I would like to note the literature containing, in my opinion, the most detailed and qualified information regarding the features of the fiscal policy in Russia. This is: Article "Performing Fiscal Policy" / Problems of Forecasting, No. 2, 2003, from 45-57, in which the main directions of modern fiscal policy in the Russian Federation are indicated, and also covered the processes of its reform; Article "Basic Landmarks of Fiscal Policy" / Finance, No. 8, 2002, with 50-56, which provides possible ways to optimize the current fiscal policy, are noted the goals that should pursue the Government of the Russian Federation during the conduct of transformations, as well as their possible consequences; The article "Is the current tax policy" / Finance, No. 10, 2002, from 24-32, considering the peculiarities of modern tax policy in Russia as one of the main components of the fiscal policy: covered the processes of reforming the taxation system, changes in the economy occurring under the influence of these processes, as well as methods for further improvement, increasing the effectiveness of the tax system in the Russian Federation.

1. F.rock policy as a system g.economic regulation of the economy

1.1 Essence of the Fiscal Policy of the State

Through fiscal policy, the state regulates the SIS-topic of measures in the field of government procurement of goods and services, as well as taxation. The word "fiscal" Latin occasion is the harvest and in translation means a state. In Russia, in the era of Peter I Fiscals called officials who were supervised for taxes and financial affairs. In modern economic literature, fiscal policy is associated with government regulation of government expenditures and taxation. Government spending on the purchase of goods and services significantly affect the size of gross and pure internal pro-Dukta. In our country, such purchases were usually called the Gospaza-Zom, which was funded from the state budget. In essence, fis-food policy is the main lever with which the state can affect the economy. Therefore, it is necessary to consider how the state with the help of this political-ki affects the achievement of the equilibrium volume of national production, economic stability and complete employment.

To understand the general principles of state regulation, it is necessary to clearly allocate two components of the fiscal policy.

These are government spending on the purchase of goods and services, with which one can increase or decrease total costs, and thereby influence on the amount of national production. Government expenses include all budget allocations, directed to the construction of roads, schools, hospitals, cultural institutions, the implementation of environmental and energy programs and other public needs and need.

This includes the defense expenses, foreign procurement costs, the acquisition of the necessary for the population of agricultural products, etc. This kind of costs and procurement can be called public-public, because the consumer of goods and services is generally in general in the face of the state.

Government spending directed to the governance of the sustainable functioning of market eco-nomica. Such expenses contribute to an increase in either a reduction in the volume of internal production (ChVP) during the periods of its recession or lifting. State races are not only directly, but also through the animated effect affect the volume of internal production, by vague its increase or abbreviation.

The state affects the volume of domestic production through its tax policy. Obviously, the higher the taxes, the less income there will be a population, and therefore, the less to buy and save. Therefore, the Ra-Zup tax policy implies a comprehensive record of those factors that can stimulate either inhibit the economic development and welfare of society.

At first glance, it seems that high taxes, the method of increasing public income, will work on society and the budget of the country. But at the nearest race, the opposite is revealed: neither the enterprise, nor the worker in excessively high taxes turn out to be disadvantageous, in which we could all be convinced by the example of our economic reform. However, low tax rates will significantly undermine the state budget and its most important articles as the cost of co-holding budget organizations and socio-cultural events. That is why when conducting OS-hog and reasonable tax policies, it is necessary to measure seven times and cut off once.

Government spending on the purchase of goods and services usually constitute a significant part of the budget. In our country, they performed in the form of state promenes to enterprises. Such an order is also practiced in countries with a developed market structure. Thus, in the United States and England, the fifth of the GDP is privified by the state, and, as a rule, firms and corporations always seek to receive an order from the state, as this ensures their sales market, credit and tax breaks, eliminates the risk of non-payment. Ruzaquin G. I. Basics of a market economy: Tutorial for universities - M.: Banks and stock exchanges, Uniti, 2001. - p. 273.

The state increases its procurement during the recession and crisis and reduces during lifting and inflation in order to maintain the internal stability. At the same time, these actions are aimed at regulating the market, maintaining equilibrium between supply and a presentation. Such a goal is one of the most important Mac-Roeconomic functions of the state.

The most important role is state spending playing in the formation of social and cultural programs of state, ensuring its defense, the content of the Office and law enforcement agencies, as well as investments for the development of the public sector industry. At the same time, in our country there was a huge deficit of the state budget, which leads to the financial exposure of the national economy and therefore requires particularly careful expenses planning, achieving maximum efficiency. A significant role in the replenishment of the budget can play not so much reasonable tax policy as a measure to tighten the tax discipline. This applies primarily to cooperatives, rental and joint ventures and especially commercial structures that are incidental from paying taxes, finding all sorts of loopholes in laws and instructions. Moreover, publishing people are taught in the press, which teach people to circumvent laws on taxation. All this indicates a very low level of organizing our fiscal policy as a state of state expense and taxation. In the next case, it is observed, on the one hand, very high taxes on income and added value, which does not allow to deploy the production of folk consumption goods, and on the other, - the state loses a lot from non-payment of those completely legal and reasonable taxes, from which many commercial structures shy, not to mention the direct embezzlement of billions of banks from banks on plates and the assistance of corrupt officers.

Apparently, many shortcomings in our tax system are explained by the fact that we essentially we just started to develop. Many laws and instructions were imperfect and they had to clarify and add-on, especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union; Up-Parate Tax Inspectorate was little prepared to combat violators of laws. Successful tax policy is prevented by the old views and psychological installations, according to which taxes were considered typically bourgeois instrument. It is notable to remind you that in the 60s we have issued a law on gradual abolition of all taxes, which, of course, never was introduced, since any clear that no tax could exist without tax.

Taxes are subject to income (property) of individuals and legal entities. As a regulatory form imposed on income, taxes are characterized by the obligation and urgent payments. Therefore, any tax evasion and their non-timely payment lead to relevant legal and administrative and financial sanctions.

It is fundamentally new in our legislation is the introduction of income tax, which more corresponds to the structure of market economy than previously existing payments, especially those who have followed the minister. Although income taxes still remain high, nevertheless gradually legislative bodies are pronounced that their size should be reduced, and gradually they really begin to be revised. Along with these enterprises, various benefits are provided, for example, when conducting research and development work and the development of new and high-tech technologies.

For income tax there is a tax scale depending on the forms of ownership; There are also various benefits for different categories of GREZH-DAN; Too high taxes on individual-but-labor activity are canceled, although there are still neoplast rates and restrictions.

Finally, it is completely new for us to create a naughty inspection, which is designed to strictly control the process of taxation in the context of the formation of different forms of ownership and carefully follow the pay-god-god paid by collective and private enterprises, as well as individual citizens.

1.2 Principles and mechanisms for the impact of fiscal policy on the functioning of the economy

With the help of fiscal policies, the state is indeliable can affect the development of the economy, the achievement of its sustainable growth, price stability and the complete employment of the capable population.

Such a policy is to pre-see the decline in production and the growth of unemployment, as well as on-polling the inflationary processes in the economy and the corresponding way to influence them. With the coming decline in production, the government increases government spending and reduces taxes in order to increase total costs and investments. Thus, it contributes to the rise in production and an increase in employment. When inflation, on the contrary, government spending decreases, and taxes increase.

All activities involving this kind of state regulation of the economy have received a discretionary policy. Together with the monetary policy, it plays a crucial role in the manner of the state by Macroeconomics, i.e. phenomena associated with employment, expenses and income of the population, price stability and sustainable development of production.

However, macro regulation is not limited to the direct actions of the state represented by its or-gas management. If there were no other regulators existed, we would only have to wait for the government's representatives to notice negative phenomena in the economy and accommodate them to eliminate them. And the implementation of such measures will require a certain time until they are defined, approved by legislative authorities, and then finally implemented.

Fortunately, in a market economy there are certain mechanisms for self-organization and self-regulating that come into effect immediately, as soon as negative processes in the economy are found. They are called built-in stabilizers. The principle of self-regulation that lies at the heart of these stabilizers, is similar to the principle on which the autopilot or thermoregole-torner of the refrigerator is built. When the autopilot is enabled, then it will support the aircraft course automatically, based on incoming feedback signals. Any deviation from the specified course thanks to such signals will be adjusted by the control device. Economic stabilizers are also working, thanks to which the automatic change in tax revenues is carried out; payments for social benefits, in particular for unemployment; Various state-owned assistance programs to the population and others.

How is self-regulation, or automatic due to change, tax revenues? A progressive taxation system is built into the economic system, which determines the tax depending on the income. With an increase in pre-movements, tax rates are progressively increasing, which are approved by the Government in advance. With increasing or decrease in income, taxes are automatically rising or lowered without any government intervention and its control and control bodies. Such a built-in stub-listed taxation system is sensitive to changes in the economic situation: during the recession and depression, when the income of the population and enterprises fall, tax revenues are automatically reduced. On the contrary, in the period of inflation and boom, the nominal income is growing and therefore taxes are automatically increasing.

In economic literature on this issue, different points of view are essential. A hundred years ago, many economy stables spoke for the stability of tax fees, for it, in their opinion, contributes to the sustainability of the economic situation of the Company. Currently, there are many economists who adhere to the opposite point of view and even claim that the objective principles underlying the built-in stabilizer _ should prefer the incompetent intervention of government bodies that are often guided by subjective opinions, preferences. At the same time, there is also an opinion that it is impossible to rely entirely on automatic stabilizers, because in certain situations they may not adequately respond to the latter, and therefore need regulation by the state.

Payments for social assistance benefits unemployed, poor, large families, veterans and other ka-cells of citizens, as well as the state-owned farmers program, the agro-industrial complex are also carried out on the basis of built-in stabilizers, because most of these payments are implemented at the expense of taxes. And taxes, as you know, grow progressively along with the militant population and enterprises. The higher these income, the greater the tax deductions to the fund assistance fund, retirees, poor and other categories of state-owned enterprises and their employees.

Despite the significant role of embedded stabilization, they cannot completely overcome any fluctuations in the economy. Similarly, in difficult situations, the auto-pilot comes to the aid of the present pilot, and with significant fluctuations in the economic system, more powerful state regulators are included in the form of discretionary fiscal, as well as monetary policies.

Consider briefly the basic elements of discretionary policies. The main element is a change in programs of general work. Such work was deployed during the Great Depression of the 30s in order to combat unemployment by increasing jobs. Since, however, this kind of projects made up the hurry and focused on occupying people of any work, for example, to build roads without the necessary number of machines and mechanisms or even raking the dry leaves in pairs, the economic efficiency of these programs was quite insignificant. In addition, it should be borne in mind that at present in developed countries, the discards of production are much less long, so you can fight lower tax rates and using monetary policies.

But this, of course, in no way means the diminishing role of public works to solve problems affecting the interests of all members of society concerns this construction of roads, the reconstruction of cities, improves the environmental environment, etc. One work cannot be directly related to the achievement of rapidly stabilizing the economy, the elimination of its short-time recessions. Developed countries of the West made their conclusions from the inefficient policies of public works that were deployed in the 1930s.

Another essential element is a change in nano-gov rates. When a short decline in production is predicted, then decisions about reducing tax rates appear in addition to embedded stabilizers. Although the progress-strong tax system makes it possible to automatically change the tax revenues to the budget, which will decrease with a decrease in production and income, but this may be insufficient to influence the negative situation. It is during this period that it becomes necessary to reduce tax rates and increase government spending to promote the rise in production and overcoming its recession.

Discretionary fiscal policy also provides additional expenses for social needs. Although unemployment benefits, pensions, benefits poor and other categories of needy are regulated using embedded stabilizers (increase or decrease as income taxes are received), nevertheless, the government can carry out special programs to help these categories of citizens in difficult times for economic development. .

In such images, we come to the conclusion that effective fis-food policy should be based on, on the one hand, on the furs of the self-regulation, laid down in the economic system, and on the other, on a thorough, careful discretionary control of the economic system from the state and His governing bodies. Consequently, self-organizing regulators of the economy should function agreed with considerable regulation organized by the state.

Generally speaking, the whole experience of the development of market economy-Miki, especially our century, indicates that, in the development of the economy and other social life systems, self-organization should go to the leg with the organization, i.e. conscious regulation of economic processes by the state.

However, such regulation is achieved not easy. Nach, with the fact that it is necessary to predict a decline or inflation in a timely manner when they have not yet begun. Repeat in such forecasts for statistics is hardly targetful, as statistics summarizes the past, and therefore it is difficult to determine the tendencies of future development. A more reliable tool for predicting the future level of GDP is a monthly analysis of the opera indicators, to which the polynicual figures of developed countries are often treated. This index indicates 11 variables characterizing the current state of the economy, including the average duration of the working week, new orders for consumer goods, stock market prices, changing orders for long-term goods, changing prices of certain types of raw materials, etc. . It is clear that if it happens, for example, a reduction in the rags of the week in the manufacturing industry, decreases orders for raw materials, reduce orders for consumer goods, then with a certain probability you can expect a decline in production in the future.

However, it is quite difficult to determine the exact time when the decline comes is quite difficult. But even in these conditions a lot of time will be held before the government will take the corresponding measures. In addition, in the interests of the upcoming election campaign, it can carry out such repulinary measures that will not fit, but will only worsen the economic situation. All such obcomcommunication factors will go rug with the needs of achieving production stability.

Effective fiscal policy should take into account the real state of the economy, namely should be stimulating, i.e. Increase government spending and reduce taxes in the period of the outlined decline in production. In the period of the beginning of the inflation, it must be restraining, i.e. raise taxes and reduce government spending.

1.3 Fiscal Policy Tools

Government spending on the purchase of goods and services are a new component in the total amount of expenses for the production of ChVP. To understand the influence of such expenses on the basis of the production of the internal product, it is necessary to compare them with cumulative consumption and investment costs. To do this, refer to the graphic analysis.

On the abscissa axis, I will postpone the ONCH measures, and on the axis ordinate - the costs of the population, the enterprises and the state for consumption. Then the points located on the bisector of the coordinate angle will appear to the state of the economic system in which the volume of ChVP will be fully consumed by the population, enterprises and state. In other words, cumulative expenses at these points will be equal to the corresponding volume of the ChVP.

We will now construct a consumption schedule, which is passing bisector at point A, in which the costs of the population C will be equal to its consumption. To make our model more realistic, we take into account the costs of enterprises on the Inve-Edition, i.e. We will add to consumer spending in the population of investment costs. Schedule of total consumption of consumption of the population and enterprises of C + in Peres-Chet Biscecritris at the point in which their consumption will be equal to another ChVP volume. Finally, add all these expenditures to the purchase of goods and services by the state. Gra-fic C + IN + G will cross the bisector at a point where the Population, enterprises and states will be equal to the third volume of the ChVP.

It can be seen from the figure that whenever the supplies of investment and government procurement increases increases, the equilibrium production (ChVP) increases. At point A, where the balance between the expenditures of the division and its consumption is established, this volume is expressed by the major OA on the abscissa axis. At the point in, where equilibrium is achieved between the expenditures of the population and enterprises, on the one hand, and their consumption of the corresponding volume of ChVP, on the other - the initial value increases on AB, i.e. The composition is a segment of OB (. Finally, at the point of equilibrium ј, where the direct crosses the bisector, the volume of the ChVP reaches the ve-larvae. As an increase in investment costs and state procurement is shifted upwards of appropriate direct consumption and investment, and Also consumption, investment of government spending. It is easy to understand that with a decrease in the same government spending, a shift will be shirled down by direct total consumption expenses, in-vote and government spending. At the same time, direct costs for population consumption containing only one component are considered. Consequently, with an increase in government spending, a re-entertainment point of macroravias on bisector, caused by a shift up of direct aggregate expenses, and accordingly increases the volume of the ChVP. With a decrease in such expenses, we get the opposite result.

Government spending, therefore, increase total costs, and thus stimulate the aggregate demand, which in turn promotes an increase in the volume of pure internal product (ChVP), and ultimately gross domestic product (GDP). It is also clear that the state expenditures, as well as expenses for consumption and investment, contribute to the growth of national production, and therefore should be used as a regulator in decline in production.

Since, however, the decrease in these expenses causes a reduction in production, they should also apply with a boom and inflation to preserve macroeco-nomic stability and employment. In the D. Keynes model, it was the state expenses that were intended as the main means of macroeconomic regulation, achieving stability and employment. As part of the fiscal policy, they also play a major role in comparison with taxofing. But to understand why this happens, you need to refer to the analysis of the multiplier of state expenses.

As a result of the previous discussion, I was concluded that the increase in government spending will lead to an increase in the volume of ChVP, and therefore GDP. Reducing these expenses, on the contrary, reduces the equilibrium volume of the ChVP. Graphically, this can be represented as the movement of the Macroravias point on the bisector: in the first case, it moves up, in the second - down. Motion, however, the question: to what extent is such an increase or decrease in ChVP or GDP?

Since government spending in principle do not differ in their effects from other types of total expenses, for example, on investments, the extent to them fully belongs to all the arguments that have been derived from the investment multiplier. This means that the state costs for the purchase of goods and services have a multiplication, or multiplicative, effect. But in order to distinguish the multiplier of government spending on the Inve-Stylae, one can designate the first one letter, but adding the index of G. Then, by analogy, we can determine this multiplier as the ratio of the increment of the ChVP to the increment of public spending (GR):

Since the gross domestic product differs from pure accounting of depreciation costs, for it, the corresponding multiplier is defined as the increment of GDP with respect to state expenses:

A graphically multiplication effect can be pre-put in the form of an increase in ChVP or GDP size when shifted upward aggregate consumption expenses, investments and public procures.

We present that the macroravia is set at the intersection point of this straight line with bisector at the point E. Then the Multiplier of the Human Surface Expenditure is valid similar to the MULA-Tymbol of investment. Therefore, it can be determined by analogy with him:

In this example, I received a PPP equal to 3/4, from where the multiplier to r \u003d 4. But, as already known, PSP + PSS \u003d 1, it follows that

Taxes constitute a part of the fiscal policy, with their help state regulates the functioning of the night economy. Such regulation is achieved not directly and directly, as under government races, but indirectly, through the impact on consumption and destruction of the population. In order to better understand this, we will prevent that the state introduces a one-time population tax in the amount of a million rubles, and the value of the tax does not depend on the size of the ChVP. It is not difficult to understand that in this case the income to which the population has, will also decrease as a million rubles. However, now reducing the income will cause a reduction in not only consumption, but also saving population. For the simplicity of calculations, we assume that at the same time the limit tendency to consumption (PSP) and SBE-cut (PSS) will be the same, i.e. PSP \u003d PSS \u003d 1/2.

How will this affect the equilibrium scum? First, consumption costs will be reduced not by a million rubles., But only on a / 2 million, as expenses for savings decrease half. Secondly, the reduction in races for consumption will cause a reduction in total races, including investment costs and state procurement. As a result, the graph of cumulative expenses will be shifted down.

Accordingly, the juice is also rattled the volume of equivalent ChVP. Therefore, if at the point E was Raspan H Mill. RUB. From here it becomes clear, why the increase or reduction of taxes has a smaller impact on the volume of internal production than government spending on purchasing goods and services. Such expenses are part of the cumulative expenses and therefore, along with consumption and investments, characterize cumulative demand and, therefore, directly affect the volume of internal production.

With the growth of public procurement, demand increases, and thereby stimulates a further increase in production. Changes in taxes - their increase or lower - directly affects one of the components of Socuopny expenses, namely on consumption. Therefore, taxes, although they have a multiplication effect, but their impact on the equilibrium volume of production of scales is indirectly, through consumption, and in magnitude, it is less state expenses.

To assess the impact of taxes on the equilibrium volume of ChVP quantitatively, we introduce the concept of tax multiplication-torus to H, which can be determined through the already known intensity of the government spending multiplier by the city of Action, since taxes have an impact on the volume of ChVP through consumption, the value This impact will be less than a multiplier of government spending on the ledge of a limit leaning to consumption (PSP):

K H \u003d PSP * K

In our example, taxes have increased by a million rubles, the PSP is equal to 1/2. Substituting these values \u200b\u200bin the formula, half-chim to N \u003d A / 2 million rubles. For comparison, we will find the value of the government multiplier when they decrease are twice, i.e. at a / 1 million rubles.

It can be seen that with the value of the multiplier KG \u003d 2, a decrease in the government at A / 2 million rubles. leads to a decrease in the equilibrium amount of ChVP on A Million, and their increases on the same amount - to the growth of AI Million. It can be said that every monetary unit of government expenditures leads to a displacement of the graph of the total demand per unit, whereas each monetary The Taxes of Taxes displays this schedule to 1/2 units down. Ultimately, with an increase in government spending, the equilibrium volume of the ChVP increases by the magnitude of the multip-licator of these expenses, and with increasing taxes, decreases by the value of the tax multiplier.

If government spending and taxes increase on the same value, then the equilibrium volume of the ChVP increases on the same value. Suppose state procurement increased by rubles. Then, with a multiplier, equal to 2, the increment of ChVP CO-puts 2s million, and the curve of the aggregate demand will move upwards with units. At the same time, the increase in taxes at the shift of the total demand for C / 2 million and decreases the equilibrium volume of ChVP only to million people, such a reason, the same increase in government spending and taxes will cause an increase in ChVP by an increase equal to growth Surgery or taxes. From here, it can be concluded that the multiplier of the joint action of government spending and taxes is equal to one, because in this case, the initial incidence of ChVP is equal to the initial increment to the RESO-DOP or taxes.

Such a multiplier is called a large-scale budget multiplier in the economic lestura. We note that it affects not isolated on state-expenses and taxes, but at the same time, because the CHVP reduction caused by increasing taxes is compensated by increasing government spending, and thereby ensuring the overall growth of ChVP.

Now imagine the situation when tax growth is not bundled to influence the size of the ChVP. For this, it is enough to reduce the production caused by taxes, exactly balanced by the impact of government spending, which will contribute to the growth of the ChVP. So, if taxes are increased by a million rubles, then the ChVP will decrease on O / 2 million and its increment will be equal to zero; If you increase government spending on the A / 2 million rubles, which, with a multiplier, equal to 2, will give an increasing equal to the RUB. Obviously, the society is by no means interested in this stag.

So far, I only considered the impact on the equilibrium volume of the production of consumption costs, i.e. Only one part of the income received. Another part of this income is savings, and they obviously also affect the volume of production.

For simplicity of analysis, suppose that investments in this case will be permanent, and government spending and taxes are absent. In such an idealized situation, it is easier to identify the connection between the change in savings and the volume of equilibrium ChVP. Ocho, it is clear that the more money goes on savings, the less they remain for the procurement of goods and services. In the end, the situation may arise when the population is convinced of its experience that excessive savings accumulation can lead to a drop in production and, as a result, reducing its income or even poverty.

Turn to the graphic analysis. Suppose on the abscissa axis, the size of the ChVP will be displayed, and on the ordinate axis - the size of investment and salary. Since we pre-put that the sizes of the in-vote remains permanent, their schedule is made of horizontal line, parallel to the abscissa axis.

Suppose that the amount of savings increased by a million rubles. Then the savings schedule will shift up and units. The initial state of macroraviasia at the point E 1 corresponds to, say, the volume of the ChVP \u003d B million rubles. The new state of macroraviasia at the point E will correspond to CHVP \u003d B-2A million rubles. When psp \u003d pv \u003d 1/2.

Thus, an increase in savings due to the animation effect will cause a reduction in the volume of equilibrium ChVP in comparison with savings on B -2A million rubles. From here, the manner is that the reduction in the volume of internal production is fell by a decrease in income of the population. This situation can continue until finally, the population will not understand that the desire for savings makes it not richer, but poorer. This statement does not apply to the case when there is full-time employment and production works at the maximum level.

Under these conditions, the thrift is appropriate and benefits and benefit and the individual and the individual. Indeed, continuous investments are needed to maintain a high level of production and full employment. And they are possible only when society consumes less and saves more. This situation is described by the classical economic model, which is focused on full employment and stable production. Gra-vichically, you can imagine this model like this: Since the savings are growing, and the current consumption falls, the price of the goods for the goods is long and the prices of goods. 1. But at the same time, the entire amount of production produced is still fully implemented, although at lower prices, and therefore the volume of the ChVP and the employment remain stable. Reducing the cumulative sprot is shown by shifting down the graphics of total demand.

In the Keynes model, the growth of savings also leads to the ug of aggregate demand, but the volume of internal production does not remain constant, and it is reduced, which causes part-time. In these conditions, the growth of savings can only strengthen the decline in production and unemployment.

2. Features of the fiscal policy in the Russian Federation

2.1 Need to reform fiscal policy

10-year period of market transformations In Russia, she finally allowed to develop a clear look towards reforming the financial system. As noted above, the choice of a complex of tax measures of state impact on the national economy depends on what segment of the curve of the aggregate supply is currently currently. Today (as well as during the entire time of reform), the Russian economy is located on the "Keynesian" segment, that is, in the phase of development, when production has not yet reached the level of complete employment. Consequently, the task of state regulation should be not to limit the aggregate demand (which already has very narrow borders), but in stimulating its expansion.

Throughout the period of reform, a number of fundamental mistakes are committed to the formation of a tax strategy of the state. The features of the reform object - the Russian economy were not taken into account. As the theoretical base, a certain selection of monetarism was erroneously elected, distorted beyond recognition in applied to Russian reality. It can be argued that actually monetarist policies have not been carried out (it is worth noting at least administratively conducted "liberalization" of prices and constantly increasing taxes).

The admitted miscalculations can be justified by the fact that the problems of the transition from a centralized administratively managed state to regulated market economy are the least developed both from the point of view of theory and in terms of the practical formation and implementation of economic policies. Those models of the transition period, which are tested in the countries of Eastern Europe and South America, failed to prevent transformational decline there, and the automatic transfer of them to the Russian soil could not give positive results. The practical version of the transformation in Russia was, as is known, far from any model that existed at that time, and differed not for the better.

The entry of the Russian economy in the phase of market relations is noted by a sharp strengthening of inflation trends. The multiple rise in prices nominated the priorities to the development and implementation of anti-inflationary measures as the basis for the formation of a favorable manufacturing and investment climate. The increase in inflationary processes in the transition period led to a sharp exacerbation of budgetary funds and an increase in the state budget deficit, which objectively forced government agencies to raise taxes. The presence of a bulky state sector, carrying the load of imbalances and structural distortions of the socialist economy, forced to maintain a high level of government spending, which required the relevant revenue part formed mainly at the expense of tax revenues.

Thus, the formation of a financial system in Russia occurred in the situation, which deprived the possibility of creating it on the basis of promising problems of reforming the economy, and not momentary feasibility. It is very difficult to look for a constructive way out of this situation, since the budget crisis makes an extremely difficult task of reducing the tax burden. However, in the current conditions and high tax rates cannot solve the problem of budget deficit, but are only able to finally undermine the financial incentives of enterprises.

In practice, it happened. The increase in the tax burden provoked a sharp narrowing of the number of solvent agents (by 1998, the share of unprofitable enterprises as a whole on the real sector was 53%), as well as care for the shadow of an increasing number of manufacturers. Course of the transition economy / ed. Acad. L. I. Abalkin - M.: Finstatinform CJSC, 2001, from. 306.

Especially acutely, the tax burden was felt in the period of high inflation, when tax seizures were accompanied by inflationary taxes paid, which further cut off financial sources of reimbursement of production costs and accumulation.

Inflation in combination with the decline of production and sharp fluctuations of the situation put the formation of a rational tax system in the category of the most priority tasks. However, the choice of a tax tool package (as well as recommendations for other areas of reform - price liberalization, monetary and currency regulation) took place in the separation of objective conditions and the needs of the development of the economy. Today it is obvious that the existing tax strategy needs a change of priorities, and the tax system is in significant liberalization. Restrictive, fiscal character formed at the system reform stage, its overload with excessive amounts of taxes and a too high level of tax burden, the entanglement of the legislation played a not lasting role in the deepening of the transformation crisis and the criminalization of the economy.

Tightening the tax policy, accompanied by the formation of a tough budget financing system, is a permanent direction of the activities of economic bodies during the transition period (while the country needed inverse). At the moment, the fiscal orientation of the tax system is still the most important obstacle to the economic revival and growth of business and investment activity.

The tax system in its current form creates obstacles even by simple reproduction, not to mention the expanded, therefore its liberalization is a vital step, the implementation of which has been postponed for a number of years. This is largely due to the fact that today there is still no scientifically based concept of reform.

For its successful conduct, it is necessary to work out a common strategy, in which such blocks of the economic mechanism must be systemarly linked, such as price and investment policy, a set of measures to create a class of effective owners (including the formation of legal support and protection), financial and monetary and credit Politics, tax strategy, social protection measures, etc.

2.2 Paths and methods of improving fiscal politicians

The theoretical basis for the formation of a financial strategy in Russia is currently possible to become a reasonable, weighted quinsianism. At this stage, the boundaries of indirect state intervention in the economy should be expanded (especially in the field of tax regulation). The market mechanism is not able to independently push the narrow boundaries of solvent demand associated with barter and high taxes. Establishing an overpriced level of tax seizure provokes enterprises to a massive search for legitimate and semi-shaped ways to avoid taxes.

The tax system, which stimulates the development of pro-ice and earning income is a stable and is-trying economic growth factor. The country's political ru-junction realized the need for a radical transformation of the tax system. The work plan of the Russian government in the field of social political and modernization of the economy for 2002-2003 priority tasks were identified. Dominant Macroeconomic Policy - Tax Reform. Its tasks for the first time balanced reflect the need to improve the investment climate and the achievement of state budget procurement is a significant reduction in the tax burden. It can be argued that the task of coordination of long-term in-terraces of the state, civilized entrepreneur and majority of the population.

Legislative Reform Base - Tax Co-Dex (second part in the amount of four chapters), signed by the President, came into force on January 1, 2001

We will try to analyze the economic and political conditions that have formed in the country at the time of the beginning of the new phase of the tax render. First of all, we note the features of the mutual action of economic and tax policy. The revival of the economy contributes to the expansion of the taxable base, an increase in tax collection "alive" money. On the other hand, the introduction of an optical taxation system stimulates production growth.

Over the past 2.5 years, the right-to-seeers finally managed to break the circle of non-payment, in which one ruble of non-fulfillment of budget obligations generated 3.5--4 rubles. Not payments in the eco-nomication of the country. This is where it is possible to explain in significant steps to explain the improvement of tax collection in the country. The main event of 1999 for the MNS of Russia was the termination of the Fair and the beginning of the growth of the "living" money in the budget. The consolidated budget, including incomes of the Tse-left budget and state extrabudgetary funds, was collected 1044.0 billion rubles in 1999. taxes and fees. In the form of "living" money received 793.4 billion rubles., Or 76% of all income. Is the current tax policy / finance, No. 10, 2002, from 26 The federal budget of the growth rate of "living" money was ahead of the co-responding indicators on the general collection of income to the budget.

On the other hand, not devaluation of the ruble, not high export prices for raw materials, but, above all, the re-decrease in the tax burden, government spending and the actual elimination of the current budget deficit served as the main causes of eco-nomic revival in Russia. Today, economists are united that the main factor of the stable functioning of the economy is the state's tax policy. The study of the Institute of Economic Analysis allowed us to conclude: in order to achieve maximum pace of ro-hundred, it is necessary under the conditions of a market economic system to have the low parameters of the state physotic load on the economy.

The important condition for the implementation of the new stage of the Nalo reform is a tendency to form new standards of business ethics in Russian business participants. In the nineties, it was believed that the possibility of non-payment of taxes and the export of assets abroad is the norm of business ethics. Currently, fresh ten is observed ...........

12.2. THE STATE BUDGET.

12.4. STATE DEBT.

12.1. State financial system.

Finance (MN. From Lat. FINANSIA - Order of payment) - These are funds funds arising in the process of public reproduction in major economic entities and used for national needs and the needs of public reproduction. Usually we are talking about:

· State Target Foundations (National or Centralized Finance) and

· Decentralized finances of business entities (enterprises).

In the process of formation and use of these funds funds, financial relations arise. With the help of financial relations, the state exercises a direct redistribution of national income in order to stimulate the most effective management process.

The state financial system is a system of economic relations associated with the formation and use of funds funds intended to meet the national needs and the needs of extended reproduction, as well as institutions that manage and control the use of funds from these funds.

Nationwide finances include:

1. Budget system (state and local budgets).

2. State extrabudgetary trust funds;

3. State loan;

4. State insurance funds

Tasks solved by a system of nationwide finances:

· Development of the production sector

· Development of the social sphere (culture, sport, education, etc.)

· Providing financial resources of defense, country management, law enforcement.

In the countries of the market economy, the production sector is developing and improved by self-financing, attracting credit and other resources. The state supports only priority sectors of the economy and is carried out in the following areas:

1. The development of industries and industries that ensure the development of NTP.

2. industries producing export or scarce products;

3. Development of industries and industries with nationwide importance (energy, some industries and agriculture)

12.2. THE STATE BUDGET.

State budget(From English. Budget - suitcase, bag with money.) - The leading link of the financial system. A constant resource mobilization and their spending are carried out through the budget.

The state budget is the main financial plan of the state for the current year having the power of the law. Approved by the legislative authorities - parliaments.

The main functions of the state budget. The state budget of modern foreign countries perform the following main functions:

1 redistribution of national income. About 50% of GDP is redistributed through the state budget. The budget is widely used for:

· Inter-sectoral redistribution of financial resources. Thus, intersectoral proportions are being improved and the allocation of priority sectors of the economy is provided.

· Territorial redistribution of financial resources. Through the tax system, financial resources are withdrawn from the regions, where they are in a relatively excess volume and are sent to resource-codeficiency regions, thereby ensuring their development. As a rule, these are areas, poor natural resources or injured environmentally friendly, etc.

· Redistribution of revenues between different groups of the population through the tax system and the system of social transfers.

Using the budget, the state makes deep changes in the proportion, developing at the production stages and the primary distribution of national income.

2 state regulation and stimulation of the economy. The redistribution of national income largely allows you to implement the following function of the state budget - state regulation and stimulation of the economy.

3 financial Provision of Social Policy. State budget has become a large source of funds for the reproduction of labor. As scientific and technological progress, the reproduction of labor is increasingly depends on the cost of education, health care, social insurance and provision.

4 The implementation of all these functions is complemented by the implementation control over the formation and use of a centralized fund of funds. It includes control over compliance with financial and economic legislation in the process of formation and use of cash funds, assessing the effectiveness of financial and economic operations and the feasibility of the costs

Ptroyode, during which the approved budget is called, is called Budget year.

Budget composition.In the broad sense, the word budget is a balance, in one side of which all incomes are located in another - expenses. (Vertical and horizontal budget composition)

Budget revenues - Part of the central financial resources of the state necessary to perform its functions. The following main sources of budget revenues include taxes, state loans, revenues from public-owned use; income from privatization; grants or gifts; Monetary emission.

1) the main method of redistribution of national income - taxes Providing the predominant share of budget revenues. So, in the income of the central budget of various states, tax revenues amount to about 9/10. The share of taxes in the income of the members of the Federation and local budgets is significantly less. These budgets are formed due to the enshrined (own revenues of relevant budgets) and regulators (income transmitted from the superior link of the budget system by Nostariam) income.

2) the following in its financial value of the budget income are state loans. The state resorts to this method with budgetary deficits, which are provided for the budget for the coming year. There are two ways to obtain state loans: 1) government loans received from individuals and legal entities by issuing securities on behalf of the state; 2) loans received from the Central Bank and other credit institutions. The increase in the amount of credit transactions of the state leads to an increase in public debt. And often leads to the growth of taxes. His repayment, the payment of interest on it is largely carried out at the expense of tax payments or new credit operations. obtaining state loans from individual states or from international financial and credit institutions. Therefore, funds mobilized on the basis of state loans must be considered not as a source of budget revenue formation, but as a method of temporary replenishment of the budget fund.

3) revenues from public-owned use;

4) income from privatization;

5) grants (gifts) from foreign governments or international organizations. Grants can be provided either to finance the implementation of a specific project, or simply to maintain the budget of friendly states experiencing difficulties. Grants are not considered to be a budget financing article and are shown in its revenue, and not "below the line". If the grant is intended for the purchase of means of production, it is considered capital. All other grants refer to the current. Grants differ from the loans by the fact that the grants do not come a contractual obligation to pay the amounts received.

6) for emergency circumstances, when receiving tax payments, state loans is difficult, the state appeals to emissions of paper money.This is the most unpopular method, as it causes an increase in money supply without appropriate commodity support and leads to an increase in the inflationary process, which has severe socio-economic consequences.

In action from the country's state device distinguish:

a) in the unitary state - the income of the central (state) budget and income of local budgets;

b) in the federal state - the revenues of the federal budget, the income of the budgets of the members of the Federation and the income of local budgets;

State expenses budget there are costs that arise in connection with the state fulfillment of their tasks and functions.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the main trend in the field of state budget expenditures is constant an increase. The jump-shaking increase in spending occurs during periods of wars when they increase ten times. However, in the second half of the XX century. The share of military expenses has decreased and has increased social spending, the cost of interference in the economy.

Expenses of the state budget of countries with developed market economies are divided into the following five groups:

1 Social goals;

2 intervention in the economy;

3 military;

5 Providing subsidies and loans to developing countries.

Basic in the state budget the expenses of the military, to interfere with the economy and for social goals.

I. Social goal costs include expenses for education, healthcare, social insurance and social security. They undergo numerous social programs. There are about 100 such programs in the USA in the UK several dozen. Social insurance costs are largely funded by the workers themselves.

2. A rapidly growing group of government spending are costs for interference in the economy(budget financing) . For example, the costs of research and development and development (R & D from 50 to 70% of all costs for scientific research), economic and social infrastructure, support for agriculture, government sectors of the economy, employment in certain sectors of the country and regions of the country, Stimulating exports.

Promoted subsidies to private firms, especially in the so-called development areas. These include areas with high unemployment and slow economic growth.

In some countries, subsidies are issued to employment entrepreneurs on newly accepted workers. Significant resources from the state budget are provided to agriculture. In the countries of the European Union (EU), support for agriculture is carried out not only at the national, but also at the interstate level.

Active assistance also turns out to be exporting firms, which greatly facilitates their situation in the conditions of acute competitive struggle in world markets. Stimulates relatively high rates of economic growth, but also softens its cyclic oscillations. The proportion of state budgets for intervention in the economy increased from 15-17% in the mid-50s to 20% in the mid-60s and 22-25% in the 80-90s.

3. on military spending In leading foreign countries accounts for up to 20 total amount of state budget expenditures. They are divided into direct and indirect military spending. Direct military spending Reflected in the military budgets - the degraded part of the state budget. They include the cost of producing the latest offensive strategic arms, the content and training of the personnel of the armed forces, the scientific research of a military nature, the content of militaristic blocks (NATO).

Direct military spending increases sharply during periods of wars and in the conditions of the militarization of the economy.

TO indirect military expenses Parties include a part of interest paid for public debt, contribution and repair, pensions and benefits to disabled people and the families of the victims. As well as military spending, which are held under articles of civilian departments. and

4. Costs for the content of the state management Includes the cost of maintaining the legislative and executive authorities, the court, prosecutor's office, police, various ministries and departments. In general, the costs of the state apparatus occupy 4-5% of the total amount of budget expenditures.

5. Expenses for foreign economic activity.

6. Public debt service costs

Budget expenditures, being an important part of government spending as a whole, express economic relations arising from the use of the funds of the National Cash Fund.

3 options for the budget fund are possible:

· balancedstate when income is equal to expenses;

· pROFFwhen income exceeds costs;

· deficit When the costs exceed income.

The most typical is a deficit.

12.3. Taxes: Essence, Functions, types. La fiber curve.

Taxes are crucial in budget revenues.

Taxes - Mandatory payment levied by the state with physical and legal entities that are fiscal.

The state without taxes cannot exist, since they are the main method of mobilizing revenues in the conditions of market relations. Substituted their need and first formulated the basic principles (rules) of taxation by A.Smit.

Figure 12.1. - Principles of taxation

uniformity or principle of justice -state of states should, respectively, respectively, their ability and forces, i.e., respectively, income, participate in the content of the government;

certainty -tax, which is obliged to pay each individual, must be accurately defined, and not arbitrary. Payment period, payment method, payment amount - all this should be clear and definitely for the payer;

convenience - Each tax must be charged at that time or by the way when and how the payer should be more convenient to pay it;

saving - Each tax should be so conceived and designed to keep it from the revenues of the people perhaps less than what he brings the state treasury.

· Tax must be charged from income, and not from capital. It is extremely important that taxation does not damage national capital. Taxation of any country should not exceed the highest tax rates currently existing in developed countries. As a result, the danger of deprivation of the country will be excluded by taxing part of its capital.

Tax functions Reveal their socio-economic essence, internal content. In modern conditions, taxes perform three functions: a fiscal, regulating and stimulating.

1. Fiscal function - The main characteristic is originally for all states. With its help, state cash funds are formed, i.e., material conditions for the functioning of the state. It is this feature that provides a real possibility of redistributing a part of the value of national income in favor of the least secured social seeds of society.

The value of the fiscal function with increasing economic level of development of society increases. XX century It is characterized by a huge increase in state revenues from tax charges, which is associated with the expansion of its functions and a certain policy of social groups in power.

The fiscal function of taxes creates objective prerequisites for the state intervention in economic relations, i.e. it determines the regulatory function.

2. Regulatory function It means that taxes as an active participant of redistributive processes have a significant impact on reproduction, stimulating or holding back its rates, reinforcing or relaxing capital accumulation.

3. Stimulating.Taxes affect the level and structure of aggregate demand, and through the mechanism of market demand can contribute to the production or inhibit it. The relationship between the costs of production and the cost of goods and services, which is for entrepreneurs deciding in the process of use or sales of production facilities, depends on taxes

In the modern state there are various types of taxes (Figure 12.2.)

Straight - Income tax from the population, corporate income tax, properties and a number of others.

Indirect - These are taxes charged at prices of goods and services (VAT), excise taxes, customs duties, fiscal monopoly taxes. Direct taxes prevail in Canada, USA, Japan, Denmark, and indirect - in France, Italy, Norway. In general, in countries there was a shift towards direct taxation. In tax revenues in the state budget of the Republic of Belarus, indirect taxes are dominated. This suggests that the country's tax system performs a greater extent fiscal than a stimulating function.

Figure 12.2. - Types of taxes

The classification is especially important depending on the object of taxation and its purpose:

1 income tax.The greatest revenues among direct taxes provide income tax from the population - from 25 to 45% and more from the total amount of the state budget revenues.

2 corporate profits.One of the most striking trends in the field of direct taxation in Western countries is a constant reduction in the share of income on corporate profits. Thus, in the United States, on the eve of the Second World War, the receipt of this tax was almost half of all the tax revenues of the federal budget, in 1998 - 12%.

The same processes occur in all other economically developed countries. The share of this tax in total budget revenues fluctuates from5.5% in France and Germany, up to 10-11% in the UK.

3 Value Added Tax (VAT). Among the indirect taxes in foreign developed countries, the value added tax (VAT) VAT is the most important part of the tax systems of 42 states, including 17 European (valid in all EU countries). From the leading foreign countries, VAT is not applied to the United States and Japan. This tax accounts for 30 to 50% and more indirect taxes. In order to stimulate exports, all exported goods are exempt from VAT.

4 excise (on tobacco, strong spirits, beer, wine, gasoline).

5 Customs duties - These are taxes charged when importing and exporting goods. In connection with the internationalization of economic life, the development of international division of labor, the role of customs duties as an income source after World War II in economically developed Western countries was constantly declining. This is due to the general reduction in customs tariffs for industrial goods in the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), "the creation of duty-free trade zones in EU countries, EAT, etc.

Tax payments are an essential tool for state macroeconomic regulation. Taxes should ensure the revenue part of the budget with financial resources and at the same time they should not be too high to preserve the incentives for the development of production from national producers. An increase in the tax rate over its optimal value will reduce the amounts of national production and reducing the amount of tax revenues to the state budget. It was shown by the adviser to President R. Steigana A. Laffer

Figure 12.3 -Curve Laffer.

Using the tax function: T \u003d T y, A. Laffer showed that there is an optimal tax rate (T OPT.), In which tax revenues are maximal (t MAX.). If you increase the tax rate, the level of business activity (cumulative release) will decrease, and tax revenues will be reduced, since the taxable base (y) will decrease (Fig.12.3). Therefore, in order to combat the stagnation (simultaneous decline in production and inflation), A. Laffer at the beginning of the 80s proposed such a measure as a decrease in tax rate (and income and on corporate profits).

12.4. STATE DEBT.

As we have already noted from the three possible states of the budget fund, the state of deficit is most typical for the modern state. The deficit of the state budget may be covered by the borrowing of the state. Government borrowings lead to the emergence of such a phenomenon as public debt.

State debt is the result of the financial borrowing of the state carried out to cover the budget deficit. The national debt is equal to the sum of the deficit of past years, taking into account the deduction of budget excess.

The implementation of government loans at residents give rise to internal debt and non-residents - external debt. The amount of external and internal debt is national duty of the country.

Types of public debt:

- Capital state duty represents the entire amount of state issued and outstanding debt obligations, including accrued interest, which should be paid on these obligations;

- current public debt make up the costs of paying revenues by creditors for all debt obligations of the state and to repay obligations, which has come;

The national debt is also divided into short-term (up to one year), medium-term (from one year to five) and long-term (over five years). The most severe are short-term debts. They soon have to pay the bulk with high percentages.

An indicator of the magnitude of public debt is reflected in the SNA and the state controls this most important macroeconomic indicator. The IMF calculated the critical values \u200b\u200bof the value of public debt. The foreign debt of the country should not exceed:

· 60% of GDP ;

· The ratio of external debt to the export of goods and services (critical value) – 220 %;

· The ratio of payments for external debt to the export of goods and services - 25%.

Each state manages public debt to ensure that its value does not exceed the critical value.

Public debt management -this is a system of measures aimed at servicing debt (payment of% on it) and its repayment.

Financing the costs associated with the service and repayment of public debt is carried out at the expense:

1 increase taxes (main, but not the only source);

2 Sale of state ownership;

3 profits if the means are used productivity;

4 Implementation of new loans.

Placing new state loans to pay off debt on already issued is called refinancing of public debt.,

The presence of public debt has the following real negative consequences:

· Repayment of internal debt by paying percentage of the population increases inequality in the income of various social groups, since a significant part of government obligations is concentrated in the most wealthy part of the population. Consequently, those who have public securities, with their repayment become even richer;

· Increased taxes in order to pay interest on public debt may undermine the economic incentives for the development of national production;

· Government loans in the national banking system for paying interest on public debt lead to a reduction in investment in the country;

· The presence of public debt creates psychological stress in the country, generating uncertainty in the business activity of its economy.

12.5. Fiscal policy: Essence and types.

In order to accelerate economic growth, employment control and inflation, the state carries out fiscal, or budget and tax policy.

Fiscal policyit is a system of measures that the government is taking to stabilize the economy by changing the amount of income and / or state budget expenditures. (Therefore, fiscal policy is also called budget and tax policies).

Targetsfiscal policy as any stabilization (anticyclic) policy aimed at smoothing cyclic fluctuations in the economy is the provision:

1) stable economic growth;

2) full employment of resources (first of all the solution to the problem of cyclic unemployment);

3) a stable price level (solving the problem of inflation).

Fiscal policy is a government regulatory policy primarily in total demand. Regulation of the economy in this case occurs through the impact on the amount of cumulative expenses. However, some fiscal policy tools can be used to affect the aggregate supply through the impact on the level of business activity.

Fiscal politics holds the government.

Toolsfiscal policies are spending and revenues of the state budget, namely: 1) government procurement; 2) taxes; 3) Transfers.

According to the implementation methods, the fiscal policy is distinguished: 1) discretionary and 2) automatic (non-discretion).

Discretionary fiscal policyit is a legislative (official) change in the government of the magnitude of public procurement, taxes and transfers in order to stabilize the economy.

Automatic fiscal policyrelated to the action of built-in (automatic) stabilizers.

Automatic stabilizers are tools whose value does not changeBut the very presence of which (the embeddability of them in the economic system) automatically stabilizes the economy, stimulating the business activity during the decline and holding it back during overheating. Ie occurs a natural adaptation of the economy to the phases of the economic cycle

Automatic stabilizers include: 1) income tax; 2) unemployment benefit.

Income tax acts as follows: During the decline, the level of business activity (y) is reduced, and, therefore, the amount of tax revenues is reduced. In terms of economic growth, employment increases, the volume of production increases, the profit increases, tax revenues at a progressive tax system are increasing even with a constant tax rate. Increased taxes reduces the amount of cumulative expenses and has anti-inflational impact on the economy. Since economic growth is accompanied by an increase in employment, transfer state payments (unemployment benefits, by poverty) decrease, which also holds back the development of inflation. On the contrary, in the conditions of the economic downturn, tax revenues are automatically reduced, and transfer payments increase (unemployment benefits), which contributes to an increase in total costs and reducing unemployment.

Such fiscal policy tools as taxes and transfers act not only to aggregate demand, but also to the aggregate offer.

Since firms consider taxes as costs, the growth of taxes leads to a reduction in the aggregate supply, and the reduction in taxes to the growth of business activity and production volume. A detailed study of the impact of taxes on the total proposal belongs to the American economist, one of the founders of the concept of "economic theory of proposals" Artur Laffer (Fig.12.3).

In developed countries, the economy by 2/3 is regulated by discretionary fiscal policy and 1/3 by the action of built-in stabilizers.

Depending on the cycle phase, in which the economy is located, the fiscal policy tools are used in different ways. Two types of discretionary fiscal policy are distinguished: 1) stimulating and 2) restraining.

Stimulating fiscal policy(fiscal expansion)it is applied in recession (Fig.12.4 (fiscal expansion)) and involves an increase in government spending, reducing taxes or combining these measures. It reduces the recession gap of the release and reduces the unemployment rate, is aimed at an increase in total demand (cumulative expenses). Its tools are: a) an increase in public procurement; b) tax reducing; c) increase transfers.

Holding fiscal policy (fiscal restriction)directed to limit the cyclic rise in the economy and implies a decrease in government spending and increasing taxes. (Fig.12.4). It aims to reduce the inflationary rupture of the issue and a decrease in inflation and is aimed at reducing total demand (cumulative expenses). Its tools are: a) reducing public procurement; b) increasing taxes; c) reduction of transfers.

Figure 12.4.- stimulating and restraining fiscal policy

The fiscal policy in the Republic of Belarus is deterrent, which is associated with inflationary processes in the national economy. The modern fiscal policy of the Republic of Belarus involves a reduction in the costs of the state budget and an increase in its income mainly due to non-tax tools (the use of privatization mechanisms, stimulating business activity).

In addition, the tax policy is performed. This is due to the fact that the state-tax policy has so far been a fiscal-defense character in which the state sought to ensure a high degree of protection of the population. This assumed a high tax burden on the economy. In this regard, there was a decrease in the rate of development of production, the coligencies of tax payments decreased, there was a deterioration in tax collection. Further reform of the tax system in the republic involves further simplification of the tax system and a decrease in the tax burden of major business entities.

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Plan

Introduction

Chapter 1. The concept of fiscal policy, its goals and tools

1.1 Fiscal Policy Concept

1.2 Types of Fiscal Policy

1.3 Fiscal Policy Tools

Chapter 2. The effectiveness of the fiscal policy of the state

2.1 Statement of the problem and research methodology

2.2 Economic methods for evaluating the effectiveness of fiscal policy

2.3 Analytical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of fiscal policy

Chapter 3. Features of the fiscal policy in Russia

3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiscal Policy

3.2 Prospects for the development of fiscal policy in the Russian state

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The main task of the state at all stages of its development is the stabilization of the economy. At this time, the state actively applies tools for interference in the economy. The main 2 types of state intervention in the market economy include budget and tax and monetary policy.

The purpose of this course work is to study the budget and tax, or the so-called fiscal policy of the state. The role of fiscal policies in the holistic economic management is great. Being one of the most important tools for state regulation of the economy, it directly forms the state budget, state cash income. In the market, the fiscal policy is a rod part of the state economic policy.

Fiscal policy as the most important element of the financial policy of the state performs a number of essential functions, such as mobilization and attracting funds necessary for the functioning of the state, their distribution in order to solve the country's socio-economic problems.

The theoretical base of the fiscal policy is well developed. But this area of \u200b\u200beconomic science has not exhausted itself. Many controversial and unresolved problems of implementing a fiscal policy, its influence on the development of the state require further improvement and decision. In the past, for a long time, the budget and tax policy was considered by economists only with aspect of the proportions of the distribution of the country's production.

The relevance of learning a fiscal policy led to the choice of the topic of this course work. In the conditions of a market economy, knowledge of the essence, functions, species and tools of fiscal policy, as well as its operational mechanism for more correct orientation in the existing situation in the country in order to properly adopt management decisions.

The purpose of our work was to study the mechanism for implementing the fiscal policy of the state.

The main tasks of this course work are learning:

Essential characteristics of fiscal policy,

Fiscal policies,

Fiscal policy tools,

The effectiveness of the fiscal policy of the state

Given the relevance of studying the fiscal policy, it is not surprising to note that many economists have studied this topic, who in their own way they answered the question of the essence of the fiscal policy, the influence of its tools on the economic situation in the state. In almost all textbooks, the problems of fiscal policy, the mechanisms of its functioning pays great attention.

When working on the theme of this course work, the works of foreign and domestic authors dedicated to the financial policy of the state, textbooks, articles of economic journals and newspapers, statistical data, as well as internet site materials are used.

Chapter 1. The concept of fiscal policy, its goals and tools

1.1 Fiscal Policy Concept

Fiscal policy represents the regulatory system associated with government expenses and taxes. Under government expenses are understood by the cost of maintaining the institution of the state, as well as the public procurement of goods and services. These may be the most different types of purchases, for example, construction at the expense of the budget of roads, schools, medical institutions, cultural facilities, procurement of agricultural products, foreign trade purchases, purchases of military equipment, etc. The main distinguishing feature of all these procurement is that The consumer acts itself. Usually, speaking of public procurement, they are divided into two types: procurement for their own consumption of states that are more or less stable, and procurement to regulate the market.

Government spending play a significant role in the socio-economic development of society. The large deficit of the state budget in Russia exceeds the reasonable limits and leads to the financial exposure of the national economy. Therefore, the question of increasing the effectiveness of government spending is very relevant, giving them a regulatory role in ensuring the stability of socio-economic development, the formation of a new quality of economic growth.

It should be emphasized that any state, regardless of its political system, conducts one or another fiscal policy, because for its existence and functioning it needs financial resources that receives taxes. But the main task of fiscal policy is not so much to ensure the balance of the budget, how much to balance the macroeconomic system. With a lack of private expenses, an increase in government spending is necessary to maintain aggregate demand. Consumer spending of the population, the costs of investment enterprises are produced by separate subjects and are not always interconnected. The fiscal policy allows you to adjust the dynamics of the GNP in the desired direction.

Policy of public spending and taxes is one of the most important instruments for state regulation of the economy aimed at stabilizing economic development. Government spending and taxes have a direct impact on the level of cumulative expenses, and therefore, the volume of national production and employment of the population. In this regard, the well-known Western economist J. Galbreit noted that the tax system began to turn into a tool to increase government revenues to the demand regulation tool, which, in his opinion, is an organic need of an industrial system. Fiscal consumption Economic

Fiscal policy is a rather strong tool in the fight against the negative phenomena of the cyclic nature of the development of the economy. In essence, the main task of fiscal policy is to smooth out the shortcomings of the market element through conscious impact on aggregate demand and a cumulative offer in the market. But it must be borne in mind that no instrument in the economy is 100% ideal.

The fiscal state affects an increase or decrease in national production by varying tax rates and government spending. The theoretical substantiation of these actions was the calculations of the American economist A. Laffer, which has proven that the result of tax reducing is the economic rise and growth of state revenues (Laffer curve).

Graphically, the laffier curve is as follows (RC.1).

Figure 1- La Figure Curve

The abscissa on this graph is postponed the amount of interest rate R, and according to ordinate - the value of tax revenues R. If R \u003d 0, the state will not receive any tax revenues. Since r \u003d 100% soon, all sorts of incentives for production are completely disappeared (for all manufacturing revenues are withdrawn), i.e. the result for the state is similar - zero. With any other values \u200b\u200b(R<0<100%) государство налоговые поступления в том или ином размере получает. При каком-то конкретном значении ставки (r=r0) общая сумма этих поступлений становится максимальной (R0=Rmax). Отсюда вытекает следующий вывод: рост процентной ставки только до определенного значения (r=r0) ведет к увеличению налоговых поступлений, дальнейшее же ее повышение обусловливает, напротив, их уменьшение. Так, R0>R1, R0\u003e R2.

The general properties of the Laffer curve can be characterized as follows: since when weakening the tax press, some subjects of production begin to work more intensively, maximizing their income, while others achieve the desired value of the latter with less effort, the curve under consideration is a common and relatively poorly reacts to minor changes in tax rates. . In addition, the reaction of economic entities on the dynamics of these rates is not manifested instantly, but through some time interval.

The Laffer curve reflects the objective dependence of the growth of state revenues from reducing tax rates. At the same time, it is impossible to theoretically identify the value of R0, it is determined empirically. It is extremely important to identify where the actual tax rate is located on the right or to the left of R0. And since the cardinal macroeconomic experiments are fraught with serious shocks, this question is usually responsible on the basis of the analysis of the reaction of manufacturers for tax breaks in certain specific industries.

1.2 Types of Fiscal Policy

Fiscal (fiscal policy) is a system for regulating the economy through changes in government spending and taxes.

Distinguish the discretionary and automatic form of fiscal policy. Under the discretionary policy is understood to maneuvering by taxes and government expenditures in order to change the real amount of national production, control of the level of employment and the rate of inflation. This form of fiscal policy is opposed to an automatic form. "Automatom" is "built-in stability", based on providing a tax system of budget revenues, depending on the level of economic activity.

Automatic fiscal policy. Automatic fiscal policy - an economic mechanism that allows to reduce the amplitude of cyclic oscillations of employment and release levels, without resorting to frequent changes in government economic policy. The built-in stabilizers inherent in it, which are income taxes, unemployment benefits, expenses on the retraining programs of employees, etc., in principle, they are needed, they reduce the amplitude of oscillations during the economic cycle. For example, if the economy is at the stage of recession, the maximum tax rate is reduced due to a decrease in income taxable; The disposable income will be smaller than the scale also because social benefits are increasing. At the same time, the disposable income is reduced to a lesser extent compared to income before taxes. The limiting ability to consume in the situation of economic recession increases, since those who receive unemployment benefits almost fully use it for consumption. If the economy is at the raising stage, the disposable income does not increase to the same extent as aggregate income before taxes, as tax rates are growing, and the scale of social payments are reduced. Another advantage of automatic stabilizers is that they reduce income inequality. Progressive income tax and transfer payments are tools for the redistribution of income in favor of poor. In addition, stabilizers are already built into the system, no legislative decisions are required, nor the executive power to introduce them into action. Their essence lies in the linking of tax rates with the value of the income received. Almost all taxes are constructed in such a way that it allows to ensure the increase in tax revenues with an increase in the net national product. This concerns income tax on individuals, which has a progressive nature; income tax; per value added; Tax from sales, excise taxes.

Figure 2 shows the built-in stabilizers. On it the size of government spending is constant. In fact, they change. But these changes depend on the decisions of the parliament and the government, and not from GNP growth. Therefore, the schedule does not show the direct link of public spending on the increase in CNP. Tax arrivals during lifting grow. This is because sales and income increase. The seizure of the same part of income taxes restrains the rate of economic growth and inflation. As a result of the current forces, in addition to the efforts of the government, the economy is prevented due to the disprecitions during the rise

Figure 2- Built-in stabilizers, where: G - government spending; T-- Tax arrivals

During this period, tax revenues exceed government spending (T\u003e G). There is surplus-- the surplus of the state budget, which allows you to pay for debt state obligations taken into the depressive period of the economy.

The schedule displays and drop tax revenues during the period when the CHDP decreases, i.e. the production falls, which leads to the formation of a state budget deficit (G\u003e T). If the volume of tax revenues was preserved at the same level during the economic crisis, economic conjuncture would mean higher economic risks, which provoked further coagulation of production. It means that a decrease in tax revenues during this period objectively protects society from the growing crisis and weakens the fall in production.

Built-in stabilizers do not eliminate the causes of cyclic oscillations, but only limit the scope of these oscillations. Therefore, built-in economy stabilizers, as a rule, are combined with the measures of discretionary fiscal policies of the government aimed at ensuring the full employment of resources.

Discretionary fiscal policy includes regulation of public spending and taxes in order to eliminate cyclic oscillations of output and employment, stabilization of price levels, stimulating economic growth. In the United States, the employment laws of 1946 and Lamphri - Hawkins 1978 lay on the federal government responsibility for ensuring full employment by using monetary and fiscal policy. This task is extremely difficult for many reasons, and not least because public funds are spent on the implementation of many programs, and not only on the stabilization of the economy and ensuring economic growth, for example, on social security programs, strengthening the country's road network, flood control , improvement of education, replacement of old and representing the danger of bridges, environmental protection, fundamental research.

Allocate two types of discretionary policies:

Stimulating

Restraining.

Stimulating fiscal policy is carried out during the recession, depression, includes an increase in government spending, a decrease in taxes and leads to a budget deficit.

In the short term, it is intended to overcome the cyclic decline in the economy and involves an increase in government spending, reducing taxes or combining these measures.

In a longer-term perspective, the tax reduction policy may lead to the expansion of the supply of factors of production and an increase in economic potential.

The implementation of these goals is associated with the implementation of comprehensive tax reform, accompanied by a constituent credit and monetary policy of the Central Bank and a change in the optimization of the structure of government spending.

The restraining fiscal policy is carried out during the boom and inflation, includes a decline in government spending, tax increases and leads to an excess of the state budget.

Its aims to limit the cyclic rise in the economy and involves a decrease in government spending, an increase in taxes or combining these measures.

In the short term, these measures make it possible to reduce the inflation of demand for the cost of growth of unemployment and decline in production. In a longer period, the growing tax wedge can serve as a basis for the decline in the total proposal and the deployment of the stagnation mechanism (a decline, or a significant slowdown in economic development), especially when the reduction in public spending is carried out in proportion to all budget items and does not create priorities in favor of state Investments in the labor market infrastructure.

And discretionary, and automatic fiscal policy play an important role in the stabilization activities of the state, however, none nor the other are panacea from all economic troubles. As for automatic policies, the embedded stabilizers inherent in it can only limit the scope and the depth of the oscillations of the economic cycle, but they are not completely eliminated by these oscillations.

Even more problems occur during discretionary fiscal policy. These include:

The presence of temporary lag between decision making and their impact on the economy;

Administrative delays;

Addiction to stimulating measures (tax cuts - a popular event in political plan, but an increase in taxes can cost parliamentarians).

The reasonable application of tools and automatic, and discretionary policies can significantly affect the dynamics of social production and employment, a decrease in inflation rates and solving other economic problems.

1.3 Fiscal Policy Tools

A set of fiscal policy tools includes state subsidies, manipulating various types of taxes (personal income tax, corporation tax, excise taxes by changing tax rates or accordant taxes. In addition, the fiscal policy tools include transfer payments and other types of government spending. Various tools affect the economy in different ways. For example, an increase in the accordant tax leads to a decrease in total expenses, but does not lead to a change in the multiplier, while the growth of personal income tax rates will cause reduction and cumulative expenses, and a multiplier. The choice of various types of taxes: personal income tax, tax on corporation or excise - as an impact tool has a different impact on the economy, including incentives affecting the economic growth and efficiency of the economy. The choice of a separate type of government spending is also important, since in each case the multiplier effect may be different. For example, among experts in the field of economic policy, there is an opinion that the defense costs provide a smaller value of the multiplier compared with other types of government spending.

Depending on the cycle phase in which the economy is located, and the fiscal policy corresponding to it, state fiscal policy tools are used in different ways. Thus, the tools of stimulating fiscal policy are:

an increase in public procurement;

tax reduction;

increase transfers.

The tools of the deterrent fiscal policy are:

reduction of public procurement;

increasing taxes;

reducing transfers.

A little different list of fiscal policy tools is represented in the textbook "Economics" Academician Zhuravleva G.P. According to this source of literature, discretionary fiscal policy tools are public works, a change in transfer payments, manipulating tax rates.

To the instruments of automatic fiscal policy, the author of this textbook refers changes in tax revenues, unemployment benefits and other social payments, subsidies to farmers.

Analyzing the sources of literature, it can be concluded that the main tools of the fiscal policy are to change taxes and transfer payments.

One of the main tools of fiscal policy is taxes, which are forced funds made by the state or local authorities from individuals and legal entities necessary for the state of their functions.

Taxes perform three main functions:

fiscal, which consists in collecting funds for the creation of state cash funds and material conditions for the functioning of the state;

economic, involving taxation as a tool for the redistribution of national income, impact on expanding or containing production, stimulating manufacturers in the development of various types of economic activities;

social aimed at maintaining social equilibrium by changing the relationship between the income of individual social groups in order to smooth inequality between them.

In the modern economy there are various types of taxes.

Direct are taxes on the income or property of taxpayers. In turn, direct taxes are divided into real, which were most common in the first half of the XIX century, and to which they include pommale, subdominous, commercial, tax on securities;

personal, including income, taxes on corporate profits, on capital gains, for superficial.

Indirect taxes consist of excise taxes, value-added taxes, from sales, with turnover, customs duties.

Depending on the authority, which includes certain taxes, distinguish state and local taxes. In Russian conditions, these are federal, taxes of the subjects of the Federation, local.

Depending on the use, taxes are divided into:

common, designed to finance the current and capital expenditures of the budget, without consolidation for any specific type of costs;

special taxes that have a target purpose.

Depending on the nature of the rates, taxes are distinguished:

solid (fixed), which are installed in the absolute amount per unit of taxation, regardless of various economic indicators related to business activity;

regressive, in which the percentage of income seizure decreases with income increasing;

proportional, manifested in that regardless of the amount of income acts the same rates;

progressive, in which the percentage of withdrawal increases as income increases.

A group of American experts, led by A. Laffer, studied the dependence of the amount of tax revenues to the budget from income tax rates. This dependence is reflected in the Laffer curve.

Tax rates are set as a percentage defining the share of the income being taken. Until a certain increase in the tax rate, income grow, but then begin to decline. As the tax rate is grown, the desire of enterprises maintain high production volumes will begin to decrease, income of enterprises will decrease, and with them tax revenues of enterprises. Consequently, there is such a value of the tax rate, in which tax revenues in the state budget reach the maximum value. It is advisable to establish a tax rate on this meaning. The laffier group theoretically proved: the tax rate is 50% is optimal. With this rate, the maximum amount of taxes is achieved. At a higher tax rate, the business activity of firms and workers is sharply reduced, and then incomes flow into the shadow economy.

However, in many states, tax rates are significantly higher than the optimal level, and this is explained by the action of other factors not taken into account in the theoretical model. For example, in countries with strong state regulation, the desire to increase budget through the revenue part will prevail. Tax rates in such countries are high. Conversely, if the country is to a liberal market device, to minimal government intervention in the economy, tax rates will be lower. In addition, the desire to have a socially oriented economy and direct a significant part of budget allocations on social help does not allow much to reduce tax rates - to avoid a lack of budgetary funds for social needs. High tax rates in the Russian economy are primarily due primarily to the budget deficit, a lack of public funds for the implementation of socio-economic programs and a weak hope that the decline in tax rates will lead to an increase in production and an increase in the economy. To somehow soften the tax press for individual taxpayers, tax breaks are applied - a form of reducing tax rates or, in the maximum case, exemption from taxes. Sometimes tax breaks are used as a stimulation tool based on the fact that the tax reduction is adequately provided by the taxpayer of additional funds by an amount equal to the amount of decline. The problem of choosing and appointing rational tax rates is facing any state.

Obviously, the higher taxes, the less income it will be subject to the subject, which means to buy less and save. Therefore, reasonable tax policy implies a comprehensive record of those factors that may stimulate or inhibit the economic development and well-being of society.

Such a tool of fiscal policy of the state as taxes are closely associated with another instrument of fiscal policy - government expenses. Tools taken in the form of taxes go to the state budget, subsequently spending on various goals of the state. In the conditions of the current legislation of the Russian Federation, the main part of the budget is filled through payments of taxpayers - legal entities.

Currently, the point of view was distributed about the need for an additional significant reduction in tax rates for main taxes. In the rationale for this, the authors indicate that despite the temporary drop in the volume of tax revenues, the investment conditions are improved in the long term, the production of goods and services will increase, the employment of the population will increase and, due to the growth of the taxable base, state revenues will increase.

Under government or government expenditures are the cost of maintaining the institution of the state, as well as the public procurement of goods and services.

Government procurement of goods and services can be of various types: from construction at the expense of the budget of schools, medical institutions, roads, objects of culture before purchasing agricultural products, military equipment, samples of unique products. This also includes foreign trade purchases. The main distinguishing feature of all these procurement is that the consumer acts itself. Usually speaking of public procurement, they are divided into two types: procurement for their own consumption of states that are more or less stable, and procurement for regulating the market.

The state increases its procurement during the recession and crisis and reduces during lifting and inflation in order to maintain the stability of production. At the same time, these actions are aimed at regulating the market, maintaining equilibrium on it between supply and demand. Such a goal is one of the most important macroeconomic functions of the state.

Government spending play a significant role in the socio-economic development of society. From here, they are objectively necessary and at the same time exceeding the reasonable limits may lead to financial instability in the national economy, excessive deficit of the state budget.

Government spending perform in the form:

state order, which is distributed on a competitive basis;

construction due to capital investments;

defense expenses, management, etc.

The main part of government spending passes through the state budget, which includes budgets of the federal government and local authorities.

The state budget is the annual plan of government spending and sources of their financial coverage (income). In modern conditions, the budget is also a powerful lever of state regulation of the economy, impact on the economic situation, as well as the implementation of anti-crisis measures.

The state budget is a centralized fund of funds to which the government has the government for the maintenance of the state apparatus, the armed forces, as well as the fulfillment of the necessary socio-economic functions.

Costs show the direction and objectives of the budget allocations and perform the functions of political, social and economic regulation. They always wear target and, as a rule, irrevocable. The irrevocable provision of public funds from the budget for targeted development is called budget financing. This cost of spending financial resources differs from bank lending, which implies the return nature of the loan. It should be noted that the irrevocability of the provision of financial resources does not mean arbitrariness in their use. Whenever possible when applying financing, the state is developing the procedure and conditions for the use of money for the target direction and ensure the general economic growth and improving the life of the population.

The structure of government spending in each country has its own characteristics. They are due not only to national traditions, the organization of education and health care, but mainly the nature of the administrative system, the structural features of the economy, the development of defense industries, the number of army, etc.

State transfers, being one of the fiscal policy tools, are payments to state bodies that are not related to the movement of goods and services. They redistribute state revenues received from taxpayers, through benefits, pensions, social insurance payments, etc. Transfer payments have a lower multiplier compared to other state expenses, since part of these amounts saves. The multiplier of transfer payments is equal to the multiplier of government spending, multiplied by the ultimate ability to consume. The advantage of transfer payments is that they can be sent to certain groups of the population. Social transfers (pensions, scholarships, various benefits) are included in the average income, and these payments allow you to increase the family budget by 10-12%.

Fiscal policy tools in their own way affect the economic situation, helping to achieve the goals set before the fiscal policy. The main tools of the fiscal policy of the state are the change in taxes and transfer payments. Fiscal policy tools are interrelated and their role in the implementation of this or that policy of the state is large.

Chapter 2. Efficiencyfiscal policy of state

2.1 Statement of the problem and research methodology

Recently, many studies are held in which an attempt is made to assess the effectiveness of individual parties to the fiscal system by finding the La Finger points for specific types of tax fees.

At the same time, the concept of Laffer curve was originally created in relation to the concept of a total tax burden, that is, the entire mass of tax deductions. Next, we adhere to such an understanding of the problem and, therefore, we will find the points of Laffer for averaged macroeconomic indicator of the tax burden. Under the latter, we will understand the share of tax revenues into the consolidated budget of the country in the volume of gross domestic product (GDP).

At the heart of our study lies the assumption that the volume of production X, the reflected value of GDP, depends on the level of tax burden

where T is the amount of tax revenues to the budget of the country.

The dependence X (q) is approximated by a nonlinear function, the parameters of which are subject to quantitative estimate. Identification of the function X (Q) will allow you to calculate the points of Laffer. At the same time, we will distinguish the point of Laffer of the first and second kind. Let's give the appropriate definitions.

The point of laffier of the first kind will be called such a point Q *, at which the production curve x \u003d x (q) reaches a local maximum, i.e. when the conditions are satisfied:

dX (Q *) / DQ \u003d 0; D2X (Q *) / DQ 2<0.

The laffer point of the second kind will be called such a point Q **, in which the fiscal curve T \u003d T (Q) reaches a local maximum, i.e. when the conditions are satisfied:

dT (Q **) / DQ \u003d 0; D2T (Q **) / DQ 2<0.

The economically point of the first kind of laffier means that the limit of the tax burden in which the production system does not switch to the recession mode. The laffer point of the second kind shows the magnitude of the tax burden, outside of which the increase in the mass of tax revenues becomes impossible.

The identification of two points of Laffer and their comparison with the actual tax burden allows us to evaluate the effectiveness of the country's tax system and the direction of its optimization. Consider some approaches with which the task set can be solved.

2.2 Economic methods for evaluating the effectiveness of fiscal policy

In the general case, the task is to solve econometric methods, which are based on the postulate that the volume of production is non-linear depends on the value of the tax burden. In this case, the volume of GDP is sufficiently approximizing the polynomial regression of the following form:

where b i is the parameters subject to statistical estimate based on retrospective dynamic series.

Considering the formula (1) and the amount of taxes:

you can record the following ratio:

To carry out the corresponding calculations, the entire information array must be represented by the dynamic series of two "primary" indicators - x and t. Knowing these values, according to formula (2), you can calculate a retrospective series for such a "secondary" indicator, like q. In the future, as a result of computational experiments, the polynomial (1) is found to be appropriate. It is desirable that it be quadratic or, in extreme cases, a cubic function, since a higher order of the polynomial will subsequently complicate the finding of the points of Laffer.

Given the specifics of the operations of smoothing among the series, econometric models of type (1) have a number of obvious features. First, to obtain values \u200b\u200bof parameters B I, it is necessary to have enough long and "good" in the statistical sense dynamic series. Secondly, the parameters B I are constant in time, which in some cases leads to the invariary of the values \u200b\u200bof Laffer points. It is not entirely legitimate, since it would be more logical to assume that Laffer's points are "floating" in time of the values.

Commenting on the proposed approach, which is based on primitive polynomial approximation of the process of economic growth in the tax function (1), should immediately make a reservation: in this case, a purely technical, instrumental problem is solved without taking into account intrasystem economic relations. The explicit modeling of the functional properties of the system is not conducted, but they are indirectly captured by dependence (1). At the same time, although the functional dependence (1) is nonlinear, regression (1), on the contrary, is linear relative to the parameters included in it and, therefore, no special technical difficulties occur during it. This consists of one of the essential advantages of the proposed model scheme.

2.3 Analytical methods for evaluating the effectiveness of fiscal politicalandki.

Considering that the Russian economy has not yet formed retrospective dynamic series, sufficient to conduct correct econometric calculations, one can take advantage of other methods for assessing the effectiveness of fiscal policy. The methods of point-piece approximation of the analyzed process can be attributed to the number of similar alternative approaches, which are fundamentally different from econometric methods based on interval approximation. In this case, for each reporting point, its function x \u003d x (q) is being built with the corresponding values \u200b\u200bof the parameters included in it. Since the number of parameters of the function can be greater than one, then for their unequivocal assessment it is necessary to use additional information about the increases of variable variables. Given the nonlinearity of the connection between the production volume and the level of tax burden, the quadratic polynomial should be taken as an approximating function. Here are two options for calculation: a generalized three-parameter and simplified two-parameter. Consider them in more detail.

1. Three parametric method. The basis of this method is the approximation of the process of economic growth by a three-parameter quadratic function, where the tax burden level is acting as an argument:

where A, B and G are the parameters to be evaluated.

Then, in accordance with (2), the amount of tax revenues is defined as follows:

At each moment of time, the volume of GDP depends on the level of the tax burden, the character of this dependence is given by the formula (4). However, for the unequivocal definition of the three parameters A, B and G, the relation (4) is not enough, due to which two more equations must be compiled, including these parameters. Such equations can be recorded by moving from the functions (4) and (5) to their differentials:

During the transition from (4) and (5) to relations (6) and (7), we used the assumption that the differentials of the variables x and q were satisfactorily approximated by the final differences: DX ~ D X; DT ~ D T; DQ ~ D Q. Such an assumption is traditionally for computing mathematics and for the case under consideration it seems quite legitimate. Then in application calculations, the indicators D x, d t and d q mean the increments of the corresponding values \u200b\u200bin one time interval (year) between the two reporting points, i.e.

where T is the time index (year).

Thus, equation (4) describes the "point" economic growth, that is, at a particular point in time T, while equations (6) and (7) reproduce the "interval" growth of production and tax fees for the period between the current (t) and subsequent (t + 1) reporting points. In accordance with this approach of equation (4) and (5), the families of production and fiscal curves are set, and relations (6) and (7) fix their curvature, thereby allowing you to choose from the designated families, the desired functional dependencies.

Such a scheme of calculations is based on the design of the system of equations (4), (6) and (7) and its solution relative to the parameters A, B and G, which allows you to characterize this scheme as an analytic or algebraic. Solution of system (4), (6), (7) gives the following formulas for the estimated parameters:

The identification of parameters of functions (4) and (5) allows it to elementary to determine the points of Laffer. In this case, the laffer point of the first kind Q *, when Dx / Dq \u003d 0 is determined by the formula

and the laffer point of the second kind Q **, when D2T / DQ 2 \u003d 0, is as a result of the solution of the following square equation

and eventually calculated by the formula

Additional study of the properties of functions (4) and (5) will determine whether the found stationary points of Laffer points are. If stationary points will be the points of the local minimum or their values \u200b\u200bwill be released over the values \u200b\u200bof permissible values, then the points of Laffer are missing.

An alternative to the considered three-parameter method can be an approach based on the use of a truncated polynomial polynomial as a production function:

In this case, the number of parameters does not change, remaining equal to three. In this case, the procedure for finding laffer dots is adjusted taking into account the original cubic dependence, and stationary points for the fiscal curve will be found as a result of a solution of a cubic equation. It is clear that such an algorithm can generate two points of Laffer of the second kind. In our opinion, by virtue of greater unambiguity and visibility in practice, the first, basic version of the three-parameter method should be used.

It should be noted that the analytical method for evaluating the effectiveness of the fiscal policy allows you to use functional dependences with the number of parameters not exceeding three. A greater number of parameters requires addition to the base system (4), (6), (7) of additional equations, which is impossible due to a narrow setting of the original task.

2. Two-parameter method. The basis of this method is the approximation of the economic growth process with a truncated quadratic function, including only two parameters:

Then the amount of fiscal receipts is equal

An additional limitation imposed on the functional properties of the production system is given by the equation similar to (6):

The constructed system of equations (14), (16) is sufficient to find the parameters B and G. As in the case of using a three-parameter method, equation (14) reproduces the "point" properties of the production system, and the equation (16) is "interval". In this case, the auxiliary equation specifying the dynamic properties of the fiscal system is missing; By default, it is believed that the resulting tax amount is completely determined by the activity of the production system and the level of fiscal pressure.

Formulas for estimating parameters based on solutions (14), (16) are

The points of the first and second kind of laffier are determined from (14) and (15) by the corresponding formulas:

An analysis of the second-order conditions shows the following: so that the stationary points (19) and (20) are truly points of laffer, it is necessary to have enough fulfillment of two inequalities: b\u003e 0 and g<0.

Chapter 3. Features of the fiscal policy in Russia

In a market economy, there are certain mechanisms for alochanization and self-regulation, which come into effect immediately, as soon as negative processes in the economy are found. They are called built-in stabilizers. The principle of self-regulation, which underlies these stabilizers, is similar to the principle on which the autopilot or the refrigerator thermostat is built. When the autopilot is turned on, then it supports the aircraft course automatically, based on coming feedback signals. Any deviation from the specified course thanks to such signals will be adjusted by the control device. Economic stabilizers are also working, due to which the automatic change in tax revenues are carried out; payments for social benefits, in particular for unemployment; Various government assistance programs to the population and others.

How is self-regulation, or automatic change, tax revenues? A progressive taxation system is built into the economic system, which determines the tax depending on the income. With increasing income, tax rates are progressively increasing, which are approved by the Government in advance. With increasing or reduction of income, taxes are automatically rising or reduced without any government intervention and its control and control bodies. Such a built-in stabilization tax charge system reacts quite sensitively to changes in the economic situation: during the recession and depression, when the income of the population and enterprises fall, tax revenues are automatically reduced. On the contrary, in the period of inflation and boom, the nominal income is growing, and therefore taxes are automatically increasing.

In economic literature on this issue there are different points of view. A hundred years ago, many economists were expressed for the stability of tax fees, because it, in their opinion, contributes to the sustainability of the Company's economic situation. Currently, there are quite a few economists who adhere to the opposite point of view and even claim that the objective principles underlying the built-in stabilizer should prefer the incompetent intervention of government bodies that are often guided by subjective opinions, preferences. At the same time, there is also an opinion that it is impossible to rely entirely on automatic stabilizers, since in certain situations they can respond inadequately to the latter, and therefore need to regulate from the state.

Payments for social assistance benefits unemployed, poor, large families, veterans and other categories of citizens, as well as a state program for supporting farmers, the agro-industrial complex are also carried out on the basis of embedded stabilizers, because most of these payments are implemented at the expense of taxes. And taxes are known to grow progressively with the income of the population and enterprises. The higher these income, the more tax deductions to the fund assistance fund, retirees, poor and other categories of needing state-owned enterprises and their employees.

Despite the significant role of the built-in stabilizers, they cannot completely overcome any fluctuations in the economy. With significant fluctuations in the economic system, more powerful state regulators are included in the form of discretionary fiscal, as well as monetary policies.

Discretionary fiscal policy also provides additional expenses for social needs. Although unemployment benefits, pensions, benefits poor and other categories of needy are regulated using embedded stabilizers (increase or decrease as income taxes are received), nevertheless, the government can carry out special programs to help these categories of citizens in difficult times for economic development. .

Thus, we come to the conclusion that an effective fiscal policy should rely on, on the one hand, on the mechanisms of self-regulation, laid down in the economic system, and on the other, on a thorough, careful discretionary regulation of the economic system from the state and its management bodies. Consequently, self-organizing economy regulators must function agrees with conscious regulation organized by the state.

Generally speaking, the whole experience of developing a market economy, especially our century, indicates that self-organization should be held in the development of the economy and other social life systems with the organization, i.e. conscious regulation of economic processes by the state.

However, such regulation is achieved not easy. Let's start with the fact that you need to predict a decline or inflation in a timely manner when they have not yet begun. It is hardly advisable to rely on such forecasts on statistical data, since statistics summarizes the past, and therefore it is difficult to determine the trends of future development. A more reliable tool for predicting the future level of GDP is a monthly analysis of the advanced indicators, to which political figures of developed countries are often treated. The index indicates 11 variables characterizing the current state of the economy, including the average duration of the work week, new orders for consumer goods, stock market prices, changing orders for long-term goods, change in prices of certain types of raw materials, etc. It is clear that if there is, for example, a reduction in the working week in the manufacturing industry, orders for raw materials decrease, orders for consumer goods decrease, then with a certain probability can be expected in the future recession of production.

However, it is quite difficult to determine the exact time when the decline comes is quite difficult. But even in these conditions there will be a lot of time before the government will take appropriate measures. In addition, in the interests of the upcoming election company, it can carry out such populist measures that will not fit, but only worsen economic situation. All this kind of offeconomic factors will come against the needs of achieving the stability of production.

3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fiscal Policy

The advantages of fiscal policy should include:

1. Multiplier effect. All fiscal policy tools, as we have seen, have a multiplicative effect of exposure to the magnitude of the equilibrium cumulative release.

2. Lack of external lag (delay). The external lag is the time period between making a decision on changing the policy and the emergence of its first results. When the government decided to change the tools of fiscal policy, and these measures come into effect, the result of their impact on the economy is manifested quite quickly.

3. The presence of automatic stabilizers. Since these stabilizers are built-in, then the government does not need to take special measures to stabilize the economy. Stabilization (smoothing of cyclic oscillations of the economy) occurs automatically.

Disadvantages of fiscal policy:

1. The effect of displacement. The economic meaning of this effect is as follows: the growth of budget expenditures during the decline period (increasing public procurement and / or transfers) and / or reduction of budget revenues (taxes) leads to a multiplicative increase in cumulative income, which increases demand for money and increases the interest rate on the monetary Market (loan price). And since loans, first of all, take firms, the rise in prices for loans leads to a reduction in private investment, i.e. To "oust" part of the investment costs of firms, which leads to a reduction in the value of the issue. Thus, a part of the total production volume turns out to be "displaced" (unproduced) due to the reduction of the magnitude of private investment expenses as a result of the growth rate of interest due to the government of stimulating fiscal policy.

2. The presence of inner lag. Internal lag is a period of time between the emergence of the need to change policies and deciding on its change. Decisions on the change in fiscal policy tools adopts the government, but their introduction is impossible without discussing and approving these solutions to the legislature (parliament, Congress, State Duma, etc.), i.e. give them the strength of the law. These discussions and approvals may require a long period of time. In addition, they come into effect, starting only from the next fiscal year, which increases lag even more. During this period of time, the situation in the economy may change. So, if initially there was a recession in the economy, and measures have been developed in stimulating fiscal policy, then at the time of the beginning of their action in the economy there may already begin ascent. As a result, additional stimulation can lead the economy to overheating and provoke inflation, i.e. Render a destabilizing effect on the economy. Conversely, the accomplicing of fiscal policy, developed during the boom, due to the presence of prolonged internal lag may aggravate the decline.

3. Uncertainty. This disadvantage is characteristic not only for fiscal, but also for monetary policy. Uncertainty concerns:

· Problems of identification of the economic situation are often difficult to accurately determine, for example, the moment when the period of the recession ends and the recovery begins or the moment when the rise turns into overheating, etc. Meanwhile, because at different phases of the cycle it is necessary to apply different types of policies (stimulating or restraining), an error in determining the economic situation and the choice of the type of economic policy, based on such an assessment, can lead to destabilization of the economy;

...

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1. Functions and finance roles. Financial system.The economic structure of any society is currently funny, i.e. The state interferes with the economy of the free market. The main purpose of this intervention is to adjust the problems of the market and the organization of those markets that are not under the market system. To carry out activities, the Company defined the Finance category. Finance is economic relations on the education, distribution and use of funds funds (financial resources) between:

· State, on the one hand, and legal entities and individuals, on the other;

· Legal entities themselves;

· Separate states.

The system of this relationship received the name of the financial system. It includes the following 4 links:

1. Nationwide finances: budgets of various levels (federal, subjects of the federation); Social Property and Personal Insurance Funds; extrabudgetary social funds, stock market.

2. Territorial finance.

3. Finance of enterprises.

4. Finance households.

Finance functions - the creation and consumption of funds.

Roles of finance - control and regulating (or stimulate, or ingnete).

2. Budget. Budget system of the Russian Federation.The central category of financial science is a budget. It is the actual fund of funds and therefore has all the stars of the financial system. Distinguish the state budget - centralized, performing nationwide functions; and decentralized - performing the functions of individual collectives, groups of people. Under the state budget in the Russian Federation, the federal budget and budgets of the subjects of the Federation understand.

Budget features - the creation and use of funds funds. Budget roles - economic, social, political, control.

The basis of the construction of the budget system is the definition of property. In the Russian Federation, budget relations regulates the budget code of the Russian Federation. According to the Budget Code of the Russian Federation (Article 6), the budget system of the Russian Federation - based on the economic relations and the state structure of the Russian Federation, regulated by the norms of the right of the federal budget, budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local budgets and budgets of state extrabudgetary funds.

Fig. 27. Scheme of the budget system of the Russian Federation

In the conditions of a market economy, the relationship between budgets of different levels is based on the principle of fiscal federalism, according to which the regional budgets are autonomous and are not included in the federal budget. Each budget is enshrined their sources of income and costs are determined, according to the distribution of property. At the same time, the principle of financial assistance is valid: the federal budget - budgets of the subjects of the Russian Federation, budgets of the subjects of the Russian Federation - local budgets.

With the help of the budget, the state carries out a combination of centralized and local interests of the regions through the distribution of taxes, budget subsidies, transfers; As an economic document, the budget reflects the political and social changes in society.

The budget is the balance of income and expenses and consists of two interrelated parts: revenue and consumable. The source of budget revenues is the national income created by the real sector of the economy. With a lack of national wealth (a combination of material benefits created by the labor of previous generations).

3. Budget revenues. Taxes. Tax system. La fiber curve. All sources of income are divided into 2 groups - internal and external. Domestic sources - National income and national wealth; External sources - external loans (the national income of another country).

Types of budget revenues: 1) tax revenues (80-90% of all income); 2) non-tax revenues (revenues from the economic use of property); 3) loans; 4) Emissions (release) of money (only by the federal budget).

Taxes are imperative (suggests relationship and subordination), non-equivalent monetary relations, in the process of which the budget fund is formed. Tax signs:

1. Forcedness - the subject of the tax is not entitled to refuse to pay. Strict sanctions.

2. Individual gratitude for the taxpayer - nothing in return (neither right, nor document). Differs from duties (right of import-export)

3. Legitimacy - Taxes are charged only with legitimate operations.

In the Russian Federation, taxes are not targeted. By entering the budget fund, taxes are deletent. All rules for collecting taxes in the Russian Federation are regulated by the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.

The main functions of taxes are fiscal (basic) and economic. Fiscal function - budget filling. Economic function - the use of taxes as a tool for the redistribution of national income, the formation of interests of business entities in the development of various activities, the provision of state influence on the real production process and investment of capital investments.

When considering types of taxes, it is necessary to understand that their classification is carried out depending on:

· Subjects of taxation (at the same time allocate taxes from individuals and legal entities);

· Tax objects (identify direct and indirect taxes);

· Economic impact on the level of income (progressive, proportional, regressive, solid);

· Budget structures (federal, republican, local).

To study the taxes, it is necessary to highlight its elements. Elements of tax, without which tax cannot be considered established:

· The subject of the tax is a taxpayer - a legal or individual, on which the obligation to pay taxes is entrusted;

· Tax object - property or income that serve as the basis for the taxation;

· Tax base - value, physical or other characteristics of the taxation object;

· Tax rate - the amount of tax charges per unit of measurement of the tax base;

· The tax period is the time determining the period for calculating the tax and the deadlines for its introduction (as a rule, the calendar year);

· Tax benefits - reduction of the amount of taxation: the introduction of a non-taxable minimum, the establishment of tax immunity (exemption from taxes of individuals or categories of payers), a decrease in tax rates, providing a tax credit (deferment of taxes), etc.;

· Tax inventory - a list of tax objects indicating their profitability;

· Tax policy - the procedure for calculating taxes;

· The tax mechanism is a set of organizational and legal norms and methods of tax management Tax mechanism along with tax policies are in constant motion and depend on the economic policy of the state;

· The tax system is a set of taxes, fees and duties operating in the country's territory, methods and principles of their construction.

There are 2 types of tax system: Hedular and Global. All income is divided into parties (chairs) and each is taxed in a special way - at different rates, benefits and other elements of tax. In the global tax system, all incomes of individuals and legal entities are subject to the same.

The basic principles of taxation (have been formulated by Adam Smith):

1. The principle of uniformity of taxation. This means that the level of the tax rate should be established taking into account the possibilities (income level) of the taxpayer.

2. The principle of certainty taxation. The tax should not be arranged, it must be accurately defined in size, time, method of payment, to have a single nature of taxation.

3. Establishment of taxation. Each tax should be charged at such a time and within such times that are most convenient for the payer.

4. Minimum tax collection costs.

Tax collection methods:

1) Cadastral (Cadastre - Table, Directory) - When the tax object is differentiated and each group is set to an individual tax rate that does not depend on the profitability of the object.

2) based on the declaration. Declaration - a document in which the tax payer gives the calculation of income and tax from it, thus, the payment of tax is made after receiving income.

3) at the source. The tax is made by a person paying income, and the taxpayer receives income, reduced to the amount of tax.

The level of tax burden is calculated by the share of taxes in the gross domestic product: quench. Item \u003d N / y.

Excessive tax burden reduces the disposable income and, accordingly, incentives for capitalizates, slows down NTP, slows down economic growth. This demonstrates the curve of A. Laffer, showing the relationship of tax revenues and tax rates: with increasing tax rates, the amount of revenues to the budget first grows, but further rates can lead to a reduction in tax revenues.

Fig. 28. Curve Laffer

Taxes have a multiplication effect. Taxes, changing the amount of disposable income, affect both consumption and savings. Tax multiplier (MRT) has the form:

MRT.

The essence of the multiplier effect of the multiplier in a market economy is that the decline in taxes will lead to an increase in national income, and the value is greater than the decline. The multiplier will act in exactly the growth of taxes, but with the opposite effect.

The cumulative effect of changes to taxes is equal to their change multiplied by the multiplier:

The tax multiplier has a much greater impact on reducing total demand than government spending multiplier.

4. Government expenses and the formation of aggregate demand. Multiplier of government spending and taxes. The content and nature of government spending is organically related to the functions of the state. All government spending can be grouped:

In areas: social, economic, national defense, management, international activities;

Economic Content: Public Procurement, Transfer Payments, Payments for Public Defense.

Government procures are the demand of the government for military and civilian goods, the latter can be intended for their own needs of state-owned enterprises or to carry a regulatory nature (as in the case of procurement of agricultural products in order to maintain a market price. Public procures create a guaranteed sales market, there is no risk of non-payment, Prices are stable, sales of products can be carried out by large batches of contracts in advance contracts, it is possible to obtain tax and credit benefits.

Transfer payments - payments that are carried out by the population without the emergence of the last of any obligations, are pensions, benefits, scholarships, etc. Transfer payments are not related to productive types of state economic activity.

The growth of government spending leads to the GNP increase, and more than the initial impulse. The multiplier of government expenditures (MRG) characterizes the ratio of GNP growth towards the growth of government spending and is equal to the inverse leading leaning to the savings.

MRG.

The animated effect is due to the fact that an increase in government spending increases income and leads to consumption growth, which in turn increases income that contributes to further increase in consumption, etc.

The cumulative effect of increasing government spending is equal to their gain multiplied by the multiplier:

Since the multiplier acts in both directions, it is obvious that the reduction in government spending will lead to a reduction in the GNP and total revenues greater than the reduction of government spending.

5. Budget deficit. State debt.The state budget, as well as all the balance, involves leveling income and expenses. However, when adopting a budget plan, no coincidence is possible - excess of income over costs (surplus) and excess of income expenditures (deficiency). The International Monetary Fund recognizes a permissible deficiency in the range of 2-3% GNP.

Budget imbalance is a means of combating inflation and a decline in production (see the following question).

The nature of the budget balance (deficiency or surplus) depends on the state of the economy as a whole. Government expenses do not depend on the level of income (GNP), and taxes are proportional to income. Thus, with low income there will be a deficit, with high - surplus.

However, government spending and taxes and themselves can affect the level of aggregate demand and on the volume of GNP. The growth of expenses will entail an increase in income that will increase the flow of taxes, as a result of which the deficit can be reduced. When tax reducing the total demand, production, income, and, therefore, tax revenues will occur.

There are cyclic and structural budget deficits.

Structural deficit (deficit of the full employment budget) characterizes the difference between the income and expenses of the state budget at a given level of taxation and government spending and the natural level of unemployment.

The cyclic deficit is a deficiency caused by a decline in production, excess of the actual unemployment of its natural level.

Fig. 29. Structural and cyclic budget deficit

If in terms of complete employment, the VNP is equal to Q1, then with the existing tax system and this level of government expenditures, the budget deficiency is AB. In the level of production, equal to Q2, the same taxation system and the same government expenditures, the actual budget deficit will be equal to CE, including CD is a structural deficit, and DE is a cyclical deficiency, the result of the increase in production volumes (Q2 is less than Q1).

The growth of structural deficit means that the government conducts a stimulating policy: increases costs and reduces taxes, which causes an increase in total demand and has a positive effect on the production of products. Reducing the structural deficit, on the contrary, indicates a restraining fiscal policy.

With this magnitude of the budget deficit, its impact on the economy depends on the financing methods. If the government takes loans in the central bank or emit money ("includes a printed machine"), then the inflationary spiral is spinning. If the state takes loans in the population, then the "displacement effect" arises, which reduces investment. The essence of the latter is that placing loans in the money market, the government comes into competition with private entrepreneurs for financial resources. Increased money demand leads to an increase in interest rates and subsequent decline in investment. Government expenses, as a rule, are not productive, "displacing" private investment in production.

State debt is the sum of accumulated budget deficits of past years. The state loan is significantly different from private loan. The latter is usually used for production purposes. The payment of interest on private loans is carried out due to income growth. The state project used to cover the budget deficit is not associated with its prevailing part with industrial activities. The state repays its debt and pays interest on obligations at the expense of taxes.

Given the placement distinguish between the internal and external public debt. Domestic debt (debt to its population) is usually formed at the expense of loans, decorated by issuing and selling government securities (GI).

The consequences of the accumulation of domestic public debt:

1. leads to the redistribution of income among the population. All citizens of the country as taxpayers pay the percentage of the public debt, but these percentages receive only state lenders in their income, and this is usually the richest segments of the population.

2. It is possible to transfer a debt burden for future generations. If the states are advised to current consumption, then the growth of debt and interest on it will lead to a restriction of consumption in the future. It is important that the public debt goes to invest and modernize production, the income from which would be given the opportunity to pay off debts in the future.

3. Fast growing interest make it difficult to reduce the budget deficit, because They turn into new expenditures of the state budget, new loans to pay interest on old debts.

External national debt is repaid by transferring goods to another country. In order to pay out of external debt, the country must reduce imports and increase the export of goods, while the proceeds from exports are not for development, but to repay the debt, which slows down the growth rate, reduces the standard of living.

If the loans abroad are made for consumer purposes, then there is a debt burden on the descendants - as in the case of internal debt.

6. Fiscal policy of the state.Fiscal (budget-tax) politics is a regulatory system associated with government spending and taxes. Currently, fiscal policy is the main means of regulating the economy of developed countries. Policy goals:

Smoothing the oscillations of the economic cycle;

Stabilization of economic growth rates;

Achieving the level of natural employment;

Moderate inflation rates.

Passive and active budget and tax policy should be distinguished, the latter reflects the Keynesian approach to macroeconomic regulation. As part of the Keynesian approach, fiscal policy is considered as the most effective tool for state impact on economic growth, level of employment and price dynamics (see the topic 14).

The basis of the fiscal policy of the state is the situation: - tax cuts and the growth of government expenditures increase the cumulative demand and, therefore, leads to the expansion of the production volume, increasing income, reducing unemployment; Conversely: - an increase in taxes and a decrease in government expenditures leads to a reduction in the total demand, the volume of production, income, employment and the rates of inflation.

Fiscal policy has an impact on the national economy through commodity markets. Government spending increase total demand (AD), joining consumption costs (C) and investment (I). The impact of government spending on the volume of production and in magnitude and in the direction is the same as the influence of investments. By increasing the volume of government procurement, the government is influencing (injections) to the national economy.

As for taxes, they, in contrast to government spending, reduce consumption and savings, i.e. are income leaks. Consequently, the direction of the impact of government spending and taxes on the value of national production and income is exactly the opposite.

Analysis of the fiscal policy involves the combination of the animated effects of fiscal policy.

Suppose an equal increase in government spending and taxes. Then, under the influence of the growth of government spending, aggregate demand increases, and under the influence of increasing taxes will be reduced. At the same time, since the multiplier of government spending is stronger than the tax multiplier, the final, total result will consist in an increase in the production of products equal to increasing taxes and government expenditures.

The fiscal policy involving equal increasing taxes and government expenditures leads to the effect of a balanced budget, the essence of which is that equal change in government spending and taxes leads to a change in equilibrium issue on the same value. In other words, the Balanced Budget multiplier is 1.

There are discretionary and automatic types of fiscal policy.

Fig. 30. Fiscal policy of the state

Non-comprising budget and tax policy is built on automatic stabilizers that automatically soften the oscillations of the GNP by reducing the multiplier value. Tax, unemployment benefits, income indexing, agricultural subsidies are considered the most important automatic stabilizers.

If the economy observes a decline, i.e. Personal income and income of enterprises are reduced, then taxes are automatically reduced that, with other things being equal, mitigates the effects of reducing aggregate demand, helps to stabilize the production of products. At the same time, the transition to a lower tax rate (due to the income drop) increases the multiplier value, helps the economy get out of the state of the recession. However, as a result of tax reducing, budget deficit occurs or increases.

During boom and inflation, income increases, tax rates increase, the value of the multiplier decreases, which helps reduce the total demand and volume and price reduction. Thus, the ability of the tax system to reduce tax seizures during the recession and increase them during the inflation period are a powerful automatic economy stabilizer.

A similar impact on the economy have unemployment benefits. When employment is high, the Employment Fund increases and has a deterrent pressure on cumulative expenses, in the low employment period, the fund's funds are intensively spent by maintaining consumption and softening the decline in production. Thus, the stabilizers work in both directions - and in the direction of increasing and down.

However, built-in stabilizers cannot fully allow all macroeconomic problems. They soften the oscillations of the cycle, but cannot eliminate their cause, so the automatic fiscal policy is complemented by discretion, which leads to an increase in the budget deficit during periods of recession and budget excess during inflation.

Discretionary budget and tax policy is carried out at the discretion of the government, based on its decisions and is carried out through government procurement of goods, state transfers and taxes. This leads to an increase in total costs in the market and stimulates the growth of aggregate demand, and, consequently, the production of GNP. Accordingly, the decline in government spending will mean a reduction in total expenses and equilibrium levels of GNP.

Discretionary budgetary policy includes:

· Implementation of employment programs that intend to ensure unemployed work at the expense of the state budget;

· Implementation of social programs that allow you to stabilize economic development when costs are reduced and the need is aggravated;

· Changing the volume of tax seizures by introducing or canceling taxes or changes to tax rates. By changing the tax rate, the government can keep revenues from reducing during the decline period or vice versa, reduce disposable income during the boom. Changing the tax rate can also be used in order to influence inflation.

Depending on the economic cycle stage, discretionary budget-and-tax policy is stimulating (expansionist), neutral or restraining (restrictive). Expansionist fiscal policy is aimed at reviving economic activity in the country, the growth of aggregate demand. It is carried out on a downward part of the economic cycle wave, by reducing tax rates, providing tax benefits, government growth.

Literature

Course of economic theory. General Basics of Economic Theory, Microeconomics, Macroeconomics, Transition Economy: Tutorial / Head of the Copyright Collective and Scientific Editor A.V. Sidorovich. - M.: MSU, "DE", 2007. - Ch. 25, 36.

McConnell K.R., Bruz S.L. Economics. - M.: Infra-M, 2005. - T.1, Ch.14, 20.

Economic theory: textbook / under total. ed. Acad. IN AND. Viyapina, A.I. Dobrynina, G.P. Zhuravleva, L.S. Tarasevich - M.: Infra-M, 2000. - Ch. 27.

Questions for self-test

1. What is finance, state budget?

2. What are taxes?

3. What is the regulatory role of taxes?

4. Using A. Laffer curve, show the value of the establishment of an optimal tax rate.

5. What are government spending. Describe them.

6. What is a state budget deficit?

7. What are the ways to cover the deficit of the state budget? Describe them.

8. How is the fiscal policy able to influence the change in the GNP?

10. How can automatic stabilizers affect equilibrium GNP?