Introduction
Main part
Chapter 1. General characteristics of the classical direction:
1.1 Definition of classical political economy
1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy
1.3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy
Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy
2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty
2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera
2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene
Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy
3.1. Economic Teaching A. Smith
Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy
4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
4.2. Economic teaching J.B. Say
4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus
Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy
5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
5.2. Economic doctrine K. Marx
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
This work characterizes the classic direction in the history of economic exercises. It addresses the following range of issues: what caused the displacement of the concept of mercantilism and two hundred years of the domination of the classical political economy; As in economic science, the term "classical political economy" is interpreted; What stages covers classical political economy in their development; What are the features of the subject and method of studying the "classical school", as well as the main economic theories at the four stages of the development of the classical school of political economy.
Chapter 1. General characteristics of the classical direction
1.1. Determination of classical political economy
Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.
The specified period marked the beginning of a truly new school of political economy, which is classically called primarily for the scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science.
As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and strengthening the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activity of "pre-industrial conditions" have lost their former significance and "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed. The last one, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of complete Laissez Faire (i.e., the absolute non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. Almost in all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state. "
In fact, the principle of "complete Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives promoted mercantilism and promoted to them the protectionist policies in the economy, having put forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism. At the same time, the classics have enriched economic science with many fundamental provisions, in many respects who did not lose their relevance and at present.
It should be noted that for the first time the term "classical political economy" used one of its trips to Marks in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy". And it consists of specifics, according to Marx, in the fact that from W.Petti to D.Rikardo in England and from P. Baagilbera to S. Sismondi in France the classical political economy "investigated the actual production relations of the bourgeois society."
In modern foreign economic literature, giving tribute to the achievements of classical political economy, they do not idealize them. At the same time, in the system of economic education, most countries of the world, the allocation of the "classical school" as a relevant section of the course of the history of economic exercises is carried out primarily from the point of view of its authors of general characteristic features and features. This position allows us to attribute to the number of representatives of the classical political economy a number of scientists of the XIX century - followers of the famous A. Smita.
For example, one of the leading economists of our time Professor Harvard University J.K.Galbreit in his book "Economic theories and goals of society" believes that "the ideas of A. Smita were subjected to further development of David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus and in particular John Stewart Millem and got a name classic system. In the widespread textbook "Economics" of the American scientist in many countries, one of the first laureates of the Nobel Prize in the economy P. Samuelson is also argued that D. Ricardo and J.S. Mill, being "the main representatives of the classical school ... developed and improved Ideas Smith. "
1.2. Stages of development of classical political economy
According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them is Marxist - indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century, and English scientists A. Smita and D. Ricardo are considered completes of the school. On the other, the most common in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J.S. Mill.
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
First stage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is a stage of a significant expansion of the scope of market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W.Petti and P. Baagilber, regardless of each other, first in the history of economic thought, put forward a labor theory of value, in accordance with which the source and measure of the cost is the amount of labor spent on the production of one or another commercial product or good. Condeming mercantilism and based on the causal dependence of economic phenomena, the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state, they saw not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.
The first stage of the classical political economy has completed the so-called school of physiocrats, which is distributed in France in the middle and early two half of the XVIII century. The leading authors of this school F.Kene and A.Turgo in search of a source of pure product (national income), the land with difficulty gave the land. Criticizing mercantilism, physiocrats were even more delighted in the analysis of the spheres of production and market relations, although mainly in the field of agriculture, illegally moving away from the scope of treatment.
Second phase The development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. And undoubtedly associated with the name and works of A. Smita - the central figure among all its representatives. Its "Economic Man" and the "invisible hand" of Providence convinced not one generation of economists about natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective economic laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. The XX century was considered an irrefutable Regulations on the complete non-interference of government prescriptions in free competition. And this about him, as a rule, they say that "... No Western student, a scientist cannot consider himself an economist without knowing it (A. Smita. - Ya.) Labor."
According to N. Kondratieva, under the influence of the views of A. Smita in the classics, all their teachings are a preaching of the economic system based on the principle of freedom of individual economic activity as an ideal. " The authors of one of the popular books of the beginning of the XX century. "HISTORY OF ECONOMICS" S. L and S. Rist noted that mainly the authority of A. Smita turned the money to the "goods, even less necessary than any other product, the burdensome product, which is necessary to avoid if possible. This tendency to discredit money shown by Smith in the fight against mercantilism, they write, "then his followers will pick up, and exaggerating it, you will miss some of the features of the money circulation" .. Something like says Schumpeter, saying that A. Smitter and His followers "are trying to prove that money is not important, but at the same time they themselves are not able to consistently adhere to this thesis." And only some condescension of this omission of classics (first of all A. Smita and D.Rikardo) makes M. Blaug, believing that "their skepticism in relation to cash panaceans was quite appropriate in the conditions of the economy suffering from lack of capital and chronic Structural unemployment. "
It should be noted that A. Smitt (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory), the laws of division of labor and the growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. Also, modern concepts about the product and its properties, income (wages, profits), capital, productive and non-production work and others are also based on its theoretical surveys.
Third stage The evolution of the classical school of political economy falls on the first half of the XIX century, when an industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, followers and including students of A. Smita (many of them called themselves) were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage should be especially highlighted by the French, the British D.Rikardo, T.Maltus and N. Senior, Americans, and others. Although these authors, following how they claimed, and .Smit, the origin of the value of goods and services was seen either in the amount of labor spent either in production costs (but such a cost approach remained unappreciable), yet each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of market relations a rather noticeable trace.
So, J.B. Say in his dogmatic from the standpoint of the modern economic theory of the "Law of Markets" first introduced into the framework of economic research the problems of equilibrium between supply and proposal, the implementation of the aggregate social product depending on the market conjuncture. The basis of this "law", as obvious, and Zh.B. Say, and other classics contributed the provision that during a flexible wage and mobile prices, the interest rate will balance demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.
D. Ricardo more than other contemporaries pampered with A. Smita. But, dividing the fullest glands of the latter about the income of the "main classes of society", he first revealed a regularity of the trend of the norm of profit to a decrease, developed a complete theory about the forms of land rent. It is also necessary to include one of the best justifications of the pattern of changing the value of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
Fourth stage The development of classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which the above-mentioned J.S. Mille and K. Marks summarized the best achievements of the school, on the other hand, by this time have already gained independent importance to new, more progressive areas of economic thought, Received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century). As for the innovation of the ideas of the Englishman J.S. Millya and K. Marks, who wrote his works in exile from his native Germany, then these authors of the classical school, being strictly committed to the provision on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought All the same sympathized with the working class were addressed to socialism and reforms. K. Marks, in addition, emphasized the increasing operation of labor capital, which, exacerbating the class struggle, should, in his opinion, inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat, "death of the state" and the equilibrium economy of a classless society.
1 .3. Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy
Studying the overall characteristics of the history of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends in the subject and method of study and give them an assessment.
Firstly, PRESENTAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEMS OF PRODUCTION OF PRODUCTION IN OPERATION OF CONDUCTURE, EQUIPMENT AND APPLICATION OF PROGRESSIVE METHODOLOGICAL RECEPTIONS OF RESEARCH, including causal, deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, an approach from class positions on the observed "production laws" and "productive work" was removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the peculiarities of the production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor inherent in the classics, it became the reason for the underestimation of the pattern of economic entities of these areas ("human factor"), reverse influence on the sphere of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Classics in solving practical tasks answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, as N. Kontrayev expressed, "an estimated". This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequence of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.
Secondly, Relying on the causal analysis, the calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, the classics tried to identify the mechanism of origin of the value of goods and fluctuations in the price level in the market not in connection with the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country, but in connection with the costs of production.
However, the costly principle of determining the price level of the classic school was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need of one or another good with the addition of this good one.
Thirdly The category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only source category of economic analysis, from which, as in the scheme of the genealogical tree, they are budding (grow) other derivatives inherently. In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. The search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society is excluding psychological, moral, legal and other social environmental factors.
Fourth , Exploring the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), but they tried to substantiate the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy. However, with it, they were without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems, allowing you to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation.
Fifth, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention of people, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the goods world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics is the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Bagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite effect on the sphere of monetary factors.
Chapter 2. First stage of development of classical political economy
2.1. Economic doctrine W. Petty
William Petty (1623-1687) is the founder of the classical political economy in England, which has stated its economic views in works published in the 60-80s. XVII in ..
In the works of W. Petty, the subject of studying economic science (political economy) is the analysis of the problems of production. This is particularly obvious from the conjunction of this scientist in the fact that the creation and increase in wealth occurs only exclusively in the field of material production, and without any participation in this process of trade and commercial capital.
His views were transitional from mercantilism to classic political economy. He explained such economic phenomena as the price of goods, wages, the price of land and others. Petty delimited the "natural price" of the goods (the cost determined by the work) and the market price. They were first formulated by the root of the theory of labor value. A direct source of value, he considered only one type of labor - mining of gold and silver (i.e. money material).
With the theory of the cost of Petty directly related to its wage and rental doctrine. He reasoned like this: the goods are not working force, but labor, and the salary - the labor price, you only need to determine its value.
The rent, according to Petty, is the cost of a crop (it depends on the quality of the site) excluding production costs, i.e. Created by difficulty excess cost over wages. Petty's profit does not consider separately. Interestingly, the doctrine of Petty about the price of the Earth: the sale of land is the sale of the right to receive rent and must be calculated from the sum of the annual reven (without a loan percent).
2.2. Economic doctrine P. Buagilbera
Pierre Buagilber (1646-1714) - the height of the classical political economy in France. As the founder of a similar school of economic thought in England, W. Petty, he was not a professional scientist - an economist.
P. Buagilber, like W. Petty, opposing the mercantilists his own vision of the essence of wealth, came to the so-called concept of public wealth, the latter, in his opinion, manifest itself not in the physical mass of money, and in all the variety of useful benefits and things.
Thus, according to Buagilbera, not the increase in the money, but, on the contrary, the growth of production "food and clothing" is the main task of economic science. Like W. Petty, the subject of studying the political economy of Buagilber considers the analysis of the problems of the production sphere, recognizing this sphere the most significant and priority in comparison with the sphere of treatment.
2.3. Economic Teaching F. Kene
The formation of the economic thought of France of this period is associated with the ideas of Pierre Buagilbera and Francois Kene (1694-1774).
French Kene in 1758 created his "economic table", which became the basis for physiocrats, which turned to the sphere of production, looking for a source of surplus value. They limited this sphere only by agriculture.
In his famous "economic table", F.Kene performed the first scientific analysis of the circuit of economic life, i.e. Public reproduction process. The ideas of this work indicate the need to comply with and reasonable forecasting certain national economic proportions in the structure of the economy. They identified the relationship, which he characterized like this: "Reproduction is constantly resumed by costs, and the costs are renewed by reproduction"
Next, Kene put forward the concept of "natural order", under which he understood the economy with free competition, a natural game of market prices without state intervention. Kene also argued that when exchanging equal things, wealth is not created and the profit does not arise, so he was looking for a profit outside the sphere of circulation.
Chapter 3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy
3.1. Economic Teaching Adam Smith
In the second half of 18 in England, favorable conditions for the take-off of economic thought were. His higher development, classical political economy reached in the works of British scientists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Like their predecessors, the founders of the classical school considered economic science as the doctrine of wealth and ways to increase it.
The main labor of Adam Smith on political economy is fundamental work - "Study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." Smith's book consists of five parts. In the first, he analyzes the issues of value and income, in the second - nature of capital and its accumulation. In them, he outlined the foundations of his teaching. In other parts, he considers the development of Europe's economy in the era of feudalism and the formation of capitalism, the history of economic thoughts and government finance.
Adam Smith explains that the main theme of his work is economic development: the forces acting temporarily and manage the wealth of peoples.
"Study of the nature and causes of wealth" is the first in economic science of full-fledged work, sets out the general basis of science - the theory of production and distribution. Then an analysis of the action of these abstract principles on historical material and, finally, a number of examples of their application in economic policies. Moreover, all this work will penetrate the high idea of \u200b\u200bthe "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", to which, as he seemed to Adam Smith, the whole world goes. The central motive is the soul of the "wealth of peoples" - this is the action of the "invisible hand"; We get our bread not by the grace of the baker, but from its selfish interest. Smith managed to guess the fruitful idea that under certain social conditions, which we are described by the term "working competition" today, private interests can really be harmoniously combined with the interests of society. A market economy, not managed by collective will, not subordinate to a single plan, nevertheless, follows the strict rules of conduct. The impact on the market situation of the actions of one individual person, one of the set, may be imperceptibly. And in fact, he pays those prices that are requested from it, and can choose the amount of goods at these prices, based on its greatest benefit. But the totality of these individuals establishes prices; Each individual buyer is subject to prices, and the prices themselves are subject to the totality of all individual reactions. Thus, the "invisible hand" of the market provides a result that does not depend on the will and intention of the individual.
Moreover, this market automatism may well in a certain sense to optimize the distribution of resources. Smith removed the burden of evidence and created the postulate: decentralized, and atomistic competition in a certain sense ensures "maximum satisfaction of needs". Undoubtedly, Smith gave a deep meaning of his doctrine "maximum satisfaction of needs". He showed that:
· Free competition to strive to equate prices to production costs, optimizing the distribution of resources within these industries;
· Free competition in the markets of production factors tends to equalize the net advantages of these factors in all sectors and thereby establishes the optimal allocation of resources between the industries.
He did not say that various factors will be in the optimal proportions to be combined in production or that the goods will be optimally distributed among consumers. He did not say that saving from the scale and side effects of production are often interfere with the achievement of a competitive optimum, although the being of this phenomenon is reflected in his arguments about public works. But he really took the first step towards the theory of optimal distribution of these resources in the context of competing.
For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that his own faith in the advantage of the "invisible hand" is less related to considerations about the effectiveness of resource allocation in the static conditions of perfect competition. The decentralized price system, he considered desired because it gives results in dynamics: expands the scale of the market, multiplies the benefits associated with the division of labor - in one word, works like a powerful motor that provides capital accumulation and income growth.
Smith was not satisfied with the declaration that the free market economy provides the best life of life. It pays a lot of attention to the exact definition of the institutional structure, which would guarantee the best work of market forces.
He understands that:
· personal interests may equally impede, and contribute to the growth of the welfare of society;
· the market mechanism will establish harmony only when it is included in the relevant legal and institutional framework.
Chapter 4. Third Stage of Development of Classical Political Economy
4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
The whole economic system of Ricardo arose as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classic school.
The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.
In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.
That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.
The theory of profit Ricardo is inherent in two most important contradictions:
· Contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of the surplus value from the point of view of the law of value;
· The contradiction between the law of value and the average profit law, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and the price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.
The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.
By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.
David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became increasingly socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.
4.2. Economic Teaching Jean Batista Say
Official economic science in France in the first half of the XIX century. Represents School School. School School praised the capitalist entrepreneur, preached harmony of class interests, opposed the work movement.
In 1803, an essay of SEA was called "the treatise of political economy, or a simple statement of the method, which are formed, are distributed and wealth is distributed." This book, which Say subsequently reworked repeatedly and complemented for new editions (with all his life there were only five), and it remained its main work. The laborory of the cost, which, although not quite consistent, followed the Scot, was inferior to the "pluralistic" interpretation, where the cost was addressed to a number of factors: subjective utility of goods, costs of its production, supply and demand. The ideas of Smith on the operation of hired labor with capital (i.e., elements of the theory of surplus value) completely disappeared at SEI, giving way to the theory of production factors. Say followed Smith in its economic liberalism. He demanded a "cheap state" and advocated a minimum of its intervention in the economy. In this regard, he also adjoined the physiocratic tradition. In 1812, Say released the second edition of the "Treatise". In 1828-1930 Say issued a 6-Tomny "full course of practical political economy", in which, however, did not give anything new compared to the "Treatise".
In the first edition of the "TRATICAT", Say wrote four sales pages. On them, in fuzzy form, the idea was presented that the overall overproduction of goods in the farm and economic crises are in principle impossible. Every production itself generates income on which goods relevant value are bought. Cumulative demand in the economy is always equal to the cumulative offer. In his opinion, only partial imbalances may arise: one product is produced too much, too little. But it is straightened without a universal crisis. In 1803, Say formulated the law, according to which the supply of goods always gives rise to appropriate demand. Those. It most excludes the possibility of a universal overproduction crisis, and also believes that free pricing and minimizing state intervention in the market economy will cause automatic regulation of the market.
Production not only increases the supply of goods, but also due to the necessary coating costs of production generates the demand for these goods. "Products are paid for the products" - this is the essence of the law of the markets of SEI.
The demand for the products of any industry should increase in real terms when the offer of all industries is growing, because it is the proposal that creates demand for the products of this industry. SEA's law, he consequently warns us from applying to macroeconomic indicators of judgments derived in microeconomic analysis. Separate goods can be made in excess relative to all other goods, the relative overproduction of at once all goods can not happen.
If it is said about the application of the law of SEI to the real world, it is approved by the unreality of excessive demand for money. "Unreality" in this case can hardly mean the logical inability. It should be understood that the demand for money can not be redundant, because it corresponds to the situation of non-equilibrium.
Using SEA arguments, the bourgeoisie put forward progressive requirements for reducing the bureaucratic state office, freedom of entrepreneurship and trade.
4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus
A bright, peculiar contribution to economic science was made by the representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to- "anti-science nonsense".
T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problems, but, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in population numbers. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.
As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.
From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.
Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only due to extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each of the next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore the overall level of fertility of the entire land fund as a whole tends to reducing . Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.
Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.
Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.
Chapter 5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy
5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
John Stewart Mill is one of the completes of classical political economy and "recognized authority in scientific circles whose research go beyond the technical economy."
The first "experiments" on political economy J.S. Mill published when he was 23 years old, i.e. In 1829, in 1843 his philosophical work "Logic System" appeared, which brought him fame. The main work (in five books, like A. Smita) entitled "The foundations of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" was published in 1848
J.S. Mill adopted a Ricardian view on the subject of political economy, putting forward to the fore "laws of production" and "distribution laws".
To the theory of the value of J.S. Mille considered the concept of "exchange value", "consumer value", "cost" and some others, he draws attention to the fact that the cost (value) cannot increase in all goods at the same time, since the cost represents The concept is relative.
The wealth, according to Mill, consists of goods with exchange costs as a characteristic property. "The thing for which nothing can be obtained instead, no matter how helpful or necessary, it is not wealth ... For example, air, although it is an absolute need for a person, no price has no price on the market, since it can be obtained practically free. " But as soon as the restriction becomes tangible, the thing immediately acquires the change value. The cash expression of the value of the goods is its price.
The cost of money is measured by the number of goods which you can buy them. "For other things being equal, the cost of money changes inversely proportional to the amount of money: any increase in the amount reduces their cost, and any decrease increases it in a completely identical proportion ... This is a specific property of money." We begin to understand the importance of money in the economy only when the monetary mechanism fails.
Directly prices are established by competition, which arises due to the fact that the buyer tries to buy cheaper, and sellers - sell more expensive. With free competition, the market price corresponds to equality of supply and demand. On the contrary, "the monopolist may, at its discretion, appoint any high price, if only she did not exceed the consumer, or does not want to pay; But this can not, only limit the proposal. "
On a long period of time, the price of goods cannot be lower than its production costs, since no one wants to produce himself at a loss. Therefore, the state of sustainable equilibrium between supply and supply "comes only when the items exchange each other commensurate their production costs."
Mill's capital calls the accumulated stock of labor products, resulting from savings and the existing "way of its constant reproduction." The savings themselves are understood as "abstaining from current consumption for the sake of future benefits." Therefore, savings are growing along with the rate of interest.
Production activities are limited by capital size. However, "every increase in capital conducts or can lead to a new increase in production, and without a certain limit ... If there are people and food capable of work for their feed, they can always be used in any production." This is one of the main provisions that distinguish the classical economic science from later.
Mille recognizes, however, that other restrictions are inherent in the development of capital. One of them is a reduction in capital income, which he explains the fall in the limit productivity of capital. Thus, increasing the volume of agricultural products "will never be achieved differently than by increasing labor costs in proportion that increases the volume in which the volume of agricultural products increases."
In general, when presenting a question about Mill's profits, seeks to adhere to Ricardo's views. The emergence of the average rate of profit leads to the fact that the profit becomes proportional to the capital used, and the prices are proportional costs. "That profit can be equal where costs are equal, i.e. Costs of production, things should exchange each other in proportion to the costs of their production: things whose costs of production are the same, must have the same cost, because only in this way the same costs will bring the same income. "
Mill's essence is analyzed, based on a simple quantitative theory of money and the theory of market percentage.
Mill's creativity meant the completion of the formation of classical economic science, the beginning of which was put by Adam Smith.
5.2. Economic doctrine of Karl Marx
One of the fundamental economic exercises of the 19th century is Marxism. The ideas of Marx and Engels were set forth in many works, but the main of them, containing the economic concept of Marxism in the most detailed form, is considered "capital".
The first volume of "capital" Contributes to the definition of the concepts of value, exchange value, forms of value and their development. Study of value forms, starting with simple, ending with money, was essential for the study of the essence and origin of money. An important conclusion of Marx was the provision that in the conditions of the elementary trade production, the economic relations of people are manifested through the relationship of things. This generates commodity fetishism.
Next, Marx analyzes the process of exploitation of the hired labor force, formulates the doctrine of the surplus value, which reveals the essence of labor as a product, the common features with the usual product and the specific features of the product of a special kind. In addition, Marx considers the process of production of surplus value. Of particular importance in the study of the Marks mechanism for the creation of surplus value is the analysis of continuous and variable capital as well as two main ways to increase surplus value: by elongating the working day and by reducing the necessary working time. The main conclusion of the first volume of "Capital" is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe historical trend of the capitalist direction.
In the second volume of "capital" Marx examines the process of circulation of capital. He considers capital metamorphosis and their circulation, capital turnover, reproduction and treatment of all social capital. Essential importance in the development of Marxist doctrine on capital and its structure was the division of capital on the main and revisidant.
The basis for the analysis of the reproduction of all public capital Marx puts its division into two divisions - the production of means of production and production of consumption. Using this separation, Marx designs its simple and expanded reproduction schemes. Based on the analysis of these schemes, the movement of the social product is investigated both within each unit and between them.
Third Tom "Capital" It contains the study of the process of capitalist production, taken as a whole. It discloses the dialectical unity of the process of reproduction and capital circulation, the transformation of the surplus value into profits is discussed, profits - in high profit, and cost - in the price of production. In addition, a loan captal and percentage are investigated. Marx shows that loan capital is the urban part of industrial capital, which, in a loan percentage, the feetchization of production relations reaches its highest level. The study of the transformed forms of surplus value is completed by an analysis of land rent.
In general, the economic theory of Marxism had a great influence on the development of the European, and especially Russian economic science.
Conclusion
The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.
The main ideas of classical political economy are:
Bibliography:
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3. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. M.: "Case LTD", 1994.
4. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. M., 2000.
5. Galbreit J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. M.: Progress, 1979.
6. Flu Sh., Rist S. History of economic exercises. M.: Economy, 1995.
7. Kondratyev N.D. Election op. M.: Economics, 1993.
8. Negoshi T. History of economic theory. - M.: Aspect - Press, 1995.
1. In the classical political economy, the priority method of economic analysis is:
A) empirical method;
B) functional method;
C) the causal method.
2. The study of the study of classical political economy is:
A) the sphere of appeal;
B) production sector;
C) the sphere of appeal and the sphere of production at the same time.
3. According to the classical political savings salary as the income of the worker:
A) to the physiological minimum;
B) to the subsistence minimum;
C) to the maximum possible level.
4. In accordance with the classical political economy, money is:
A) artificial invention of people;
B) the most important factor of economic growth;
C) Technical instrument, a thing that facilitates the exchange.
5rd by a class of the class method of analysis, theories of capital, productive work, reproduction is:
A) F. Kene;
B) A. Smith;
C) K. Marx.
6.What was the basis of the physiocratic system?
A) Primates of agriculture as the basis of society's life;
B) analysis of public reproduction and its categories;
C) Primates of the sphere of circulation.
A) nominal money theory;
B) the metal theory of money;
C) quantitative money theory.
8. In what era did the position of the "invisible hand" occurred?
A) an unregulated market economy;
B) to a market economy;
C) regulated market economy.
A) F.Kene, A.Turgo, A.Smit;
B) A.Serra, U.Stafford;
C) "member, A.Montown;
D) I.pososhkov.
10.U. Petty and P. Buagilber - Rodonarchists of the theory of value, determined by:
A) labor costs (labor theory);
B) manufacturing costs (cost theory);
C) maximum utility.
11. According to F. Kene, the classification of farmers represent:
A) productive class;
B) the class of land owners;
C) Proflity class.
12. According to the teachings of F. Kene about the "clean product" the latter is created:
A) in trade;
B) in agricultural production;
C) in industry.
A) A.Turgo;
B) A.Smit;
C) F.Kene.
14. How was the originally called (at the beginning of the 17th century) economic theory?
A) economics;
B) science of wealth;
C) political economy;
D) the history of economic exercises.
A) A. Smith; a) "Book about poverty and wealth"
B) U. Petty; b) "Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples"
C) I. Posochkov; c) "Labor is a father of wealth, the Earth is his mother."
16. The only source of all wealth considers the work:
A) merchant;
B) agriculture (farmer);
C) artisan;
D) a usurist;
E) the peasant community.
17. According to A. Smith's thought, much greater value for real wealth and income, adds capital investing:
A) in trade;
B) in agriculture;
C) to industry.
18. According to A. Smith's methodological position, private interest:
A) not separated from the general interest;
B) stands above public;
C) secondary to public.
19.A. Smith showed that the main incentive of human economic activity is:
A) high pace of development;
B) private interest;
C) Advanced technical equipment of production.
20.A. Smith emphasized that the natural price is equalized by the market due to
A) consumer value and full utility;
B) exchange cost;
C) oscillations of supply and demand;
D) constancy of the cost of labor, constant costs;
E) the fact that labor is value;
E) three-factor composition;
G) the ratio between the amounts of labor in production.
21. All people employed in agricultural production, F. Kene attributed to the class:
A) owners;
B) hired workers;
C) fruitless;
D) productive.
As the foundation of market economic relations in developed countries continued in the developed countries, the fact that state intervention in economic activity is not a panacea in overcoming barriers to the increase in national wealth and achieving coherence in the relationships of economic entities both in the internal and on foreign markets. Therefore, as P. Samuelson noted, the displacement of "pre-industrial conditions" by the system of "free private entrepreneurship", contributing to the decomposition of mercantilism, has become simultaneously the initial point of the onset of conditions "Full Laissez Faire".
The last phrase means the requirement of full non-interference of the state in the economy, a business life or, speaking differently - Economic liberalism. And from the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. This idea has become a kind of motto of market liberal economic policies. And since that time, a new theoretical school of economic thought is born, which will later be called classical political economy.
The "Classical School" led a decisive struggle against the protectionist ideology of mercantilists, contacting the most new methodological achievements of the science of that era and expanding truly fundamental theoretical studies. Her representatives opposed empirism of the Mercantilistic system of professionalism, which, according to the same P. Samuelo, did not allow the "advisers at the king" to convince its monarchs in the fact that the increase in the country's wealth is associated with the establishment of state control over the economy, including Consider import and promotion of exports and thousands of other "detailed orders".
"Classics", in contrast to mercantlers, substantially formulated both the subject and the method of studying economic theory. Thus, the increased degree of manufacturing of the economy (then its industrialization) led to the first plan of entrepreneurs employed in industrial production, pushing capital to the second plan engaged in trade, monetary circulation and loan operations. For this reason As a subject of studying "Classics" Preferred mainly the sphere of production.
What concerns method of study and economic analysis, then his novelty in the "Classical School" is connected, as already mentioned, with introducing the latest methodological techniques, which provided sufficiently deep analytical results, a smaller degree of empirity and descriptive, i.e. Surface, understanding of economic (business) life. This is also evidenced by the statements of L. Mises and M. Blag - the largest authorities of modernity in the field of economic science methodology.
The first of them, in particular, believes that "many epigions of economists-classics have seen the task of economic science in the study of the events that are not really happening, but only those forces that some not quite understandably predetermined the occurrence of real phenomena." According to the urgency, "economists-classics stressed that the conclusions of economic science ultimately are based on postulates, equally handicrafts from the observed" laws of production "and subjective introspection (self-surveillance. - Ya.y.)."
Thus, it can be argued that the change of mercantilism of the classical political economy was the accomplishment of another historical metamorphosis in relation to the name and appointment of economic science. As you know, the term of the ancient Greek philosophers "saving" or "economy" Perceived almost in the literal translation of the words "Okos" (household) and "NOMOS" (rule, law) and had a semantic load Processes of housekeeping, family management or personal economy. In the period of the mercantilistic system, the economic science, which received the name "Political Savings", thanks to D. Monkeyena, was perceived as Science of state economy or economics of national states managed by monarchs.Finally, in the period of the "classic school", political economy found the features of a truly scientific discipline studying the problem of the economy of free competition.
By the way, K. Marx, with whose name, the introduction of the term "classical political economy" is connected to the scientific circulation, first of all, from the fact that "classics" in the works of their best, as he believed, the authors of A. Smith and D. Ricardo is absolutely not Neither apologetics, nor sliding on the surface of economic phenomena. But, according to his thoughts, the "classic school" with his characteristic class orientation "investigated the production relations of the bourgeois society." This position, it seems, did not dispute and N. Kondratyev, who believed that in the teachings of "classics" it was about the analysis of the conditions for the free economic activity of "only capitalist system".
General signs of classical political economy
Continuing the overall characteristics of almost two hundred years of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.
First, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the preemptive analysis of the problems of the production sphere in the separation from the sphere of treatment, the development and use of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. In particular, the reference to the observed "laws of production" removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the anti-classic oppression of the spheres of production and appeal was the reason for the underestimation of the natural relationship of economic entities of these areas, inverse influence on the scope of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Moreover, classics in solving practical tasks The answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, As N. Kondratyev expressed "Estimated". For this reason, he believes "the answers that have the nature of the estimated Maxim or Rules, namely: the system based on freedom of economic activity is the most perfect, freedom of trade is most favorable to the prosperity of the nation, etc.". This circumstance is also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequences of economic analysis and theoretical generalization"Classical School" of political economy.
Secondly, relying on the causal analysis, calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, classics (unlike mercantlers) tried to identify the mechanism for the formation of goods and fluctuations in the price level on the market not due to the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country , and in connection with the costs of production or, on a different interpretation, the number of labor spent. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there was no other economic problem in the past, and N. Kondratyev also pointed out for this, which would attract "such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so many mental stress, logical tricks and polemical passions as a value problem . And at the same time, it seems it is difficult to specify another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of a value problem "5.
but The cost principle for determining prices The "classic school" was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need in one way or another good with the addition of this good one. Therefore, the opinion of N. Kondratieva, who wrote: "The previous excursion convinces us in the fact that until the second half of the XIX century there is no conscious and distinct separation and distinguishing theoretical judgments or practical. As a rule, the authors are convinced that those judgments that are actually judgments are equally scientific and reasonable, as well as those that are judgments theoretical "6. Several decades later (1962), Lyudwig von Mises expressed manyly a similar judgment. "Public opinion," he writes, "still impressed by a scientific attempt by representatives of the classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to resolve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the end user, but were forced to begin their constructions with a businessman's actions, for which consumer utility assessments are specified "(allocated by me. - Ya.Ya.).
Thirdly, the category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only initial category of economic analysis, from which other derivatives of the category are oppressed in the scheme of the genealogical tree (grow). Analyzing the problem of value, classics, according to N. Kondratyev, showed that this problem includes a number of although related, but deeply different issues. The main ones are the following: 1. What is the value as a phenomenon and what is its types (qualitative problem)? 2. What are the foundations, sources or reasons for the existence of value? 3. Is the value of magnitude and if so, what exactly, and than Is it determined (quantitative problem)? 4. What is the value of value measuring? 5. What function does the value category in the system of theoretical economy perform? ". In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. Search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society without taking into account the psychological, moral, legal and other factors of the social environment.
The specified disadvantages, referring to M. Blug, are partly due to the impossibility of conducting a fully controlled experiment in the social sciences, as a result of which "economists in order to discard any theory, you need much more facts than, say, physicists" 9. M. Blag himself, however, clarifies: "If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory were amenable to unambiguous test, no one would have heard the unrealistic prerequisites. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified because all predictions have probabilistic character here. "
Fourth, examining the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, in contrast to mercantilists) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), and They tried to substantitize the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy.However, as you know, they "Whether" Without a serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems that make it possible to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classic school. Achieving equilibrium in the economy considered automatically possible, sharing the "law of markets" Z.B. SEA.
Finally, fifthly, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the commodity world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics, the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Buagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite influence on the sphere of the production of monetary factors.
The main stages of the development of classical school
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
First stage. Its initial stage falls at the end of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century, when in England, thanks to the work of W. Peggy and in France, with the advent of the works of P. Buagilbera, the signs of the emerging alternative mercantilism of the new teaching were formed, which will subsequently name the classical political economy. These authors sharply condemned the restructuring freedom of entrepreneurship the protectionist system. The first attempts of costly interpretations of goods and services were made in their works (by taking into account the number of working time and labor spent during the production process). They emphasized the priority importance of the liberal principles of management in the creation of national (non-monetary) wealth in the field of material production.
The next stage of this stage is connected with the period of the middle and the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century, when with the advent of the so-called physiocration - a specific course within the classical school - the mercantilistic system has undergone a deeper and reasoned criticism. Physocirates (especially F. Kene and A. Turgo) significantly advanced economic science, denoting a new interpretation of a number of micro and macroeconomic categories, although their attention was focused on the problems of agricultural production to the detriment of other sectors of the economy and especially the sphere of circulation.
So, at the first stage, no representative of the classical political economy, without being a professional economist, could not achieve an in-depth study of theoretical problems of effective development of both industrial production and farming.
Second phase. The time segment of this period of development of the "classical school" is entirely connected with the name and creativity of the great scientist-economist Adam Smith, whose ingenious creation "The wealth of peoples" (1776) was the special and most significant achievement of economic science of the entire last third of the XVIII century.
His "Economic Man" and the "Invisible Hand" of Providence were able to convince not one generation of economists in natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. XX century As "classics", so then "neoclassics" believed in an irrefutable position about "laissezfaire.» - Complete non-interference government prescriptions in free competition.
Open A. Smith (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory) laws of division and growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. On its theoretical surveys, modern concepts about the product and its properties, money, wages, profits, capital, productive work, etc. are also based.
Third stage. The chronological framework of this stage covers almost the entire first half of the XIX century, during which in developed countries of the world (primarily in England and France) a transition from manufactory to plants and factories, i.e. To machine, or, as they say to industrial, production, which marks the accomplishment of industrial coup. During this period, the greatest contribution to the treasury of the "classic school" was introduced by the students of the Anglica D. Ricardo, T. Malthans and N. Senior, the French, the French Say, F. Bastia et al. And although all these authors, following their idol, the main in economic science was considered the theory of value and just as he adhered to the cost concept (in accordance with which the origin of the cost of goods and services was seen either in the amount of spent Labor or in production costs), nevertheless, each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of liberal market relations a rather notable mark.
For example, was the author of one of the most common in the "classic school" of concepts, called the "Law of Markets" or simply the "law of SEI". For more than 100 years, this "law" was divided into "classics" at first, and then "neoclassics" because the basis of the equilibrium problem in question between the total demand and the cumulative proposal, providing in the conditions of oscillations of the market conditions, one or another level of social product implementation , and zh.b. Say, and his like-minded people were invested, in fact, the next Smith position: with a flexible wage and mobile prices, the interest rate will balance the demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.
Another researcher, D. Ricardo, more of its own contemporaries half aiming with L. Smith and at the same time, fully separated the views of the latter in the nature of the origin of the income "of the main classes of society", first revealed a natural In the conditions of free competition, the trend of the norm profit to a decreasedeveloped finished Theory on the forms of land rent.It also owns the merit of one of the best for that time justification patterns of changes in the cost of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
In the works of T. Malthus, in the development of the imperfect concept of A. Smith on the mechanism of public reproduction (according to Marx, "Dogma Smith") nominated (contrary to the point of view of the participation of the "classes" in economic life dominated then) "Third parties", In accordance with which the obligatory participation in the creation and distribution of the cumulative social product is not only "productive", but also the "unproductive" layers of society. In addition, this scientist belongs to the idea of \u200b\u200binfluencing the welfare of the society and the rate of population growth in our time and in our time - the very idea that was based on them The first in the history of economic thoughts of the theory of population.
Fourth stage. At this final stage in the second half of the XIX century. Denidated works by J.S. Mill and K. Marx, comprehensively summarizing the best achievements of the "classic school". As you know, in this period, the formation of a new, more progressive direction of economic thought, which later received the name of the "neoclassical economic theory" was subsequently. However, the popularity of the theoretical views of the "classics" remained very impressive. The reason for this was largely the fact that the last leaders of the classical political economy, being strictly committed to the Regulations on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and, condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought, nevertheless, in the words of P. Samuelson, they sympathized with the working class and were addressed "To socialism and reforms."
In conclusion, it should be noted that in Russia, despite the movements defined in recent years, in terms of eliminating the "literary hunger" by eating the Economy Economy-Classic, the results achieved, alas do not cause optimism. The fact is that published in 1991 and 1993. Edition of 10 thousand copies The two-volume "Anthology of economic classics" is essentially the only "Classical Political Saving" section of the help for Russian economists at the present time. In the "Lithology" in full, only one work of classics is included - the book "Treatise on taxes and fees" (the last edition was in 1940. Edition of 10 thousand copies.). And the famous "wealth of peoples" Adam Smith is represented only in the first two books from the Great Scientist's Pentateuch (the last edition was carried out in 1962 by a circulation of 3 thousand ex.). With significant abbreviations (only six chapters) in the twotoman included the main work D. Ricardo (the last edition was in 1955). Each is one bibliographic rarity - "experience about the law of population" T. Malthus (last published in Russia in 1868) - although it is included in the "anthology", but, as is known, this is the first and not the main development of this scientist. At the same time, the logs of such authors of the classical political economy remain published for the last time with the letter "Yet", like J.B. Say (M., 1896), F. Bastia (M. 1896) and Carey (St. Petersburg, 1869).
Introduction
Classical political economy - the economic flow of the late XVIII - early XIX century, designed to solve the problems of free private entrepreneurship.
Classical political economy gave economic theory is truly scientific. First, she opened the real source of richness of society - the production process. Secondly, political economy began to explore economic activities as a system covering the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of services and goods. Thirdly, this science was not limited to a description of the phenomena (for example, the exchange of goods for money) and transferred to identifying their essence and laws of development.
Classical political economy replaced the era of mercantilism. The characteristic features of the classical political economy are the following:
Classical political economy is based on the teaching on the labor theory of value.
The main principle is "Laissez Faire" ("Provide cases of going to your course"), that is, the complete non-interference of the state into the economy. In this case, the "invisible hand" of the market will provide the optimal distribution of resources.
The subject of study is mainly the disposal of production.
The value of the goods is determined by the costs spent on its production.
A person is considered only as an "economic person", which seeks his own benefit, to improving its position. Morality, cultural values \u200b\u200bare not taken into account.
Elasticity of wage workers are above one. This means that any increase in wages leads to an increase in the efficiency of labor, and any decrease in wages to reduce the number of labor,
The purpose of the entrepreneurial activity of capitalist is to obtain a maximum profit.
The main factor in the increase in wealth is the accumulation of capital.
Economic growth is achieved through productive labor in the field of material production.
Money is an instrument facilitating the process of sharing goods.
This course will consider the following range of issues:
historical conditions for occurrence;
general characteristics of classical political economy;
causes of the emergence of classical political economy;
what stages covers classical political economy;
characteristics of the stages of classical political economy;
genericians and representatives of the classical political economy and their economic views and teachings.
1. General characteristics of the classical direction
1.1. Historical conditions for the emergence of classical political economy
Economic science has a long and rich history. People have always been not indifferent to the processes, directly or indirectly affect the level of their well-being. Therefore, reflections on economic life accompanied them from the moment of its origin 1.
The historical conditions that prepared the emergence of classical political economy (classical school) were primarily in England 2. Here faster than in other European countries, the process of initial capital accumulation has ended. The foundations of manufacturing production were laid, which received great development in the XVII century.
As a result of the exacerbation of social contradictions in 1640, a bourgeois revolution has begun in England, who has committed to the feudal-absolutist system and accelerating the development of capitalist relations. As a result, together with the growth of manufactory production, the deployment of foreign trade expansion, England in capitalist development significantly overturned other countries in Europe.
In France, where the feudal system was preserved until the last third of the XVIII century, the capitalism with great difficulty pierced his way 3.
At the sources of classical political economy are William Petty (England) and Pierre Buagilber (France).
Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Robert Maltus (England), Jean Batiste, Francois Kene, Anne Robert Jacques Turgo (France), made a great contribution to the development of the classic school.
The process of developing the classic school works by John Stewart Mill and Karl Marx is completed.
1.2. Causes of the emergence of classical political economy
In the course of the formation of the basics of market economic relations in Western Europe and America, it was becoming increasingly obvious that state intervention in the economy is not the only means in the formation of the wealth of the state and achieving coherence in the relationship of economic entities in the domestic and foreign markets.
P. Samuelson 4 notes that the displacement of "pre-industrial conditions" by the system of "free private entrepreneurship", contributing to the decomposition of mercantilism, has become simultaneously the initial point of the onset of the "full Laissez Faire" conditions. This means the requirement of a complete non-interference of the state in the economy, in business life - economic liberalism.
From the end of the XVII - early XVIII century, this idea has become the motto of market liberal-economic policy. Since that time, a new theoretical school of economic thought is born. Later it will be called classical political economy. "Classical School" led a decisive struggle against the protectionist policies of mercantlers. They opposed empirism of mercantilists - professionalism, achieving the science of that time, launched fundamental theoretical studies.
Essentially, the "classics" re-formulated the subject and method of studying economic theory. The growth of manufactory (and then industrialization) put forward industrial production to the forefront, which moved away trade and loan capital. From here, the production area was summed up as a subject of study.
As a method of study and economic analysis, the latest methodological techniques were introduced, which provided sufficiently deep analytical results, a smaller degree of empirity, descriptions, superficiality in comprehending the economic life.
In the days of the ancient Greek philosophers, the term "economy" was translated as "household" - in the sense of the process of housekeeping, family management, personal economy. In the period of mercantlers, the economy, which received the name "Political Savings" (1615) 6, was the science of state farm, managed by the monarch. During the classic school, the economy acquired the features of the scientific discipline that studies the problem of the economy of free competition. The term "classical political economy" was introduced by K. Marx, based on the fact that the "classical school" with its characteristic class orientation "investigated the production relations of the bourgeois society."
1.3.Stages of development of classical political economy
General features and features of the evolution of classical political economy are characterized by the stages of its development. Conditionally allocate four stages.
First stage: Mid 17 - the beginning of the 18th century - the appearance of works by U. Petty in England and P. Buagilbera in France, in which signs of a new teaching are formed, subsequently called classical political economy.
In the first half of the first stage, the authors: sharply condemn the protectionist system, restricting the freedom of entrepreneurship; Make the first attempts of costly interpretations of the value of goods and services by taking into account the amount of working time and labor spent during the production process; emphasize the priority importance of the liberal principles of management in the creation of national (non-monetary) wealth in the field of material production.
The second half of the first stage falls on the middle - the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century, and is characterized by the emergence of a specific course of the "classical school" - physiocration.
PhysiCrats (F.Ken, A Türgo, etc.) significantly advanced economic science, identified a new interpretation of a number of micro and macroeconomic categories. But their attention was riveted to the problems of agricultural production to the detriment of other sectors of the economy and especially the sphere of circulation.
At the first stage, no representative of the classical political economy, without being a professional economist, could not create a holistic theory of production - industrial and agricultural.
The second stage is fully connected with the name of the great scientist-economist Adam Smith. The most significant achievement of economic science of the last third of the 18th century is his ingenious creation of the "wealth of peoples" (1776). His "economic person", "invisible hand" for centuries convinced in the natural order and objectivity of existing economic laws, regardless of the will and consciousness of people.
Laws opened by Smith - the division of labor and productivity growth - classic. His interpretations of goods and its properties, money, wages, profits, capital, productive work and others underlie the modern economic concepts.
The third stage is the whole first half of the XIX century. It is associated with an industrial coup - the transition from manufactory production to machine, to plants and factories, to industrial production, primarily in England and in France. Pupils and followers A. Smith - D. Ricardo, T. Malthus, J.B. This, and others made a huge contribution to the treasury of the "Classical School". Each of them left a noticeable mark in the history of economic thought.
The fourth stage is the final stage in the second half of the 19th century, on which the works of J.S. Mill and K. Marx dominated. They summarized the best achievements of the "classic school". During this period, the formation of the "neoclassical economic theory" began, but the latest leaders of the classical school, being strictly committed to the Regulations on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendency and vulgar apologetics in economic thought, the words of P. Samuelson "sympathized with the work class and were facing" to socialism and reforms. "
2. The first stage of the development of classical political economy
2.1. William Petti - a height of classical political economy in England
William Petty 7 (1623-1687) - the founder of the classical political economy in England, published his works in the 160-80s of the XVII century. K. Marx wrote that U. Petty is "Father of political economy ... the genius and the most original researcher-economist." eight
Main works: "Treatise on taxes and fees" (1662), "Word of Wise" (1664), "Political Anatomy of Ireland" (1672), "Political Arithmetic" (1676) "Something about money" (1682) and others . nine
In all works, the red thread traced a rejection of the protectionist ideas of mercantilists: wealth, in his opinion, form not only precious metals and stones, including money, but also the land of the country, houses, ships, goods and even home furnishings; Wealth is created primarily by the work and its results: "The work is a father and the active principle of wealth, and the earth is his mother" 10. Drew a "special" role of money in economic life and clarified that if any state resorts to the damage of coins, it characterizes its decline, the dishonest state of the sovereign, the loss of public confidence in the money; The prohibition of the export of money abroad is meaningless and impossible, this act of state is equivalent to a ban on imports into the country of imported goods.
Among the many progressive ideas, W. Petti allocate the following:
1) The first author of the labor theory of the cost, which became one of the main signs of the classical political economy in general, in which he tried to identify the nature of the origin of the value of goods, as well as the reasons affecting their level of value on the market. "The cost of goods is created by the work of silver extraction and is its" natural price "11, and the cost of goods, clarified by equating to the cost of silver, is their" true market price ". Or: the cost of goods is due to participation in its creation and land, i.e. The price of the goods is based on the cost approach.
2) Author of a number of provisions on the income of workers, cash capital owners and landowners, which became the basis for further research D. Ricardo and T. Malthus, following W. Petty, characterized wages as the wage of the worker, representing the minimum of funds for its existence and his family . Incomes of entrepreneurs and landowners, he described the universal concept of "rent", understanding the difference between the cost of bread and expenses for its production, i.e. Replacing the concept of manufacturer's profit.
3) examined the problem of determining the price of the Earth, which is due to the location of the Earth and the market - "nearby settlements, to feed the population of which are needed large areas, the lands not only bring a higher rente, but also cost more than a year old But are in more distant areas. " The author of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe relationship of the loan percentage and annual land rent.
4) A supporter of the quantitative theory of money, demonstrated an understanding of the laws about the number of money necessary to appeal - "... The money themselves does not constitute the riches."
Given the state of society and the science of that time, naturally, U. Petty did not avoid fundamental mistakes in his works: the criticism of mercantilism is accompanied with tendency considerations - he completely biases the participation of trade and commercial capital in creating national wealth (the opposite extreme), insists on reducing considerable part merchants who compare with "players engaged in the distribution of blood and nutritional juices" (agricultural products); The price of goods in each of the interpretations of its essence is only a cost approach, i.e. deadlock; A number of concepts proposed by them are unreasonably simplified and distorted their essence. So, the concept of "rent" is simplified to the limit. This is a replacement of profit rent, loan interest. Considering the essence of the origin of the loan percentage, he declares that this figure should be equal to the "rent from such a number of land that can be bought for the same data in the loan of money under the condition of full public security."
Thus, William Petty made a big step forward in the development of economic theory.
2.2. The emergence of a classic school in France. P. Buagilber and his "accusation of France." Economic Teaching F. Kene
The ancestor of the classic school in France is Pierre Buagilber 12 (1646-1714.)
The first reformists (antimoncantalist) judgments published anonymously in 1695-1696 in the book "Detailed description of the position of France, the reasons for the fall in its welfare and simple ways to restore, or in one month to deliver the king all the money in which he needs, and enrich the entire population." It is based on the criticism of the economic policy of mercantilism of Jean Batista Kolbera, the Minister of Finance during Louis XIV.
In 1707 Missed the two-volume essay of the "accusation of France", which for sharp criticism to the government was prohibited. Lighting sharp drops, leaving not so much evidence as persuasion and spells about the need for economic reforms, reissued the book three times. During the lifetime of recognition of his ideas did not receive.
In the center of Research P. Buagilbera - the problems of agricultural development, in which he saw the basis of the economic growth and wealth of the state. Under the influence of his ideas of 100 years in the economic thought of France, physiocrability flourished (the power of nature, Greek.) - The course of classical political economy, whose representatives considered land and agricultural production defining in the creation of national wealth.
Scientific merits P. Buagilbera: his works became a trade-methodological basis for the final debunation of mercantilism and the formation of specific traditions of the French classical school; Regardless of W. Petty, he came to the conclusion that the country's wealth lies not in the physical mass of money, but in all the variety of useful benefits and things 13; Analyzing the mechanism of the price relationship between goods in the market, taking into account the amount of labor spent and working time, substantiated the labor theory of the cost, which, despite the costly method, was progressive for its time.
At the same time, P. Buagilber: intentionally absolutized the role of agriculture; underestimated the role of money as a product; denied the real importance in the increase in the property wealth of industry and trade; The only one among all representatives of the classic political economy, which considered it possible and necessary the abolition of money that violates the exchange of goods in the "Truth Cost".
Two schools were formed in classical political economy - French (physiocrats) 14 and English. The founder and head of physiocrats in France was French Kene.
French Kene 15 (1694-1774) in 1758 created his "economic table", which became the basis for physiocrats, which turned to the sphere of production, looking for a source of surplus value there. They limited this sphere only by agriculture.
In his famous "economic table", F.Kene performed the first scientific analysis of the circuit of economic life, i.e. Public reproduction process. The ideas of this work indicate the need to comply with and reasonable forecasting certain national economic proportions in the structure of the economy. They identified the relationship, which he characterized like this: "Reproduction is constantly resumed by costs, and the costs are renewed by reproduction"
Next, Kene put forward the concept of "natural order", under which he understood the economy with free competition, a natural game of market prices without state intervention. Kene also argued that when exchanging equal things, wealth is not created and the profit does not arise, so he was looking for a profit outside the sphere of circulation.
3. The second stage of the development of classical political economy
3.1. A. Smith - the central figure of classical political economy
Adam Smith (1723-1790) - the greatest English scientist-economist of the second half of the XVIII century, the central figure of classical political economy. According to M. Blauge A. Smith - the author of "the first in the economic science of full-fledged labor that sets out the general basis of science."
The main work "Study of the nature and the causes of the wealth of peoples" (1776), did realized the name of the author, reissued in his life four times and three times until the end of the century. Under the influence of ideas A. Smith Prime Minister of England W. Pitt Jr. declared himself his student and in 1786. Signed with France the first liberal trade agreement (Eden agreement), which significantly changed customs tariffs.
Student A. Smith Dougall Stewart in 1801. He began to read the first independent course of political economy at the University of Edinburgh, which was previously part of the moral philosophy.
The central problem and the subject of studying the economic science of A. Smith considered the economic development of society and the increase in its welfare.
A. Smith proves that the wealth of peoples is not in the money, but in material (physical) resources that the "annual work of each people" provides. "The annual work of each people is the initial fund that delivers it all the products they need for the existence and ease of life" 16.
This thought he develops the concept of growth in the division of social labor, which has become the doctrine of technical progress as the main means of growth of the richness of "any country at all times."
3.2. Features in the research methodology A. Smith
Majesty A. Smith as a scientist consists in its economic forecasts and fundamental theoretical and methodological positions, which for more than 100 years predetermined the direction of the development of scientific economic thoughts and the economic policy of many states.
The central place in the study methodology A. Smith has the concept of economic liberalism - non-interference of the state in business activities. The basis of the concept is the idea of \u200b\u200bnatural order, i.e. Market economic relations. "Market laws can in the best way to affect the economy when private interests are above public, i.e. 1FGDA The interests of society as a whole are considered as the amount of interests of the components of his persons. "
The development of this idea Smith introduced the winged concepts of "Economic Man" and "Invisible Hand" 17.
Essence of the "Economic Man": "Dogs with each other consciously do not change with a bone" - "The division of labor is the result of a certain tendency of human nature to trade and exchange" - "He (" Economic Man ") will rather reach his goal if they appeal to their egoism (other people) and it will be able to show them that in their own interests to make for them what he demands from them. Anyone offering a different deal of any kind, suggests to do that. Give me what I need, and you will get what you need, "this is the meaning of any such proposal ... not from the benevolence of the butcher, brewer or a buncule, we expect we get your dinner, but from compliance with their own interests. We do not appeal to their humanity, but to their egoism and never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits. " "Economic man" A. Smith is an egoist, striving for personal enrichment by the production and sale of quality product or service.
The essence of the "invisible hand": "Every separate person ... means its own benefit, and not the benefits of society ... And in this case, as in many others, he is invisible hand towards the goal, which was not at all In his intention ... Pursuing his own interests, he often more efficiently serves the interests of society than when it is consciously seeking to do it. " The meaning of the "invisible hand" lies in the propaganda of such social conditions and rules, in which, thanks to the free competition of entrepreneurs and through their private interests, the market economy will best solve public objects and lead to a personal and collective will with the highest possible benefits for everyone and everyone.
Thus, the main thing in Smith's methodologies is the "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", which, thanks to the "invisible hand", is always automatically balanced.
The state remains, as A. Smith writes, "three very important duties": 1) costs for public works to "create and maintain certain public structures and public institutions", to ensure remuneration of teachers, judges, officials, priests and others who serve the interests of the "sovereign or state"; 2) costs for ensuring military security; 3) costs for the departure of justice, including the protection of property rights.
It was A. Smith that formulated the main task of science: "... The main task of political economy of each country consists in increasing its wealth and power; Therefore, it should not benefit or provide a special encouragement of foreign trade in subjects of consumption preferably before internal trade or transit trading preferably before the other. "
3.3. Theoretical Heritage A. Smith
1) In the "wealth of peoples" 18 A. Smith examines the problem of division of labor and on the example of a pin factory proved that the division of social labor increases the productivity of public labor "at least Trojako" (the growth of employee qualifications performing one simple operation, time saving during transition From one operation to another, the invention of devices, mechanisms, machines).
2) in the theory of value (value) of goods and services A. Smith noted in each product a consumer and exchange cost. Under consumer, he understood not the utmost utility, and the full - the possibility of the goods to satisfy the need of a person, and not specifically, but in general terms. Revealing the essence of exchange value in the "wealth of peoples", he first writes that "more natural is to evaluate their change value (goods) by the number of any product, and not the amount of labor that you can buy them," and on the next page emphasizes "Goods who himself is fluctuated in its value (gold and silver), in no way can be an accurate measure of the cost of other goods "19. And concludes that the cost of the same work of the working work "at all times and in all places" is the same and therefore "it is labor that makes them a valid price (goods), and money is only their nominal price."
3) in the concept of productive labor A. Smith under productive work understands the work, which "increases the value of the materials that it processes" and "enshrines and is implemented in a separate subject or product that can be sold and which exists at least Some time after the work is completed "(for example, food). And unproductive work is the services that "disappear at the very moment of their provision" and "does not add anything to the cost ... has its cost and deserves remuneration ... It is not fixed and not implemented in any separate subject or product, come for sale". Modern economic science rejects the main postulates of this concept.
4) Money theory A. Smith is not allocated by any new provisions, but attracts scaligence and depth analysis, logically argued generalizations. Money appeared "How the exchange trading ceased"; "Labor, and not any special product or a group of goods is a valid member of silver (money)." A. Smith considers money, like all the classics, not otherwise as a technical tool for exchange, trading, putting their function to the first place.
5) A. Smith's revenue theory - a year-old product is distributed between three classes: workers, capitalists and landowners. The income of the workers - their salary - is directly dependent on the level of the national wealth of the country. Unlike physiocrats, he denied the so-called pattern of decline in wages to the level of subsistence minimum. On the contrary, he argued that "if there is a high wage, we will always find workers more active, diligent and cleaned than at low wages" and warned that the "hosts are always and everywhere in a kind of silent, but constant and uniform strike with The purpose of not to increase the wages to the working above of its existing size "20. About rent he writes the following: Food is "the only agricultural product, which is always and necessary gives some rente landowner." And it is noticeable - "the desire for food is limited to every person with a small capacity of the human stomach."
6) The Theory of Capital A. Smith is more progressive in comparison with physiocrats. Capital is one of two parts of stocks, and "the other part is the one that goes to direct consumption." Unlike physiocrats, A. Smith productive capital is capital engaged in the entire field of material production, and not only in agriculture. It was he who introduced the division of capital on the main and revolving.
4. Third stage of development of classical political economy
4.1. Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
The entire economic system of Ricardo 21 emerged as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classic school.
The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.
In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.
That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.
Ricardo's profit theories are inherent in two most important contradictions: 1) a contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of surplus value from the point of view of the law of value; 2) The contradiction between the law of value and the average profit law, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.
The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.
By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.
David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became increasingly socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.
4.2. Economic Teaching Jean Batista Say
Official economic science in France in the first half of the XIX century was "School of SEA 22". School School praised the capitalist entrepreneur, preached harmony of class interests, opposed the work movement.
In 1803, an essay of SEA was called "the treatise of political economy, or a simple statement of the method, which are formed, are distributed and wealth is distributed." This book, which Say subsequently reworked repeatedly and complemented for new editions (with all his life there were only five), and it remained its main work. The laborory of the cost, which, although not quite consistent, followed the Scot, was inferior to the "pluralistic" interpretation, where the cost was addressed to a number of factors: subjective utility of goods, costs of its production, supply and demand. The ideas of Smith on the operation of hired labor with capital (i.e., elements of the theory of surplus value) completely disappeared at SEI, giving way to the theory of production factors. Say followed Smith in its economic liberalism. He demanded a "cheap state" and advocated a minimum of its intervention in the economy. In this regard, he also adjoined the physiocratic tradition. In 1812, Say released the second edition of the "Treatise". In 1828-1930 Say issued a 6-Tomny "full course of practical political economy", in which, however, did not give anything new compared to the "Treatise".
In the first edition of the "TRATICAT", Say wrote four sales pages. On them, in fuzzy form, the idea was presented that the overall overproduction of goods in the farm and economic crises are in principle impossible. Every production itself generates income on which goods relevant value are bought. Cumulative demand in the economy is always equal to the cumulative offer. In his opinion, only partial imbalances may arise: one product is produced too much, too little. But it is straightened without a universal crisis. In 1803, Say formulated the law, according to which the supply of goods always gives rise to appropriate demand. Those. It most excludes the possibility of a universal overproduction crisis, and also believes that free pricing and minimizing state intervention in the market economy will cause automatic regulation of the market.
Production not only increases the supply of goods, but also due to the necessary coating costs of production generates the demand for these goods. "Products are paid for the products" - this is the essence of the law of the markets of SEI.
The demand for the products of any industry should increase in real terms when the offer of all industries is growing, because it is the proposal that creates demand for the products of this industry. SEA's law, he consequently warns us from applying to macroeconomic indicators of judgments derived in microeconomic analysis. Separate goods can be made in excess relative to all other goods, the relative overproduction of at once all goods can not happen.
If it is said about the application of the law of SEI to the real world, it is approved by the unreality of excessive demand for money. "Unreality" in this case can hardly mean the logical inability. It should be understood that the demand for money can not be redundant, because it corresponds to the situation of non-equilibrium.
Using SEA arguments, the bourgeoisie put forward progressive requirements for reducing the bureaucratic state office, freedom of entrepreneurship and trade.
4.3. Economic teaching T. Malthus
A bright, peculiar contribution to the economic science was made by a representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus 23. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to "anti-science nonsense".
T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problems, but, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in population numbers. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.
As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.
From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.
Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only due to extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each of the next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore the overall level of fertility of the entire land fund as a whole tends to reducing . Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.
Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.
Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.
5. The fourth stage of the development of classical political economy. Completion of classical political economy
5.1. Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
John Stewart Mill 24 (1806-1873) is one of the completes of classical political economy. The main work of the "Basics of Political Economy" in 5 books was published in 1848.
In the theoretical and methodological plan of D. Ricardo. However, in the field of methodology, not only repeated classics, but also achieved undoubted progress.
Theoretical Heritage:
1) In determining the subject of political economy, the "laws of production" and "distribution laws" put forward, practically repeating the precursors. Specificity J. S. Mill - in contrasting these laws. The first, as he believes, is unchanged and are asked by specifications like the physical sciences of the natural sciences - "there is nothing dependent on the will." The second manages "Human intuition", they are as "what the opinions and desires of the ruling part of society make them, and are very different in different centuries and in different countries" 25.
2) A new moment in the study methodology J. S. Mill - an attempt to identify differences in the concepts of "Static" and "Dynamics". He notes that all economists are tend to know the laws of the economy of the "stationary and unchanged society" economy, now it is necessary to add "the dynamics of political economy to its statics"
3) In the theory of labor productivity, J. S. Mill is in fact entirely solidied with A. Smith - "Only a productive work (that is, the results of which tangible) creates wealth - the material benefit of the novelty is that it offers a productive to recognize labor Acquisition of qualifications, property protection, which allow you to increase accumulation. And in the rest - "Any income from unproductive labor is a simple redistribution of income created by productive work."
4) essentially salaries J.S. Mill relies on D. Ricardo and T. Malthus - this is a work fee, which depends on the demand and suggestions for labor, the minimum wage of workers is inevitable. This was the basis of his doctrine of the "Work Fund", according to which class struggle, trade unions cannot prevent salary formation at the level of the subsistence level. It is interesting for his idea that the salary will be more low, with other plates, if labor is less attractive. In 1869, he recognized the possibility of the influence of trade unions on the growth of salary.
5) In the theory of capital, J.Cl Mill concludes that capital is the "previously accumulated stock of past labor products." Caidal formation as the basis of investment allows you to expand the scope of employment and can prevent unemployment if, however, do not mean "unproductive costs of rich"
6) In the theory of rent, he has common positions with D. Ricardo - this is "compensation paid for the use of land."
7) In the theory of income distribution, he is a supporter T. Malthus. The theory of population for him Axiom, especially since in England after the census of the population in 1821. For 40 years, the means of existence did not exceed the growth rate of the population.
8) in the theory of the value of J.S. Mill repeats D. Ricardo - the cost is created by difficulty, it is the amount of labor "is of paramount importance" in case of a change in value.
9) Money theory J.S. Mill is quantitative: the change in the amount of money affects the relative change in the prices of goods. All other things being equal conditions, the value of the money themselves "changes inversely proportional to the number of money: any increase in the amount lowers their cost, and any decrease increases it in the exact same proportion."
10) The first judgments and interpretations of socialism and the socialist device of the Company among major political economy representatives belong to J.S. Mille. His doctrine of social reforms is based on the fact that "only the laws of production cannot be changed, and not the laws of distribution." This is not understanding that the fact that production and distribution is not separate spheres, but comprehensively interpenetrable.
With all the goodwill to "socialism" J.S. Mill is fundamentally notisy from "socialism" in that social injustice is allegedly related to the rights of private ownership as such. "Only in the backward countries of the world, the increase in production is the most important task - in more developed countries, the improvement of the distribution is expected to be economically necessary."
The main conclusion - the decision of practical problems requires the "spread of a socialist worldview", but "the general principle should be Laisses Faire, and every retreat from it, not dictated by the considerations of some higher good, there is a clear evil" 26. The state should intensify its participation in the socio-economic development of society and carry out related reforms - by regulating a bank interest, reduce major government spending, creating infrastructure, science development, development of progressive legislation.
In order for the government to not "light up the opinions and feelings of people, starting with young age," he recommends instead of publicly available public education a system of private schools or a mandatory home education to a certain age.
5.2. Economic doctrine of Karl Marx
Karl Marx 27 (1818-1883) - one of the completes of classical political economy - left a very significant trace in the economic thought of our society. His ideas go beyond directly economic problems - they are described in relationship with philosophical, sociological and political problems. V.V. very clearly noted Leontyev: "Soviet political economy ... remained ... Essentially ... The bulky and unshakable monument to Marx" 28, which, hiding behind the enormous scientific authority of Marx, tried to allegedly develop the construction of "barrage communism", against which Marx was categorically against. But - "Marxism as an economic theory is the theory of rapidly growing private entrepreneurship, and not a centralized economy."
In 1867 Marx published the 1st volume of "Capital", which considered as the work of his life. Tom 2 and 3 - posthumous, far from complete, published by Engels.
Theoretical heritage K. Marx:
1) The central place in the Max Research Methodology is the concept of a basis and superstructure: "In the public production of your life, people enter certain, necessary, independent relations - production relations that correspond to a certain level of development of their material productive forces. The combination of these industrial relations is The economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure towers and which corresponds to certain forms of public consciousness. The method of manufacturing material life causes social, political and spiritual processes of life at all. Not consciousness of people defines their being, but, on the contrary, their public being determines their consciousness. "
2) The central idea of \u200b\u200bits class theory is a class struggle. In the "Manifesto Communist Party" he wrote: "The history of everyone still existing societies was the history of the struggle of classes. Free and slave, Patricia and Plebes, a landowner and a fastener, master and apprentice, in short, the oppressive and oppressive were in the eternal antagonism to each other, he was continuously hidden, then a clear struggle, always ending the revolutionary reorganization of the entire public building or the overall death of fighting classes " Its conclusion: The development of productive forces leads them to a comprehensive impoverishment and the increase in the number of proletariat in most people will make a revolution and take power, but in the interests of all. The proletarian revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat will lead to the place of the old bourgeois society with his classes and class opposites the association comes in which the free development of each is the condition for the development of all. "
3) Capital theory of K. Marx - in the very definition of the category "Capital", he compares it with the "means of exploitation" of the worker and establishing power on the labor force. Another conclusion of Marx - "Introducing their dead objective (to the cost of goods) living labor, the capitalist turns the cost - past emitted, dead work - in capital, in the self-expanding value, in an animated monster ...". Another interpretation is characterized by the relationship of the surplus value with the excursion of capital: "Only the worker is produced, which produces a surplus value for capitalist or serves as an exploration of capital."
4) At the heart of the labor theory of the cost of K. Marx - the Regulation on the average public labor or time costs "with an average of at this time the level of skillfulness and intensity of labor." According to Marx based on cost - only labor costs, despite the change in price, depending on the ratio of supply and demand.
5) In the theory of wages, K. Marx, the wages of the hired worker - this is the result of its exchange with the capitalist for the "labor sold", and not the work itself, as the founders of political economics believed. Salary is equivalent to the number of goods to maintain the life of the worker and his family. The difference between labor and salary is assigned to the capitalist. He is sure that this difference is "unpaid work" - you can reveal and measure. Scientific and technical progress generates constant surplus of labor and predetermines the results of the exchange between the capitalist and the working to the detriment of the workers, so the real salary is never growing in proportion to the increase in labor productivity and concludes: a decrease in the value of goods and services in monetary terms due to the growth of labor productivity causes an adequate decrease Prices for goods purchased by workers, but the real salary is not significantly increasing significantly, therefore it is not far to "pauperization" (poverty of workers) and the "mental degradation of the working class".
6) The theory of surplus value is a key theory of Marx's teachings. Its essence: the labor is a quantitative measurement with accuracy, and the valuation of labor (salary).
The theory of surplus value is the initial position of Marx in determining "productive labor". He is agreed with Millem - work is produced if: produces a surplus value that is growing not in the "absolute" form, but in the form of "relative surplus value", which allows you to reduce the cost (value) of vital funds; Recognize that productive work can create a surplus value only in the field of production, and not circulation.
K. Marx Solidarity with D. Ricardo, that the rate of profit tends to decrease, the formation of the average rate of profit. But Ricardo the reason for this sees in competition, overflows of capital. Marx also believes that this is the historical phenomenon of the self-destruction mechanism of capitalism through the inevitable in pursuit of a sustainable "rate of profit" a change in the organic structure of capital in favor of an increase in its total share of the permanent and appropriate decrease in the share of variable capital. A variable capital is "the desired source of surplus value", which is "leading motive, limit and the ultimate goal of capitalist production."
8) Rent theory of K. Marx is almost similar to D. Ricardo, in which he made an addition - along with the "differential" there is an absolute rent, so the owner of the Earth, along with a natural rent, is getting super-profile.
9) The theory of cyclicity of economic development under capitalism is based on the manifestation of the law trend of the norm of profit to a decrease. Marx believes that the achievement of macroeconomic equilibrium and consistent economic growth during capitalism is impossible due to the internal antagonistic contradictions of capitalism and is trying to convince the reader in the fatality of the "main contradiction of capitalism" - production for the sake of profits, and not for consumption. He perfectly criticizes the vulgar doctrines of the economic crisis - low-consumption (low salary does not allow you to buy the working products produced by them), the possibility of eliminating the crisis with additional investments, an explanation of crisis reserves. At the same time, he criticizes everyone who recognizes only the "periodic excess capital", and not "general overproduction of goods." But K. Marx himself in "Capital" gave the theory of crises, but rather a causal (causal) assessment of capital accumulation and income distribution during capitalism, inevitably leading to the "general overproduction" periods. According to Marx, the rise, caused by the desire for profit, leads to demand for labor, to the growth of salaries, reducing the rate of profit and ends with a decline. The next economic cycle begins. His picture of the crisis "There is both Kara and Cleansing", and the conclusion is unambiguous: "The ultimate cause of all valid crises always remains the poverty and the limited consumption of mass" 29.
Conclusion
The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day.
The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.
The characteristic features of the classical political economy include the following:
1. Classical political economy is based on the learning about the labor theory of value.
2. Chief Principle - "Laissez Faire" ("Provide cases to go to your course"), that is, the complete non-interference of the state into the economic issues. In this case, the "invisible hand" of the market will provide the optimal distribution of resources.
3. The subject of study is mainly the sphere of production.
4. The value of goods is determined by the costs spent on its production.
5. A person is considered only as an "economic person", which seeks his own benefit, to improving its position. Morality, cultural values \u200b\u200bare not taken into account.
6. Elasticity of the number of workers for wages above one. This means that any increase in wages leads to an increase in the efficiency of labor, and any decrease in wages to reduce the number of labor,
7. The purpose of the business of capitalist is to obtain a profit maximum.
8. The main factor in the increase in wealth is the accumulation of capital.
9. Economic growth is achieved through productive labor in the field of material production.
10. Money is an instrument that facilitates the process of sharing goods.
So, during the work, I found out the following.
For the first time, the term "classical political economy" used K. Marks. And the term "political economy" for the first time used A. Monkeyen in 1615.
The experts of the classical political economy are U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France).
Classical political economy includes 4 main stages.
In this course work, I considered the economic teachings of the main representatives of the classical political economy, such as: W.Petti, P. Baagilber, F. Kene, A. Smith, D. Riccardo, J. B. This, T. Malthuus, J. S. Mill, K. Marx.
4 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia. (on 8-CDs) Samuelson (Samuelson, Samuelson) (Samuelson) Paul (full name Paul Anthony) (May 15, 1915, Gary, pcs. Indiana), American economist who made a fundamental contribution to almost all areas of modern economic theory .
5 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia. (on 8-CDs) Monkeyen Antoine de (approx. 1575-1621), French economist, representative of mercantilism. The first was the term "political economy" (1615).
7 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia (on 8-CDs) Petty (Petty) William (1623-87), English Economist, Anodian Classical Political Economy. The source of wealth considered the sphere of production. The founder of the labor theory of value.
12 Kirill's Big Encyclopedia and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia (on 8-CDs) Buagilber (Boisguillebert) Pierre (1646-1714), French economist, ancestor of classical bourgeois political economy in France, one of the founders of labor theory cost.
14 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia. Physicrafts (Franz. Physiocrates; from Greek. Physis - Nature and Kratos - power, power, domination), representatives of the classic school politicism. Savings 2nd gender. 18 V. in France. The physiocrats investigated the sphere of production, marked the beginning of the scientific analysis of the reproduction and distribution of the social product. "Pure product" is created, in physiocarants, only agricultural labor. Deli bourgeois society into classes. Opposed mercantilism; Supporters of free trade.
15 Kirill and Methodius Encyclopedia "(BEKM) is a modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8-CDs) KENE (QUESNAY) Francois (1694-1774), French economist. The founder of the school of physiocrats. Developed problems of public reproduction. Chief Labor - "Economic Table" (1758).
16 AUTONOMOV V., Ananin O., Manashev I. History of economic exercises. - M.: Infra-M, 2006. - 784 p. - (Higher education).
18 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Adam Smith. From "Research on the nature and the causes of the wealth of peoples"
19 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Adam Smith. From "Research on the nature and the causes of the wealth of peoples"
20 Bryanchev S.A. History of economic exercises: textbook. - M.: Economist, 2004.
21 Kirill and Methodius Encyclopedia - Modern Universal Russian Encyclopedia (on 8-CDs) Ricardo (Ricardo) David (1772-1823), English economist, one of the largest representatives of classical political economy.
22 Jean Batist Say (1767-1832) - French economist. He entered the history of economic thought as the author of the theory of utility. Titova N.E. History of economic teachings: course of lectures - M.: Humanitarian Publishing Center Vlados, 1997. - p. 58.
23 Big Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius "(BEKM) - Modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8-CDs) Malthus (Malthus) Thomas Robert (1766-1834), English economist, founder of Malthusianism. Foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg An (1826).
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The methodology of classical political economy is presented in the works of the prominent founders of this school: A. Smith ("Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples", 1776), D. Ricardo ("The beginning of political economy and taxation", 1817), N. Senior, J. Mill, and others. A. Smith considered the subject of economic science - the economic development and growth of the well-being of society, the development of the economy relies on the material resources of society. The main provisions of the Methodology of A. Smith are as follows:
The interests of individuals coincide with the interests of society;
- "Economic man" is a person endowed with egoism and striving for increasing accumulation of wealth;
An indispensable condition for economic laws is free competition;
Pursuit of profit and free trade is estimated as an activity that is advantageous to the whole society;
"Invisible hand" operates on the market, with the help of which free competition manages the actions of people through their interests and leads to a permit of social problems in the best way, which is most beneficial to both individuals and the whole society;
Recognition of the actions of objective economic laws;
A quantitative approach to economic laws (finding quantitative relations between such categories as cost, wages, profit, rent, percentage, etc.);
Use in the studies of the abstract method.
As a result, he made the conclusion that state regulation should be minimal.
A. Smith described his research method as a system of reasoning at which we first we ask "some principles, apparent or proven, based on these, we explain a number of phenomena by tying all the general logic of reasoning." A. Smith tied science with "surprise", it allows you to do unexpected discoveries and admire.
D. Ricardo believed that the main task of economic science is to identify economic laws that manage the distribution of the product between classes. He formulated the economic law - "The Law of the Fall of the Norm of Profit", created the theory of land rent. D. Ricardo considered economic theory of science not by virtue of the methods used by it, but due to the reliability of its conclusions.
N. Senior argued that economic science is based on "a few common prerequisites that arise from observations of the surrounding reality or common sense and who almost every person, barely heard them, would recognize fair because they coincide with his own observations."
N. Senior allocated the following prerequisites:
1) Each person seeks to maximize its welfare with the minimum effort;
2) the population is growing faster than the resources required for its feed;
3) work armed with machines can produce a positive clean product;
4) In agriculture, the rate of return decreases.
James Mill determined economic science as "mental". She is interested in human motives and ways of behavior of people in economic life. Mill has allocated the following motifs: the desire for wealth, thirst for free time, non-economic motifs (habits, customs). He considered political economy by abstract science, which uses a priori method, i.e. The method of philosophizing that does not have any attitude towards experience at all. A priori method is a way to reason, pushing out some of the hypothesis put forward. Since the hypothesis is a premise, it may not have the actual base, and in this sense it can be said that the conclusions of political economy, as well as the conclusions of the geometry, are correct only abstractly, i.e. With some assumptions. Thus, J. Mill under the political economy as science understood a deductive analysis based on some psychological prerequisites and abstracts from all economic aspects of human behavior. Deduction is a way of reasoning from general provisions for private, the withdrawal of private provisions from any general thought (opposite induction). Mill believed that economic laws act as trends.
The main methodological provisions of the classical political economy can be expressed in the following paragraphs:
1 Classical Political Economy is the theory of wealth. She studied the economy predominantly at the exit, from the material result of industrial activities - a social product, its structure and dynamics. The product theory of the classical school was used further in the studies of K. Marx, V.leontiev, and others, in economic statistics, in various growth theories. Its empirical base and methods - work with macroeconomic data;
2 Classic School is a school of political economy, not economics. She did not just conduct an analysis of economic phenomena, but tried to consider them in connection with political, cultural, legal and other relations in society. Theoretics of this school was inherent in a synthetic, integrating approach;
3 The classic school sought to create an extremely abstract picture of economic reality. This led to a large extent to the rupture between the theoretical and empirical basis in a scientific study and gave the soil to criticize this direction by K. Marks and the German Historical School (V.Oroshera, G. Shmoller, etc.);
4 The classical political economy in the advantage took to armared the qualitative methodology for the study of economic phenomena, which led to the presence of large errors in their conclusions and caused a subsequent wave of criticism from other areas.
A. Smita and D.Rikardo laid the beginning of the labor theory of value. A. Smita introduced into scientific turnover and delimited the consumer and exchange value of the goods: "The word cost has two different meanings: sometimes it means the usefulness of some object, and sometimes the possibility of acquiring other items that is given by this subject. The first can be called a consumer value, the second-exchange cost.
A. Smita begins his study from the division of labor playing an important role in increasing labor productivity and in the growth of national wealth. It is with the division of labor that he has an idea of \u200b\u200ban "economic person". This category underlies the cost analysis, exchange, money, production. The cost, by Smith, is determined by the difficult labor of one particular person, but the average necessary for this level of development of productive forces. D. Ricardo proved that the unified criterion for determining the cost is the work expended on the production of goods and measured by the cost of working time. He more clearly had the differences between the consumer value of the goods and its value and showed that in production, the cost of the goods was determined by the work spent.
1 History of economic exercises / Ed. V.S. Avtonovova, O.I. Ananin, N.A. Makashova - M., 2001.
2 History of economic exercises / Ed. A.G. Hoodocormov. - M., 1998.
3 Orekhov, A.M. Methods of economic research / A.M. Orekhov.- M., Infra-M, 2009.
4 Riccardo, D. Beginning of Political Savings and Tax Cover / D. Riccardo // Op.: In 3T., M.: Politicize, 1955.
5 Smith, A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples / A.Smit. - M.: Econs, 1991.- T.1, p.36-37.
Control questions
1 Describe the main provisions of A. Smita methodology.
2 Give the characteristic of the research method A. Smita.
3 What are the merits of D. Ricardo in the development of economic science.
4 Give the characteristic of the main methodological provisions of classical political economy.
Topics of abstracts
1 Methodology of classical political economy.
2 Methods for the study of economists of the classical school.
3 Characteristics of the main works of A. Smita.
4 Characteristics of the main works of D.Rikarto.
