This term has not been clear to me since I studied economic theory at the institute. First of all, because “national economy” can also hide the terms “national economy” and “national economy”. Different economic theories can consider them both identical and separate. But I was able to identify common features between them as well.
National economy
In the course of economic theories developed in Germany at the end of the 19th century, such an economy was equal to a national economy. In Russia after the revolution, where a lot of things were based on the economic works of the Germans Marx and Engels, this term was already transformed into the national economy, but the peculiarity was that all means of labor were nationalized, that is, they began to belong to the state. If we start from the original version, then the national economy is a system of economic relationships where production, exchange and consumption of labor results that are significant for state reproduction take place, taking into account its national characteristics. Simply put, the results of the labor of human society are aimed at increasing the welfare of the state, and the national specificity will be the industry in which a given nation has historically been engaged. The national economy is formed by the following economic sectors:
- Private.
- State.
- Foreign.
The predominance of only the public and private sectors in the reproduction system leads to the creation of a closed economy.
Russian classifiers
To implement the goals of state statistics and accounting in the USSR, the OKONKh index (classifier of sectors of the national economy) was created.
In it (from industry to finance) everything was attributed to the exclusive competence of the state. With the advent of a market economy and the fall of such industries into private or foreign “hands,” OKVED (classifier of types of economic activities) began to be used, i.e., not everything belongs only to the state-people. This situation once again confirms the inequality between the “national” and “national” economies.
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Introduction
national economy russian
In the modern world, much attention is paid to the development of market relations and economic ties between countries, as well as global trade and other factors that influence economic development. The national economy is a system of social reproduction that has historically developed within certain territorial (national) boundaries. The national economy is formed by the public, private and foreign sectors of the economy.
In its formation and development, the national economy has traveled a long and difficult path. Some researchers date its origin back to the times of Ancient Rome. The Roman Empire, some scholars believe, was the global economic system of that time. Other scientists trace the functioning of the national economy back to the time of the great geographical discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries, which led to the accelerated development of international trade in jewelry, spices, and slaves. The topic I have chosen was, is and will be relevant at all times, since the nature and direction of the economic development of the national economy are the subject of close attention of economists and politicians: from what dynamic processes take place in economic development, what reproductive and structural changes are observed in the The economic system depends on the state and prospects of the country's economic life. The future of the national economy has many options. The trajectory of its long-term development is formed based on the potential opportunities it has and taking into account how global trends are used in making management decisions. At the same time, modern economic science experiences difficulties in determining the future of the national economy due to the lack of a holistic and realistic theory of economic development. Without such a theory, economic science turns into a set of analytical tools with a limited scope and does not create a comprehensive picture of the development of the national economy and the systemic evolution of economic relations.
1. Concept, formation and essence of the national economy
The main goal of all economic policy is to create an efficient and competitive economy. At the same time, the mechanisms and methods for achieving this goal include a set of tools that makes it possible to create a favorable environment for the economic activities of all economic entities, regardless of their form of ownership.
National economy is the totality of all economic processes occurring in society, based on the property relations and organizational forms of economic activity operating in it; economic activity of all economic entities on a state scale, aimed at meeting the needs of the nation; it is also a complex economic system that develops according to its own specific laws.
The structure of the national economy is a set of proportions and relationships that have developed at a given moment and includes the economic structure and the framing structure; is the result of the development of the general division of labor in production. The economic structure characterizes the relations of households, firms, spheres, industries, as well as the relationship between the national and world economies. The framing structure characterizes the environment of economic activity, primarily the social, political, and demographic structure. Any national economic system consists of a set of industries - certain areas of economic activity. In the reproduction aspect, the structure of the national economy is divided into spheres, i.e. groups of homogeneous industries. In the national economy of each country, three large interconnected areas can be distinguished:
1. Material production: industry, agriculture, construction and other sectors related to the production of material goods.
2. Intangible production: science and scientific services, art and culture, education, healthcare and other industries related to the production of spiritual goods and services; intangible production creates a product - accumulated scientific knowledge, information, works of literature and art, all types of services provided to the population, etc.
This production has its own characteristics: 1) satisfies not only material, but also spiritual needs; 2) it does not directly participate in material production, but constitutes its necessary condition. The product of intangible production also has use value and value. The first is the ability to satisfy the needs for this product, the second is measured by the amount of labor spent on its production.
3. Non-production sphere: defense, religious, legal and other public organizations.
The socio-economic structure characterizes the division of the national economy into sectors, i.e. sets of socio-economic units united by certain socio-economic relations. The national economy can be divided into sectors according to groups of enterprises, population groups, types of labor, etc. It is important to divide the national economy into sectors in accordance with the forms of ownership of the means of production.
Territorial structure means dividing the national economy into economic regions. In the structure of production activity, there are 3 spheres of the national economy:
1. Primary sector - mining, agriculture, fishing, etc.
2. Secondary sector - manufacturing industry
3. Service sector.
Analysis of the economic functioning of the national economy today is based on the technique of the System of National Accounts (SNA). It comes down to calculating general indicators of economic development at various stages of the reproduction process and the mutual linking of these indicators with each other. Each stage of reproduction corresponds to a special account or group of accounts, and it is possible to trace the movement of the mass of goods and services produced, as well as added value from production to use.
The ultimate goal of the development of the national economy is to ensure optimal living conditions for all members of society based on economic growth. To achieve this goal, constant work is required at all levels of the economic system to ensure the development of science and technology, the rational use of limited economic resources, to curb inflation and unemployment, and to solve a set of social problems. The main criterion for assessing the economic policy being implemented is the results of the functioning of the national economy. The most important final indicator of macroeconomic development is the growth rate of the social product per capita. It is in the rate of economic growth, in the speed and size of the increase in the social product that the level of efficiency of the national economy is reflected, and, consequently, the assessment of the selected models, types, types and methods of economic development of a given society.
The optimal structure of the country's national economy is created as a result of effective long-term economic policy, taking into account both state conditions for economic development and the peculiarities of the development of the world economy.
Other goals are set for the national economy:
1. Stable high growth rates of national output. This means a steady growth in the production of goods and services in a given country without sudden changes, recessions and crises.
2. Price stability. It must be taken into account that prices that remain unchanged for a long time slow down the growth rate of GNP and reduce employment. Low prices are good for the consumer, but deprive the producer of incentives; high prices, on the contrary, stimulate production, but reduce the purchasing power of the population. Therefore, achieving price stability in a modern market economy does not mean “freezing” them for a long period, but a planned, regulated change.
3. Maintaining a foreign trade balance. In practice, this means achieving a relative balance between exports and imports, as well as a stable exchange rate of the national currency for the currencies of other countries. If more goods are imported into a country than are sold abroad, a negative trade balance occurs. If more goods are exported than enter the country, then they speak of a positive balance. The balance of trade is significantly influenced by the exchange rate - the value of the monetary unit of one country expressed in the monetary unit of another country. An increase or decrease in exchange rates can change the achieved balance and cause a positive or negative balance.
4. High level of employment. It is achieved if everyone who wants a job finds one. But this does not mean that full employment covers the entire working population of the country. In any country at any given time there is a certain number of people who are temporarily unemployed due to a change of job or place of residence. In addition, there is always structural unemployment due to the discrepancy between the structure of new jobs associated with the introduction of new technologies and the existing structure of the labor force and the latter’s lagging behind the demand for these professions in terms of qualification requirements and new professions.
2. Problems of optimization of the national economy
Optimization of the national economy means correspondence between interconnected industries, between the volumes of products produced and the needs for them. The basis of optimization is proportionality. Optimization and proportionality in reality are usually unstable and constantly violated. For example, economic growth leads to the establishment of new proportions and a new balance. Since there is no complete correspondence between industries in real life, there is a constant need to maintain optimization by adjusting the proportions between individual areas of the economy, as well as within them. In material production, for this it is necessary, first of all, to ensure correspondence between the first and second divisions, i.e. between the production of means of production and consumer goods. If such correspondence is violated, then Division I will not be able to provide means of production to both divisions, and Division II will not be able to provide consumer goods for employed and additionally recruited workers of both divisions.
The national economy of Russia is dominated by the production of means of production, characterized by high capital, material and energy intensity. This is the main reason for excess demand for investments, raw materials and supplies. As a result, the production potential of the CIS countries collectively exceeds the United States, and the standard of living is several times lower. In addition, compared to developed countries, our national economy is characterized by a small share of intangible production.
The optimization of the national economy is affected by the scarcity of natural fuel resources, raw materials for some industries, and its own metallurgical base. In addition, the transition from an administrative-command system to a market one largely determined the deformation of the entire reproduction cycle, including production, distribution, exchange, and consumption. These proportions were established within a single country. Therefore, optimization problems are solved on the basis of interstate agreements.
During the period of transition to the market, the national economy of Russia is characterized by general imbalance. Inflation and the destruction of economic ties have disrupted commodity-money optimization, the balance of monetary income and expenditure of the population, the trade balance with other countries, etc. Structural restructuring is necessary, which manifests itself in the transformation of the national economy in accordance with the needs and demands of the world market. Russia is currently characterized by a decline in population, its aging, an increase in morbidity, disability, serious problems in medical care, and the emergence of new types of forced migration. The dynamics of reforming property relations are unstable, entrepreneurship is developing slowly, as well as reforming labor relations. There are miscalculations in government regulation of the economy and social sphere; high level of inflation and devaluation of the ruble; insufficient funding for education, science, culture; funds allocated for the introduction of resource-saving and low-waste technologies are limited. None of this is conducive to sustainable human development. Life expectancy is decreasing, about 1/3 of the population lives below the poverty line, about 77% have incomes below the minimum wage, almost half of pensioners receive pensions below the subsistence level. Almost a third of the population lives in rural areas and small urban settlements with a population of less than 10 thousand people and does not have even the minimum of modern comfort for their living environment. Radiation, environmental, medical and social protection of the population living in zones of radioactive contamination is insufficient. The level of crime has become high, and the influence of its organized forms - corruption, drug trafficking - has expanded.
Conclusion
So, let's summarize:
· The national economy is the main object of study of macroeconomics and represents the totality of all economic processes occurring in a given state.
National economy is the totality of all economic processes occurring in society, based on the property relations and organizational forms of economic activity operating in it; economic activity of all economic entities on a state scale, aimed at meeting the needs of the nation; it is also a complex economic system that develops according to its own specific laws.
· The structure of the national economy lies in the ratio of the proportions of the components of the national economy (reproductive structure, social, sectoral, territorial, foreign trade, infrastructure).
· Structural policy refers to the activities of the state to maintain optimal relationships between the components of the national economy.
· Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on structural policy, because changes the structure of industry.
· Structural policy should be flexible, and only complement the market, and not replace it.
· The modern Russian economy is in a rather difficult situation and needs to implement an effective structural policy.
· The main methods of structural policy in Russia are institutional methods, rule-making, budget regulation, and monetary methods.
· The structural policy of the Russian Federation is to support the necessary industries, land reform in the agro-industrial complex, and social reforms.
In my opinion, special attention in Russia should be paid to social transformations, and quite serious reforms need to be carried out here, since projects alone sometimes turn out to be ineffective, and the social assistance system is not sufficiently developed.
Literature
1. Akopova E.S. “World economy and international relations.” - M., Phoenix, 2005.
2. Zevin L.Z., Strepetova M.P., Ushakova N.A. “Economic development of Russia in the era of globalization: the role of external factors” // Russia and modern times. world. -2001.-No.1.-P.41-57.3. Kolesov V.P., Yu.V. Shishkov, E.G. Kochetov “Globalization of the world economy and the place of Russia” / M.: TEIS, 2005.-P.51-59.
4. V.K. Lomakin "WORLD ECONOMY". - M.: Unity. 2003.
5. Tedeev A.A. "Taxes and taxation: a textbook for universities." - M.: “Priot-Izdat”, 2004.
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Characteristics of the national economy of the Russian Federation, features of its structure and main prospects. Classifier of sectors of the national economy. Analysis of the current state of the national economy. Modernization of property and financial system.
The national economy is the historically established system of social reproduction of the country, an interconnected system of industries and types of production, covering the forms of social labor that have developed in the national economy.
Goals for the functioning of the national economy: high level of employment; stable and high rates of economic growth; stable price level; positive foreign trade balance.
The following are used as generalizing indicators of the results of the functioning of the national economy over a certain period of time: GNP, GDP, NIP, ND, AD, RD.
GNP (gross national product) is the value of all final products and services produced in the economy for the year, created by the subjects of a given country both within the national territory and abroad.
GDP (gross domestic product) is the value of all final products and services produced in the economy for the year, created by all producers in the territory of a given country, regardless of the nationality of the factors of production.
Methods for calculating GNP and GDP:
In terms of expenses, i.e. GNP (GDP) is the sum of expenses of subjects of the national economy for the acquisition of the final national product.
Types of expenses:
Personal consumption expenditures (C);
Gross private domestic investment (I);
® Public procurement of goods and services (G);
» Expenditures abroad on the purchase of domestic goods (net exports) (X).
Thus, GNP (GDP) by expenditure:
GNP = C + I + G + X.
By income, i.e. GNP (GDP) is the sum of income of subjects of the national economy from the sale of the final national product.
Types of income: Remuneration for the work of employees (Z) Rent payments (income of owners of land, buildings and structures from renting them out) (R) Interest on loans granted (K) Profit (profit of the corporate and non-corporate sectors of the economy) (P) Depreciation deductions (A) Indirect taxes on business (state income) (N6) Thus, GNP (GDP) by income:
GNP = Z + R + K + P + A + N6.
By value added (production method), i.e. GNP is the sum of value added by all producers of goods and services in a given country.
Added value (VA) is the value created in the production process that a company (industry) adds to purchased materials and services in the process of production and sales of products.
GDP (GNP) calculated at current market prices is called nominal, and calculated at constant prices - real.
The deflator (price index) expresses the differences between nominal and real GDP (GNP). This is an indicator characterizing the change in GDP (GNP) due to changes in prices, and is defined as the ratio of nominal GDP (GNP) to real GDP (GNP).
Other macroeconomic indicators:
NNP (net national product) is the amount of final products and services remaining for consumption after replacing written-off equipment.
NNP=GNP-A
ND (national income) - characterizes the amount of income of all suppliers of production resources with the help of which CNP is created,
POISON = NNP - N6
ND is divided into two parts: the accumulation fund and the consumption fund.
LD (personal income) - shows redistribution processes in national income, i.e. how much money was received for personal consumption of the population.
LD=ND - corporate income taxes - retained corporate earnings - social security contributions + transfer payments.
Disposable income (disposable income) is income that can be used for direct spending by households, appearing in the forms of consumer spending and personal savings.
RD-LD - Total amount of personal taxes.
3. NB (national wealth) - the totality of material and intangible goods that society has and which were created by the labor of people over the entire previous period.
NB structure:
Material results:
Fixed assets (production and non-production);
Material working capital (inventories of raw materials, work in progress, inventories of finished products);
Commodity stocks of the national economy;
State reserves, including insurance, defense reserves, gold reserves;
Durable household items (individual means of transport, furniture, cultural and household items);
Natural resources involved in economic turnover (developed lands, forests, waters, subsoil resources, etc.);
Intangible results:
Scientific potential;
Educational potential;
Qualification potential;
Cultural potential.
The problem of national wealth has been the subject of study by many economists. The NB was first calculated by the English economist W. Petty in 1664. In France, the first estimate of the NB dates back to 1789, in the USA - to 1805, in Russia - to 1864.
16 See: Moore G.E. Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits // Electronics. 1965. No. 38(8), April 19. P. 114-117.
17 See: Gilder G.F. Telecosm: How Infinite Bandwidth Will Revolutionize our World. N.Y.: Free Press, 2000. P. 12, 70.
18 Sakaya T. Decree. op. P. 351.
19 On the graph, point ^ corresponds to the limit of UDC 330.34
costs of producing a licensed copy of an information product, SK - a counterfeit (pirated) copy.
20 Strelets I.A. Decree. op. pp. 22-23.
21 Ibid. P. 23.
22 Stewart T. Decree. op. P. 391.
23 Buzgalin A.V. Op. op. P. 33.
NATIONAL ECONOMY AS AN OBJECT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
E.A. Orekhova
Saratov State University,
Department of Economic Theory and National Economics
Email: [email protected]
The concept of the national economic system is revealed, its general and special properties are highlighted. It is substantiated that the economic development of the national economy is characterized by unevenness and impulsiveness. A definition is given and the main types of economic development dynamics are characterized.
National Facilities (Economy) as Object of Economic Development E.A. Orekhova
In the article idea about system of a National Economy and its general and especial properties are discused. Also definition of the moving forces and trends of economic development is given its basic types are characterized. It is established, that moving forces and trends of economic development of a National Economy is characterized by non-uniformity, impulsiveness and discontinuity.
The national economic system is a set of economic resources and economic entities that are interconnected and interact with each other in the sphere of social reproduction. It has certain properties: system-wide (characteristic of all systems) and special (characteristic only of the national economic system). The system-wide properties of the national economy include its integrity, hierarchy and integrativeness.
The integrity of the national economy is manifested in the fact that a change in the structure, connections and behavior of individual economic entities affects all other economic entities and changes the system as a whole, just as a change in the national economy as a whole causes a transformation of its structure, connections and behavior of economic entities.
The hierarchical nature of the national economy means that it is included as a subsystem in a system of a higher order - the world economy, and each of its components is also a system. Decomposition of the national economic system with
by highlighting its subsystems down to the elementary level, it is reflected in Fig. 11. The structure of the national economic system is complex, has several levels and looks like a branched tree. At the first level there is a fairly large number of subsystems (components) of the national economy - economic institutions such as the state, territorial entities, industries, and households. Next, the subsystems of the previous level break down into a set of several lower-level subsystems, etc. The basis of the structuring factor of the national economic system is the economic interests of economic entities (individual, collective, national). The set of economic interests is realized in a process that unites all parts of the national economic system together, in the system-forming (structuring) process of social reproduction.
According to the rule of hierarchy, the national economic system and its subsystems, as well as subsystems of subsystems, have different levels of complexity, belong to different classes and cannot have the same level of hierarchy. Lower level systems can be described more accurately and have less uncertainty in economic development. Hierarchy in the national economic system is relative: any level has a certain degree of autonomy. The primary element of the national economic system is the individual with his needs, not by himself, but in the totality of his social connections and relationships, as a socially conditioned being. Since the individual realizes himself not alone, but in society, being a “product” of the entire previous history of mankind, he can be considered not only as a subject, but also as an object of economic development.
Integrity of the national economy is the possession of properties
© E.A. Orekhova, 2007
National economic system
Rice. 1. Components of the national economic system and their corresponding economic entities
missing from its components. An individual economy (firm, enterprise) is a predominantly technical and technological category, its laws are the laws of engineering and technology. Transferring the properties of an individual economy to the national economy would mean its subordination to precisely these laws and the denial of its social character2. The main “integrative” quality of the national economic system
Integrity is not characteristic of its constituent parts. It ensures the isolation of the national economic system and its functioning as a single whole organism. Integration of parts of the national economic system occurs in the process of formation of this system.
Among the special properties of the national economic system, it is advisable to highlight the following.
1. Subsystems of the national economy have unclear boundaries: one and the same economic entity can simultaneously take part in various processes of self-organization of the national economic system, and can simultaneously be a component of both the self-organizing system of the national economy and its environment. In particular, the state, on the one hand, acts as part of the environment of the national economy, carrying out administrative regulation, social control, legislative registration of the economic life of society, protecting domestic producers from outside competition, and on the other hand, the state is a component of the national economy, acting as the owner, entrepreneur or partner of a private business.
2. The individual components and elements of the national economic system are united by flexible, probabilistic bureaucratic, market, ethical and aggressive connections3, characteristic of different spheres of economic life and complementing each other. The nature of these connections is determined by the very components and elements of the national economic system. Bureaucratic connections are vertical, regulated, carried out between components at many levels, based on coercion, subordination and not always mediated by money. They are typical for state structures and totalitarian national economies. Market relations are horizontal in nature and are formed on the basis of an agreement between legally equal business entities. They, as a rule, are mediated by money and are established, first of all, between producers and consumers of goods and services. Ethical connections can be both horizontal and vertical. They are carried out both between equal economic entities and between entities at different levels (for example, between the state and a company). These connections are based either on the expectation of mutual assistance or on unilateral altruism and may or may not be mediated by money. These connections occur within households and communities. Aggressive connections are vertical in nature and are carried out through the force of coercion between strong and subordinate business entities; they may or may not be mediated by money.
Such connections are typical for the shadow economy and totalitarian states.
3. The structure of the national economic system is variable, mobile, and non-linear. In different phases of economic development, the structure of the national economy plays a different role: if during the period of evolutionary changes it ensures stability, stability of the system, extinguishing fluctuations arising within it and originating from the environment, then at the bifurcation point, on the contrary, it is one of the first to be transformed, and then changes in connections and behavior of components and the system itself follow. By changing its structure, the national economic system adapts to the conditions of the internal and external environment of its existence.
4. The structure of the national economic system is associated with the consciously put forward goal of economic development and control mechanisms through which the structure of the whole actively influences the parts, their functioning and development. The final result of the aspirations of the national economy - achieving maximum stability in the relationships between economic entities and the external environment - forces the national economy to adapt to changing conditions of existence, to cyclically go through the stages of formation, prosperity, chaos and destruction in its development. In the course of this movement, the national economy is constantly increasing the degree of determinism in its “behavior,” leaving the only possible and uncontested options for responding to the “challenges” of the external environment. Having achieved the currently optimal balance of determinism and freedom, it sooner or later faces the need to adjust the ideal in accordance with new needs and conditions. With the collapse of the old ideal, the next cycle begins, at the beginning of which several options for the further development of the national economy can be traced. And again, the decisive role in this choice is played by the ideals “offered” to the national economy, and the old ideal is not always discarded, but is often considered preferable.
5. The national economic system is characterized by coherence, which means that its constituent components and elements are characterized by joint, cooperative action, as a result of which they strengthen or weaken each other. Consequently, the speed of economic processes in the national economic system depends on the level of its economic development and the type of system. The constant violation of the state of equilibrium, the lack of balance as such in the national economic system serves as the irresistible driving force that causes its development. It is possible to introduce a new component, element or quality
degeneration of the existing one, which will cause a change in the nature of the joint action of the components and elements of the national economic system. On the contrary, a stable equilibrium of the national economic system means its ignoring of all kinds of changes and influences directed at it, its complete indifference in relation to them.
6. The national economy can be either an open or a closed system. On the one hand, any national economic system is open, since it actively interacts with its natural external environment: the movement of matter, energy and information occurs completely unhindered. The national economic system experiences the active influence of the natural environment and at the same time itself influences the natural environment in a feedback manner. In addition, the closest and immediate external environment for the national economy is the social system of society and its subsystems (culture, religion, ethics, ideology, law, politics, science, education, management, technology, etc.), with which it is inextricably interconnected (Fig. .2). The national economic system is always open in relation to its own social system. For it, this is a natural environment, outside of which it can neither exist nor develop, with the subsystems of which it has common elements. The national economy is immersed in the information field of its own social system; this is its surface layer of the immediate external environment, thanks to which all subsystems of the social system interact and the process of self-organization and their joint development takes place.
On the other hand, the national economic system, being open in relation to its own social system and its subsystems, can simultaneously be closed to other social systems, national economic systems and the world economic system as a whole, which act as the second, superficial layer of its external environment (Fig. 3).
Taking into account the allocation of the global external environment, national economic systems can be divided into systems that need to interact with this environment to attract additional matter, energy, information, and independent, self-developing systems that do not need to interact with this environment. From the point of view of the world market, the global system of connections, a national economy can be closed without much damage only if it is self-sufficient in terms of material and spiritual resources.
7. The source of economic development of the national economic system are contradictions: between the processes of functioning and development of the national economy;
Rice. 2. Isolation of the national economic system from the immediate and immediate external environment
World socio-economic system
Rice. 3. Isolation of the national economic system from the global external environment
between the national economy’s desire for order and chaos; between the goals of the national economy and the goals of economic entities in it; between the national economy’s desire for a sustainable state and the means to achieve it; between the functioning of the national economy and its structure, etc.4. During the evolutionary period of economic development, most of these contradictions are only smoothed out: exogenous entropic tendencies and contradictions are opposed by adaptation, and endogenous ones are opposed by the functioning of the national economy; even the most ideal management can, at best, only mitigate these contradictions. Overdue contradictions are resolved at the moment of a catastrophe (qualitative, abrupt, sudden changes in economic development), after which they accumulate again, demanding their resolution.
8. The economic development of the national economic system is largely determined by the intensity of its interaction with a heterogeneous and very complex environment. The internal environment of the national economy includes: the state (as a force acting over economic entities), the internal social environment (its own social system and its subsystems), the internal natural environment (the state of nature of a given country). The external environment of the national economy includes: external economic environment (national economies of other countries and the world economy as a whole), external social environment (social systems of other countries and their subsystems), external natural environment (state of the natural environment of other countries).
The environment has a complex and multilateral impact on the state and economic development of the national economy. On the one hand, disruption of order and disorganization of the environment leads to increased impacts on the national economic system and its transition to an unstable state. For example, the scarcity of natural resources can become a serious problem for the development of national production; the state's implementation of an inadequate economic policy, the lack of proper legal and social norms, and a business culture can slow down the economic development of the national economy; a hostile external environment may cause an increase in the share of military expenditures, while reducing the efficiency of the national economy; The global external environment can seriously compete with domestic producers, as a result of which the national economy will receive less taxes, domestic producers will receive less profit, and hired workers
Wages. On the other hand, environmental influences, regarded as control influences, lead first to a violation of the stability of the national economic system, and then (subject to a nonlinear relationship
between its parameters) to the emergence of a new economic order.
So, based on the identified general and special properties of the national economy, it can be characterized as an organic, open (closed), dynamically developing system. At the same time, the national economy is characterized by uneven economic development, characterized by unevenness, impulsiveness, and relative discontinuity. It experiences ups and downs, leaps and fluctuations, shocks and inertia, which is largely due to the need for dynamism in economic life and the possibility of such dynamism inherent in the national economy itself.
The dynamics of economic development is a unique way of this development, meaning the process of changing the states of movement of its parameters. This is a process of continuous change in the volume and structure of national production, expansion or reduction of the capabilities of the national economy to satisfy changing social needs and ensure accumulation in the required quantities. In the interpretation of the dynamics of economic development, there are quantitative and qualitative aspects of this concept. The first is reflected in the dynamics of changes in the volume of national product produced, the second - in the ability of the national economy to satisfy changing needs and ensure accumulation. These two sides are in mutual connection with each other. And this connection is complex, because the dynamics of a manufactured product itself does not necessarily entail a new quality and an improvement or deterioration in the life of society.
The dynamics of economic development of the national economy are reproductive dynamics and structural dynamics. Reproductive dynamics refers to the dynamics of successive stages of movement of a social product (production, distribution, exchange and consumption) in their unity, interconnection and interaction. In its development, the national economy is constantly renewed and reproduced. It moves in the course of the circulation, being in the process of constant repetition, as a result of which the needs of people are satisfied and material goods, factors of production, economic relations, and organizational and managerial connections are renewed.
Being essentially the result of the development of national production, reproductive dynamics are not an attribute only of direct national production. Having originated in the depths of the production process, reproductive dynamics acquires its real content and essence only at the end of the reproduction chain, when the produced product becomes both sold and
consumed. Reproductive dynamics are realized through constant quantitative and qualitative changes in reproductive elements, which, in turn, are the result of mutual influence and interaction of production, distribution, exchange and consumption based on the mechanism of competition5.
Structural dynamics refers to both the transformation of the entire structure of the national economy, which qualitatively changes the national economy, and current variability, expressed in the mutual adaptation of parts of the structure to each other, in constant changes in their mutual relationships, in the search for certain structural proportions and quantities. Structural dynamics vary. On the one hand, this is the dynamics of clearly structurally dynamic components of the national economy, for example, market supply and demand, current flows of exports and imports. Here the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, and these changes are often significant. On the other hand, structural dynamics are the dynamics of not very dynamic components of the national economy, such as sectoral distribution of production and long-term capital investments. In this case, the structure of the national economy may remain unchanged for a long time, but it becomes capable of sudden and very destructive restructuring6.
It hardly makes sense to prove the need for structural changes for economic development: it is already clear that without them, sustainable development of the national economy is impossible, since with its stable structure, the reserves for economic development are sooner or later exhausted. But this does not mean at all that the more structural changes in the national economy, the higher the pace of its development. It also happens the other way around: structural changes can become a serious obstacle to economic development. Abrupt changes in the structure of the national economy can lead to profound and quite acute consequences, covering both national and international economic relations.
The contradictory nature of changes in the national economy manifests itself in complex and diverse ways in the dynamics of economic development. The opposite dynamics of individual indicators of economic development are objectively determined and quite natural: the growth of national production in an intensive form is opposed by its reduction in an extensive form; increasing labor productivity implies a reduction in total labor costs per unit of production; the growth of the organic structure of capital is associated with a decrease in the share of “human capital” in its total mass. In addition, during the economic
development against the backdrop of growth in national production in high-tech industries, there is constantly a significant decrease in it in industries that have no prospects for the transition to a new technological structure.
One way or another, the economic development of the national economic system necessarily manifests itself in a change in its elements (their quantity, properties) and structure, and a change in the structure necessarily entails the economic development or degradation of the national economic system, a change in the quantity and properties of its elements. We can say that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the quality and, therefore, the properties of the national economic system and its structure. On this basis, it becomes technically possible to transfer the properties of the national economic system of one country to the national economic system of another country, or even the properties of a national economic system of one type to a national economic system of another type based on the isomorphism of their structures.
A change in the structure of the national economy while maintaining the number of its constituent elements entails a change in its complexity (the set of connections between the elements). Simplification of the structure means an increase in degrees of freedom and less order, while an increase in the complexity of the structure, on the contrary, means a decrease in the number of degrees of freedom and greater order. To characterize the orderliness of a system, the concept of entropy is used as a measure of uncertainty, order of state or behavior of the system. The more order the system has, the correspondingly less entropy.
There is no direct relationship between an increase in the number of connections in a system and a change in its quality. Entropy and the quality of the structure are affected only by the emergence of significant connections between elements of the national economic system (for example, connections between industries and divisions of social reproduction, or connections between commodity or money markets). These connections, strengthening the dependence between the elements of the system and significantly reducing indirect connections, reduce the entropy of the system. The emergence of unimportant connections, relating only to those elements to which they relate directly, has almost no effect on the value of entropy. The quality of the national economic system is maintained within certain limits of changes in the quantity and specific fixed properties of its elements and structure. And only the achievement of certain threshold values of these characteristics of the national economic system leads to its transition to a new level of development, to a new quality, the next stage of its economic development. The characteristics of the national economic system at each stage differ as
the presence of other properties of its constituent elements, structure, and the emergence of specific features of the national economic system as a whole, changes in the structuring process. Consequently, the difference between one national economic system and another is expressed in the quantity and properties of their elements, the characteristics of the structures, the structuring factor and the systematizing process.
It's hard to disagree with S.V. Lyubimtseva is that quantitative indicators can also serve as characteristics of the economic development of a national economic system: a change in the number of elements of the system, a change in the relationships between them and a change in entropy. Thus, a progressive national economic system is characterized by an increase in the number of its elements and an increase in connections between them. The regressive system of the national economy is accompanied by a reduction in the number of its elements and the connections between them. Using these indicators, the reproductive and innovative economic development of the national economy can be described. Reproductive development is expressed in an increase in the number of elements of the national economic system, insignificant connections, and entropy. With this development, the orderliness of the system weakens, it becomes less capable of responding to all kinds of disturbances. With innovative development, the entropy of the national economic system decreases and orderliness increases, the system becomes capable of greater adaptation in the external environment.
If the economic development of the national economic system is accompanied by an increase in the number
The table shows and characterizes the considered types of dynamics of economic development of the national economy. The types of dynamics that progress in the number of elements of the national economic system are arranged from less progressive to more progressive, while those that regress are arranged in the reverse order. In the course of economic development, movement is possible
its elements and the growth of entropy (as in the case of extensive development), but at the same time the relationships between the elements of the system are reduced, then such development of the national economy is its degradation. In this case, the national economic system turns from a consumer of the substance, energy, and information necessary for its existence, coming from the external environment, into a donor of the external environment, that is, it emits substance, energy, and information into the external environment. An imbalance in the interconnections of the national economic system arises; the system outwardly grows in volume, but this growth means its death.
Along with the types of dynamics characterized by an increase in the number of elements in the national economic system, there are also possible types that are associated with a reduction in the number of its elements. These include collapse, dissipation and decay. Collapse means the reorganization of non-essential connections of the national economic system into significant connections. This is a process that is the opposite of degradation, meaning renewal and strengthening of the integrative properties of the national economic system. Dissipation, like collapse, is accompanied by a decrease in entropy, that is, it leads to greater orderliness of the national economic system. The loss of the number of elements of the national economic system in this case means its liberation from less “organized elements” that have lost their functions. The collapse of the national economic system implies a reduction in the number of its elements, connections and a decrease in order, which means the destruction of significant connections, primarily the loss of the most organized elements.
not only towards more progressive forms, but also a transition from reproductive and even innovative development to degradation, collapse of the national economic system. Without this, there is not and cannot be the economic development of its organization, growth, search, adaptation. Without this, economic development stops and the national economy dies.
Characteristics of the dynamics of economic development of the national economic system
Types of dynamics of economic development Changes in the parameters of the national economic system
number of elements of the system of relationships (ordering) of elements of the system entropy of the system
Progressive (according to the number of system elements) types of dynamics
Degradation Growth (>0) Weakening (<0) Усиление (>0)
Reproductive development Growth (>0) Strengthening (>0) Strengthening (>0)
Innovative development Growth (>0) Strengthening (>0) Weakening (< 0)
Regressive (by the number of system elements) types of dynamics
Collapse Contraction (< 0) Усиление (>0) Attenuation (< 0)
Dissipation Reduction (< 0) Ослабление (< 0) Ослабление (< 0)
Decay Reduction (< 0) Ослабление (< 0) Усиление (>0)
Note. Comp. by: Lyubimtseva S.V. Transformation of economic systems. M.: Economist, 2003. pp. 59-61.
See: Kondratyev N.D. Basic problems of economic statics and dynamics: Preliminary sketch. M.: Nauka, 1991. P. 84.
We distinguish these types of connections by analogy with the classification of “forms of coordination” proposed by J. Kornai (see: Kornai J. Bureaucracy and the market // Issues of Economics. 1989. No. 12. P. 69-74).
See: Erokhina E.A. Theory of economic development: system-self-organizational approach. Tomsk: Publishing house Tomsk. Univ., 1999. P. 90.
For more information about reproductive dynamics, see: Orekhova E.A. Reproductive dynamics of a transition economy. Saratov: Publishing house Sarat. University, 2000.
See: Osipov Yu.M. Theory of Economics: In 3 volumes. M.: Publishing House Mosk. Univ., 1998. T. 3. P. 14-15, 139.
UDC 334.012.23
SPECIFICITY OF INTERACTION OF FIRMS IN THE TRANSITION ECONOMY OF RUSSIA
E.V. Porezanova
Saratov State University, Department of Economic Theory and National Economics E-mail: [email protected]
The article reveals the types of interactions between firms in the modern economy and analyzes the factors that influence interactions, both general and specific. “Hidden monopoly effects” in the economy are studied using the example of dominant firms. The cooperative interactions of firms and the factors of their stability are considered, and the main features of the Russian market model are highlighted.
Specificity of Interactions of Firms in Transitive Economy of Russia
In the article reveal kinds of interactions of firms in modern economy, factors which influence on general and specific interactions. “The latent exclusive effects” in economy on an example of dominating firms are under investigation. Cooperative interactions of firms, factors of their stability are considered, the basic features of the Russian market model are allocated.
The interactions of firms represent a certain system of relations. Before analyzing the mechanism of interaction between firms in a transition economy, it is necessary to examine what the interaction of firms is and what is their role and place in the economic system of modern society.
The interactions of firms presuppose a certain system of micro-level relationships, which includes relationships: between existing sellers in the market, between sellers and buyers, between actual and potential sellers. The interactions of firms are expressed in the establishment of market prices by firms, the determination of output and sales volumes, the qualitative characteristics of the product, as well as the amount of costs required to create barriers for competitors when they enter the market. Consequently, mutual
The actions of firms reflect the entire range of measures that allow the firm to influence both demand and supply.
The following types of interactions between firms can be distinguished. Based on the degree of consistency of firms' strategies in the market, competitive (uncoordinated) interactions are distinguished, when firms compete with each other and, to a greater extent, pursue independent policies in the market, and cooperative (coordinated) interactions, when firms pre-agreed on joint actions and act in the market as a “single” front." Depending on the degree of institutionalization of inter-firm relations, clearly defined interactions can be distinguished, when the relations between firms are strictly and unambiguously defined, while the mechanism for ensuring the conscientious execution of contracts between partners is effective. These types of relationships are typical for a developed market economy. At the same time, amorphous interactions are distinguished, when relations between firms are based more on informal agreements than on institutionalized contracts, so the risk of moral hazard and opportunistic behavior remains high. With amorphous interactions, the “gray”, semi-legal market becomes widespread. This type of relationship is typical for a transition economy1.
The main factors influencing the interaction of firms in a transition economy are: the magnitude of transaction costs, uncertainty of property rights, the fine line between financial and real transactions, as well as the concentration of buyers. Let's take a closer look at them.
© E.V. Porezanova, 2007
The essence of the national economy is that it represents an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor that have developed as a result of the long historical evolutionary development of a particular country are interconnected. The characteristics of the national economy are influenced by historical and cultural traditions, the geographical location of the state, its role in the international division of labor, etc.
V.V. Leontiev defines the national economy as a system capable of self-regulation, consisting of various types of activities. Structural analysis of the national economy, according to its founder R. Bar, allows for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of economic processes. He proceeds from the fact that structure is a way of ordering various units in the economy and forming organic interaction between them.
There are two types of structure of the national economy:
1) economic structures that determine the functioning of economic units of the national economy. Studying the nature of the relationships between them is of interest, since they determine the essence of the national economy;
2) non-economic structures that determine the functioning of non-economic units - culture, education, etc. Their analysis is of interest only to the extent that these units and the relationship between them influence the functioning of the national economy. F. Peru believes that the structure of the national economy differs in the proportions and relationships between its component parts. Proportion is the value of the analyzed unit of the national economy in relation to others. Relationships are relatively stable connections between units of the national economy, capable of change and preservation.
R. Tinbergeng considers it important to carry out a structural analysis of the economy, since it allows one to determine its essence and make a forecast of the future state and development, while proceeding from the following features of the structural analysis of the national economy:
1) it allows us to more fully explain the processes occurring in the national economy;
2) it makes it possible, based on the data obtained as a result of structural analysis, to develop a more effective and efficient national economic policy that will be more flexible, adapted and relevant.
Structure of the national economy
The structure of the national economy is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy. The following types of structure of the national economy are distinguished: 1) household, which implies consideration of the structure of the national economy as the relationship between households. The selection of this type of structure is due to the fact that households are a powerful economic entity, producing a significant part of the national wealth, influencing the nature of other relationships; 2) social structure, based on the division of the national economy into certain sectors that are organically interconnected. The division is made according to various criteria, for example, population groups, enterprises, types of labor. Usually there are public and private sectors of the economy; 3) sectoral structure, which involves identifying sectors of the economy and determining the nature and essence of the relationship between them. A branch of the national economy is a unit of the national economy that performs similar functional tasks in the process of social production. This type of structuring of the national economy is of great importance, as it allows for high-quality forecasting of economic development; 4) territorial structure, which involves an analysis of the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy - the division of the national economy into various economic regions; 5) the infrastructure of the national economy, based on the definition of the type and nature of interaction between economic spheres; 6) the structure of foreign trade, which involves analyzing the nature of the relationships between various product groups, their imports and exports.
The structure of a particular national economy is constantly changing and transforming. This is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress, which changes the nature of production and contributes to the emergence of new industries and spheres of the economy. Changing the nature of social production, the emergence of new industries, affects the nature of relationships in the national economy. Therefore, the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, which forces us to carry out constant structural monitoring and compare the real structure with its future development.
The structure of a particular national economy is formed under the influence of many factors - geographical, cultural, social, psychological, etc. It is specific to each specific country and cannot be artificially introduced. The state can only exercise indirect influence on it.
Economic infrastructure: types and significance for the national economy
There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it is understood as a set of service systems, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and provide various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.
Infrastructure as an independent area of the national economy has gone through the following stages of development:
1) the separation of agriculture and handicrafts led to the growth of cities and specialization of labor;
2) the division of agriculture, crafts and trade led to the formation of a specific area of the national economy - trade, as a result of which the role of infrastructure increased significantly.
The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are identified.
1. Production infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage ship transportation, etc. The essence of production infrastructure is twofold. Firstly, it is aimed at maintaining the normal functioning of the material production process. Secondly, it ensures the normal functioning of the person himself and the reproduction of labor resources in the national economy.
2. Social infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal functioning of the population and people. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the livelihoods of the population at an increasingly higher quality level. The influence of social infrastructure on the national economy is that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.
3. Market infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the market and its development. It is represented by a collection of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.
Market infrastructure consists of the following elements:
1) trade organizations;
2) exchange trading;
3) banking system;
4) non-banking institutions;
5) transport system.
Sectoral structure of the national economy
The sectoral structure of the national economy consists in grouping economic entities into groups of homogeneous composition, connected by homogeneous functional characteristics - sectors of the national economy.
The sectoral structure of the national economy goes through the following stages of its development:
1) the first is associated with the active development and predominance of primary sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, mining;
2) the second is associated with the development and dominance of secondary industries - production, construction;
3) the third is associated with the development and predominance of tertiary industries - the service sector.
These stages of development of the sectoral structure of the national economy replaced each other, but for each individual country they had their own specific features.
Dynamic changes in the industry structure occur cyclically over a time period of 10 to 20 years. They are characterized by the following features:
1) increasing the importance and volume of the service industry - the intellectual, information sphere;
2) a decrease in the volume of the mining industry compared to others;
3) growth of industrial production against the background of the agricultural sector of the economy.
Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on the nature of the sectoral structure of the national economy. It leads to some industries disappearing or stagnating, while others, such as nuclear energy, are actively developing. A distinctive feature is the emergence of related sectors of the economy - petrochemical, rocket and space, etc.
The industry structure is changing in the following main directions:
1) a fundamental change in production technologies;
2) dominance of the manufacturing industry compared to the mining industry;
3) development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the national economy;
4) a shift in the center of gravity towards non-production industries.
The modern sectoral structure of the Russian national economy is characterized by the predominance of the fuel and energy complex (FEC). It is one of the most capital-intensive industries, and therefore there is an outflow of capital from other industries. The orientation of the fuel and energy complex to the international market makes Russia dependent on global price fluctuations. As a result, more than half of the country's GDP is generated from the sale of resources. The predominance of extractive industries has a negative impact on the overall rate of development of the national economy. The dominance of the fuel and energy complex hinders the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.
Theory of “Industry Balance”
The theory of “Inter-industry balance” was developed in the USA by V.V. Leontiev as an effective tool for analyzing and forecasting structural relationships in the economy. It is based on the possibility of achieving general macroeconomic equilibrium, for which a model of this state has been developed, including the structural relationship of all stages of the production process - production, distribution or exchange and final consumption. The essence of this method lies in the dual definition of the economic sector - as a consumer and as a producer. To determine the degree and nature of the relationship between supply and demand for a good, a system of technological coefficients is used - an indicator that reflects the volume of average costs of products in a certain industry required to produce a unit of the good.
In this model, an input-output balance scheme is used for analysis, consisting of four main quadrants, reflecting certain stages of the production process:
1) volumes of consumption for production needs - the first quadrant;
2) grouping a product depending on how it is used - the second quadrant;
3) inclusion of the added value of the product, for example, remuneration of employees, taxes, etc. – the third quadrant;
4) the structure of national income distribution – the fourth quadrant.
The theory of “Industry balance” allows:
1) analyze and forecast the development of the main sectors of the national economy at various levels - regional, intra-industry, inter-product;
2) make an objective and relevant forecast of the pace and nature of development of the national economy;
3) determine the characteristics of the main macroeconomic indicators at which the state of equilibrium of the national economy will occur. As a result of the impact on them, they will approach an equilibrium state;
5) determine the resource intensity of the entire national economy and its individual sectors;
6) determine directions for increasing efficiency and rationalizing the international and regional division of labor.
The grounds for assigning units of the national economy to a certain industry may be different - the similarity of the technological and production process, the homogeneity of the necessary raw materials, the nature of the products produced.
Ownership structure in the national economy
The ownership structure is of great importance for the national economy, as it determines the nature and essence of the processes occurring in it - production, consumption, distribution.
The following property contents are distinguished:
1) the economic essence of property is built on the relationship between the subject - the owner and the object - property. As a rule, property is property on which the production process depends - economic resources, factors of production;
2) the legal essence of property presupposes generally accepted rules for regulating property at the legislative level.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property entities (owners):
1) state and municipal government bodies.
2) legal entity;
3) citizen – an individual.
The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property objects (property):
1) intellectual property;
2) movable property;
3) real estate.
The structure of ownership in the national economy reflects the nature of the existing relationships between objects and subjects of ownership. It is specific to each specific country and is formed under the influence of a combination of historical, cultural, and psychological factors.
The modern property structure of Russia is characterized by:
1) the predominance of shadow property relations. The state seeks to regulate at the legislative level relations of ownership, disposal and use of property. In the case of the shadow economy, these relations are not regulated by the state, but occur outside the legal framework (this is a set of economic relations that are not regulated and not taken into account at the legislative level);
2) the process of denationalization, i.e. privatization of property. The experience of developed countries shows that active economic growth can only be realized in a situation where economic entities have a direct interest in the results of their work. In order to increase the economic interest of business entities, the process of privatization was launched - the transfer to individuals and legal entities of property rights that previously belonged to the state. This process was chaotic in Russia and contributed little to economic growth;
3) underdevelopment of small business. In developed countries, the basis of the economy is small enterprises with private ownership of the means of production. In Russia, due to the lack of necessary conditions for this, it practically does not develop.
Aggregate economic potential: concept and types
The total economic potential of the national economy is the total ability of sectors of the national economy to produce certain goods, differing in qualitative and quantitative characteristics, over a specific time period.
The main components of the total economic potential are:
1) human resources, namely their quantity and quality;
2) the volume and structure of industrial production potential;
3) volume and structure of agricultural potential;
4) the extent, quality and structure of the country’s transport system;
5) scientific and technical potential of the country;
6) the degree of development of the non-productive sector of the economy;
7) quantity, quality and degree of rationality of use of minerals.
The total economic potential directly depends on the total productive forces and the volume of wealth of the national economy. It directly reflects the position of the national economy in the world economic system.
Economic potential depends on the total production capabilities of all sectors of the national economy. The degree of completeness of its use is distinguished by the degree of development of the national economy, since the determination of the total economic potential is made by correlating the volumes and structure of the actual production of goods and the degree of use of production capacities - production potential.
The volume of economic potential indicates the level of economic independence of the national economy, its position in the world economy and the quality of life of the population. The main component of the total economic potential is human resources, namely their professional and qualification structure. For the most part, the level of industrial development is of decisive importance for it. The total economic potential should be analyzed from the following two perspectives:
1) from the position of resources available in the national economy that can be used;
2) from the position of the ability, with the help of resources available in the national economy, to carry out specific economic activities for the production of goods.
Economic resources cannot be equated with economic potential, since for the purposes of economic growth it is necessary to combine economic resources and their effective use. This is due to the fact that the real volume of production of goods directly depends on the use of a set of resources - natural, investment, scientific, technical and human.
The total economic potential is the basis of the national economy, on which its normal functioning, as well as the rate and scale of economic growth, directly depend. According to its characteristics, it is heterogeneous and exists in several main types.
The main types of total economic potential of the national economy are the following. 1. Natural resource potential is the totality of natural resources that are currently used or can be attracted for economic activity.
According to one of the classifications, traditional resources (mineral, water, biological) and non-traditional (wind, sun) are distinguished. They are also divided into renewable (biological resources, water power and solar energy) and non-renewable (mineral resources, soil, water). Such resources as territory, place of residence of the population and location of production facilities are also of great importance.
Natural resource potential consists of such types of economic resources as:
1) agricultural;
2) non-productive;
3) industrial.
They include targeted and non-targeted resources. Single-purpose resources are resources that can be used exclusively for economic activities. These include, for example, mineral resources. Their distinctive feature is their exclusive affiliation with economic activity. Non-targeted resources are resources that can be used both for economic activity and for the benefit of the population - ensuring normal living conditions. These include, for example, water and forest resources, which can be used both for economic activities and for recreation of the population.
2. Human potential is one of the main types of total economic potential and is distinguished by specific and qualitative characteristics. The required population size is distinguished by certain qualitative indicators (qualification and professional structure) and is a necessary resource, without which not only the development of the national economy, but also its normal functioning is impossible. Accordingly, the greater the degree of provision with human potential, the greater the potential ability of the national economy to grow.
3. Production potential is the real ability of economic entities to produce public goods at an increasingly higher quantitative and qualitative level.
The crisis state of the national economy has affected a sharp decline in production potential. At the same time, it is influenced by the same factors that are characteristic of the production potential of the world economy, namely scientific and technological progress. There is a high rate of automation and mechanization of the production process, which significantly changes the structure of production potential. Its distinctive feature is the creation of fundamentally new sectors of the economy as a result of innovative scientific and technological developments.
Economic resources: their types and properties
Of great importance in the national economy are factors that determine the nature of its functioning, the pace, structure and scale of development. They represent the basis for economic growth. Essentially, this is a type of good that can be used to produce other goods. Economic resources are the type of resources necessary for the production of goods - goods and services. There are the following types of economic resources:
1) entrepreneurial potential. This is the population’s ability to organize the production of goods in various forms;
2) knowledge. These are specific scientific and technical developments that make it possible to organize the production and consumption of goods at a higher level than the previous one;
3) natural resources. These are specific minerals, for example, land, subsoil, as well as the climatic and geographical location of the country;
4) human resources. This is a specific number of the country’s population, distinguished by certain qualitative indicators - education, culture, professionalism. Taken together, human resources are the most important economic resource, since without it it is impossible to imagine the normal functioning of the national economy;
5) financial resources. This is capital represented by specific funds available in the national economy.
Natural resources are quite diverse in composition and include land, energy, water, biological, forest, mineral, recreational, and climatic resources. Their use is interconnected (for example, to use land resources you need equipment, and for its operation you need mineral resources - fuel). Natural resources are divided into:
1) explored. Their extraction is already underway;
2) reliable. Their existence is reliably known, but for various reasons their production is not carried out;
3) forecast. These are minerals that hypothetically should exist, but this is not known for certain.
According to experts, at the current rate of mining, their reserves will be exhausted in about 500 years. At the same time, the economy’s need for them is constantly increasing by an average of 10% annually. To increase the efficiency of using this resource, resource-saving technologies are constantly being developed and introduced.
Human resources in our country are limited. Despite the high level of unemployment, there is a shortage of human resources that differ in certain qualitative characteristics - professional and qualification level. There is an acute shortage of employees with certain qualifications and professions, which significantly impedes the development of the national economy.
The main property of economic resources is their limitation while the need for them is unlimited for the production of goods - goods and services. From this property follows the natural need for the effective use of economic resources to satisfy the needs of the population as fully as possible. In this case, it is necessary to constantly make decisions about the appropriate allocation of resources, that is, about their use in such a way as to get the maximum result from it.
Another property of economic resources is their complementarity. For example, to rationalize the use of natural resources, knowledge is used - an economic resource that, based on scientific and technological developments, makes it possible to make complementarity more effective and optimal. In turn, knowledge forms the basis of human resources and consists of specific knowledge, skills, and professional skills of employees.
The mobility of economic resources lies in their ability to move between industries, regions, and countries. For each economic resource, the degree of mobility will be different and will depend on many both objective and subjective factors. For example, the economic resource – land – will have minimal mobility, since it is impossible to change its geographical location. Human resources that are able to move between national economies are characterized by the greatest mobility. An important property of economic resources is their interchangeability, which consists in the ability to replace one economic resource with another.
For example, in order to increase production efficiency, you can use both entrepreneurial potential - change production technology, and knowledge - train employees so that they perform their job duties more effectively. The ability to replace economic resources is limited and cannot be produced completely and totally. For example, capital cannot completely replace human resources. The initial replacement of resources may bring a positive result, but in the future, economic activity becomes significantly more complicated and its efficiency may be reduced.
The main task of an economic entity is to constantly increase the degree of efficiency and rationality of the use of economic resources, for which their properties are used - interchangeability, complementarity, mobility.
Within the national economy, the circulation of economic resources occurs in their respective markets (for example, the capital market, labor market). Within these markets there is also a certain segmentation (for example, the labor market consists of a segment of managers, economists, and engineers).
National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy
The main component of the total economic potential of the national economy is national wealth. Its volume largely determines the scale and pace of economic growth, which makes its assessment relevant as one of the indicators of the functioning of the national economy.
National wealth is the total volume of economic resources and material values necessary for the normal production of goods - goods and services.
National wealth consists of the following main elements:
1) non-reproductive element. This is a set of resources that cannot be reproduced and are exhaustible, for example minerals, cultural and artistic monuments;
2) reproductive element. This is a set of resources, the volume of which can be increased in the process of economic activity, for example, non-productive and productive assets;
3) an intangible element. These are resources that do not have material manifestations, for example, the intellectual potential of the country, the quality of life of the population, scientific and technical potential;
4) the volume of property obligations to other countries.
The volume of national wealth allows:
1) determine the volume of benefits - goods and services located in the national economy over a certain time period;
2) determine the total value of natural resource potential, since the rate of economic growth directly depends on it;
3) carry out a comprehensive accounting of intangible resources of the national economy.
When assessing the real volume of national wealth, only those of its components are taken into account, the value of which can be determined reliably - based on specific economic practices. Therefore, a total assessment of the real volume of national wealth is not common in the economic practice of countries around the world, since this is associated with significant costs.
In the domestic practice of economic analysis, national wealth has not been assessed at the state level. Related data is presented only in terms of estimates of non-financial and productive assets and household property. Due to the lack of a generally accepted methodology for assessing national wealth, the elements of Russia's national wealth were not calculated by the State Statistics Committee.
In practice, elements of the System of National Accounts (SNA) are used to calculate national wealth. This allows you to determine its approximate volume, but does not require serious material and financial costs. For this purpose, such a component of the SNA is used as a set of institutional units by sector.
Types and essence of economic systems
An economic system is a set of economic processes occurring in it, the dominant forms of ownership and methods of its organization. The economic system has a direct impact on the characteristics of the economic activities of economic entities.
The economic system of the national economy consists of the following main elements:
1) socio-economic, determining the specifics of relations between economic entities regarding property, the order of ownership and distribution of basic economic resources and the results of economic activities of economic entities;
2) forms of organizing the activities of economic entities;
3) forms and methodology of state regulation;
4) economic relations between economic entities.
In the world economy, there are various economic systems of national economies. Their formation and functioning are determined by the specific historical, cultural, climatic and natural conditions of the countries.
The main models of economic systems of the national economy are:
1) American, based on the encouragement and development of entrepreneurial activity. In its structure, there is a clear disproportion between the richest and poorest parts of the population. Equalizing the level of income is not the main goal of the state, but the emphasis is on the personal economic activity of business entities;
2) Japanese, based on the large difference between the growth of labor productivity and the level of wages. This makes it possible to make goods produced in the national economy competitive on the world market due to low prices. It is possible only with the specific cultural, religious and psychological characteristics of the population, which exist, for example, in Japan;
3) Swedish, based on an active social policy pursued by the state, the goal of which is to reduce the difference in the standard of living of the population. To achieve this, a tax system is used to effectively redistribute resources within the economy.
4) German, based on achieving sustainable economic development through the combination of all forms of economic activity. The state pursues an active social policy, and the emphasis is on the development of small businesses.
Russia is in an intermediate state, which does not allow it to be classified as any type of economic system. The simultaneous combination of elements of all types makes its economy transitional, in its infancy.
Source - Koshelev A.N. National economy. Lecture notes, Moscow, Eksmo, 2008
