As the foundation of market economic relations in developed countries continued in the developed countries, the fact that state intervention in economic activity is not a panacea in overcoming barriers to the increase in national wealth and achieving coherence in the relationships of economic entities both in the internal and on foreign markets. Therefore, as P. Samuelson noted, the displacement of "pre-industrial conditions" by the system of "free private entrepreneurship", contributing to the decomposition of mercantilism, has become simultaneously the initial point of the onset of conditions "Full Laissez Faire".
The last phrase means the requirement of full non-interference of the state in the economy, a business life or, speaking differently - Economic liberalism. And from the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. This idea has become a kind of motto of market liberal economic policies. And since that time, a new theoretical school of economic thought is born, which will later be called classical political economy.
The "Classical School" led a decisive struggle against the protectionist ideology of mercantilists, contacting the most new methodological achievements of the science of that era and expanding truly fundamental theoretical studies. Her representatives opposed empirism of the Mercantilistic system of professionalism, which, according to the same P. Samuelo, did not allow the "advisers at the king" to convince its monarchs in the fact that the increase in the country's wealth is associated with the establishment of state control over the economy, including Consider import and promotion of exports and thousands of other "detailed orders".
"Classics", in contrast to mercantlers, substantially formulated both the subject and the method of studying economic theory. Thus, the increased degree of manufacturing of the economy (then its industrialization) led to the first plan of entrepreneurs employed in industrial production, pushing capital to the second plan engaged in trade, monetary circulation and loan operations. For this reason As a subject of studying "Classics" Preferred mainly the sphere of production.
What concerns method of study and economic analysis, then his novelty in the "Classical School" is connected, as already mentioned, with introducing the latest methodological techniques, which provided sufficiently deep analytical results, a smaller degree of empirity and descriptive, i.e. Surface, understanding of economic (business) life. This is also evidenced by the statements of L. Mises and M. Blag - the largest authorities of modernity in the field of economic science methodology.
The first of them, in particular, believes that "many epigions of economists-classics have seen the task of economic science in the study of the events that are not really happening, but only those forces that some not quite understandably predetermined the occurrence of real phenomena." According to the urgency, "economists-classics stressed that the conclusions of economic science ultimately are based on postulates, equally handicrafts from the observed" laws of production "and subjective introspection (self-surveillance. - Ya.y.)."
Thus, it can be argued that the change of mercantilism of the classical political economy was the accomplishment of another historical metamorphosis in relation to the name and appointment of economic science. As you know, the term of the ancient Greek philosophers "saving" or "economy" Perceived almost in the literal translation of the words "Okos" (household) and "NOMOS" (rule, law) and had a semantic load Processes of housekeeping, family management or personal economy. In the period of the mercantilistic system, the economic science, which received the name "Political Savings", thanks to D. Monkeyena, was perceived as Science of state economy or economics of national states managed by monarchs.Finally, in the period of the "classic school", political economy found the features of a truly scientific discipline studying the problem of the economy of free competition.
By the way, K. Marx, with whose name, the introduction of the term "classical political economy" is connected to the scientific circulation, first of all, from the fact that "classics" in the works of their best, as he believed, the authors of A. Smith and D. Ricardo is absolutely not Neither apologetics, nor sliding on the surface of economic phenomena. But, according to his thoughts, the "classic school" with his characteristic class orientation "investigated the production relations of the bourgeois society." This position, it seems, did not dispute and N. Kondratyev, who believed that in the teachings of "classics" it was about the analysis of the conditions for the free economic activity of "only capitalist system".
General signs of classical political economy
Continuing the overall characteristics of almost two hundred years of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.
First, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the preemptive analysis of the problems of the production sphere in the separation from the sphere of treatment, the development and use of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. In particular, the reference to the observed "laws of production" removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the anti-classic oppression of the spheres of production and appeal was the reason for the underestimation of the natural relationship of economic entities of these areas, inverse influence on the scope of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Moreover, classics in solving practical tasks The answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, As N. Kondratyev expressed "Estimated". For this reason, he believes "the answers that have the nature of the estimated Maxim or Rules, namely: the system based on freedom of economic activity is the most perfect, freedom of trade is most favorable to the prosperity of the nation, etc.". This circumstance is also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequences of economic analysis and theoretical generalization"Classical School" of political economy.
Secondly, relying on the causal analysis, calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, classics (unlike mercantlers) tried to identify the mechanism for the formation of goods and fluctuations in the price level on the market not due to the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country , and in connection with the costs of production or, on a different interpretation, the number of labor spent. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there was no other economic problem in the past, and N. Kondratyev also pointed out for this, which would attract "such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so many mental stress, logical tricks and polemical passions as a value problem . And at the same time, it seems it is difficult to specify another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of a value problem "5.
but The cost principle for determining prices The "classic school" was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need in one way or another good with the addition of this good one. Therefore, the opinion of N. Kondratieva, who wrote: "The previous excursion convinces us in the fact that until the second half of the XIX century there is no conscious and distinct separation and distinguishing theoretical judgments or practical. As a rule, the authors are convinced that those judgments that are actually judgments are equally scientific and reasonable, as well as those that are judgments theoretical "6. Several decades later (1962), Lyudwig von Mises expressed manyly a similar judgment. "Public opinion," he writes, "still impressed by a scientific attempt by representatives of the classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to resolve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the end user, but were forced to begin their constructions with a businessman's actions, for which consumer utility assessments are specified "(allocated by me. - Ya.Ya.).
Thirdly, the category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only initial category of economic analysis, from which other derivatives of the category are oppressed in the scheme of the genealogical tree (grow). Analyzing the problem of value, classics, according to N. Kondratyev, showed that this problem includes a number of although related, but deeply different issues. The main ones are the following: 1. What is the value as a phenomenon and what is its types (qualitative problem)? 2. What are the foundations, sources or reasons for the existence of value? 3. Is the value of magnitude and if so, what exactly, and than Is it determined (quantitative problem)? 4. What is the value of value measuring? 5. What function does the value category in the system of theoretical economy perform? ". In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. Search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society without taking into account the psychological, moral, legal and other factors of the social environment.
The specified disadvantages, referring to M. Blug, are partly due to the impossibility of conducting a fully controlled experiment in the social sciences, as a result of which "economists in order to discard any theory, you need much more facts than, say, physicists" 9. M. Blag himself, however, clarifies: "If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory were amenable to unambiguous test, no one would have heard the unrealistic prerequisites. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified because all predictions have probabilistic character here. "
Fourth, examining the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, in contrast to mercantilists) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), and They tried to substantitize the dynamism and equilibrium of the state of the country's economy.However, as you know, they "Whether" Without a serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems that make it possible to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classic school. Achieving equilibrium in the economy considered automatically possible, sharing the "law of markets" Z.B. SEA.
Finally, fifthly, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the commodity world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics, the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Buagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite influence on the sphere of the production of monetary factors.
The main stages of the development of classical school
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
First stage. Its initial stage falls at the end of the XVII - the beginning of the XVIII century, when in England, thanks to the work of W. Peggy and in France, with the advent of the works of P. Buagilbera, the signs of the emerging alternative mercantilism of the new teaching were formed, which will subsequently name the classical political economy. These authors sharply condemned the restructuring freedom of entrepreneurship the protectionist system. The first attempts of costly interpretations of goods and services were made in their works (by taking into account the number of working time and labor spent during the production process). They emphasized the priority importance of the liberal principles of management in the creation of national (non-monetary) wealth in the field of material production.
The next stage of this stage is connected with the period of the middle and the beginning of the second half of the XVIII century, when with the advent of the so-called physiocration - a specific course within the classical school - the mercantilistic system has undergone a deeper and reasoned criticism. Physocirates (especially F. Kene and A. Turgo) significantly advanced economic science, denoting a new interpretation of a number of micro and macroeconomic categories, although their attention was focused on the problems of agricultural production to the detriment of other sectors of the economy and especially the sphere of circulation.
So, at the first stage, no representative of the classical political economy, without being a professional economist, could not achieve an in-depth study of theoretical problems of effective development of both industrial production and farming.
Second phase. The time segment of this period of development of the "classical school" is entirely connected with the name and creativity of the great scientist-economist Adam Smith, whose ingenious creation "The wealth of peoples" (1776) was the special and most significant achievement of economic science of the entire last third of the XVIII century.
His "Economic Man" and the "Invisible Hand" of Providence were able to convince not one generation of economists in natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. XX century As "classics", so then "neoclassics" believed in an irrefutable position about "laissezfaire» - Complete non-interference government prescriptions in free competition.
Open A. Smith (based on the analysis of a pin manufactory) laws of division and growth of its productivity are considered to be classical. On its theoretical surveys, modern concepts about the product and its properties, money, wages, profits, capital, productive work, etc. are also based.
Third stage. The chronological framework of this stage covers almost the entire first half of the XIX century, during which in developed countries of the world (primarily in England and France) a transition from manufactory to plants and factories, i.e. To machine, or, as they say to industrial, production, which marks the accomplishment of industrial coup. During this period, the greatest contribution to the treasury of the "classic school" was introduced by the students of the Anglica D. Ricardo, T. Malthans and N. Senior, the French, the French Say, F. Bastia et al. And although all these authors, following their idol, the main in economic science was considered the theory of value and just as he adhered to the cost concept (in accordance with which the origin of the cost of goods and services was seen either in the amount of spent Labor or in production costs), nevertheless, each of them left in the history of economic thought and the formation of liberal market relations a rather notable mark.
For example, was the author of one of the most common in the "classic school" of concepts, called the "Law of Markets" or simply the "law of SEI". For more than 100 years, this "law" was divided into "classics" at first, and then "neoclassics" because the basis of the equilibrium problem in question between the total demand and the cumulative proposal, providing in the conditions of oscillations of the market conditions, one or another level of social product implementation , and zh.b. Say, and his like-minded people were invested, in fact, the next Smith position: with a flexible wage and mobile prices, the interest rate will balance the demand and supply, savings and investments in full employment.
Another researcher, D. Ricardo, more of its own contemporaries half aiming with L. Smith and at the same time, fully separated the views of the latter in the nature of the origin of the income "of the main classes of society", first revealed a natural In the conditions of free competition, the trend of the norm profit to a decreasedeveloped finished Theory on the forms of land rent.It also owns the merit of one of the best for that time justification patterns of changes in the cost of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
In the works of T. Malthus, in the development of the imperfect concept of A. Smith on the mechanism of public reproduction (according to Marx, "Dogma Smith") nominated (contrary to the point of view of the participation of the "classes" in economic life dominated then) "Third parties", In accordance with which the obligatory participation in the creation and distribution of the cumulative social product is not only "productive", but also the "unproductive" layers of society. In addition, this scientist belongs to the idea of \u200b\u200binfluencing the welfare of the society and the rate of population growth in our time and in our time - the very idea that was based on them The first in the history of economic thoughts of the theory of population.
Fourth stage. At this final stage in the second half of the XIX century. Denidated works by J.S. Mill and K. Marx, comprehensively summarizing the best achievements of the "classical school". As you know, in this period, the formation of a new, more progressive direction of economic thought, which later received the name of the "neoclassical economic theory" was subsequently. However, the popularity of the theoretical views of the "classics" remained very impressive. The reason for this was largely the fact that the last leaders of the classical political economy, being strictly committed to the Regulations on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and, condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought, nevertheless, in the words of P. Samuelson, they sympathized with the working class and were addressed "To socialism and reforms."
In conclusion, it should be noted that in Russia, despite the movements defined in recent years, in terms of eliminating the "literary hunger" by eating the Economy Economy-Classic, the results achieved, alas do not cause optimism. The fact is that published in 1991 and 1993. Edition of 10 thousand copies The two-volume "Anthology of economic classics" is essentially the only "Classical Political Saving" section of the help for Russian economists at the present time. In the "Lithology" in full, only one work of classics is included - the book "Treatise on taxes and fees" (the last edition was in 1940. Edition of 10 thousand copies.). And the famous "wealth of peoples" Adam Smith is represented only in the first two books from the Great Scientist's Pentateuch (the last edition was carried out in 1962 by a circulation of 3 thousand ex.). With significant abbreviations (only six chapters) in the twotoman included the main work D. Ricardo (the last edition was in 1955). Each is one bibliographic rarity - "experience about the law of population" T. Malthus (last published in Russia in 1868) - although it is included in the "anthology", but, as is known, this is the first and not the main development of this scientist. At the same time, the logs of such authors of the classical political economy remain published for the last time with the letter "Yet", like J.B. Say (M., 1896), F. Bastia (M. 1896) and Carey (St. Petersburg, 1869).
Novokuznetsk branch of Tomsk State Architectural and Construction University
Abstract on the topic:
Classical political economy, economic teachings A. Smith, D. Ricardo, T. Malthus, S. Mile.
Novokuznetsk 2010 year
Introduction
1. Classical political economy
1.1 General characteristics of the classic direction
1.2 Stages of the evolution of classical political economy
1.3 Features of the subject and method of studying the classical political economy
2. Economic teachings of representatives of the classic school
2.1 Economic Teaching A. Smith
2.2 Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
2.3 Economic Teaching T. Malthus
2.4 Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
Conclusion
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Introduction
This work characterizes the classic direction in the history of economic exercises. It addresses the next range of issues: as in economic science, the term "classical political economy" is interpreted; What stages covers classical political economy in their development; What are the features of the subject and method of studying the "classical school", as well as the main economic theories at the four stages of the development of the classical school of political economy.
The history of economic exercises is an integral link in the cycle of general education disciplines in the direction of "Economics".
The subject of studying this discipline is the historical process of the emergence, development and change of economic ideas and concepts presented in the theories of individual economists
Methodologically, the history of economic exercises is based on a set of progressive methods of economic analysis. These include methods: historical, logical abstraction, systemic.
HISTORY The history of economic teachings takes from the times of the ancient world, i.e. The appearance of the first states. Since then, up to date, constant attempts are carried out to systematize economic views into the economic theory adopted by society as a guide to action in the implementation of economic policy. At the same time, as the changes in economics, science, technology and culture occurred, and economic theory is constantly updated and improved.
1. Classical political economy1.1 General characteristics of classical political economy
Classical political economy arose when entrepreneurial activities after the sphere of trade, monetary circulation and loan operations also spread to many industries and the sphere of production as a whole. Therefore, already in the manufactory period, which put forward in the economy in the economy, occupied in the field of production, the protectionism of mercantilists gave way to his dominant position of the new concept - the concept of economic liberalism based on the principles of non-interference of the state into economic processes, unlimited freedom of competition of entrepreneurs.
The socio-economic transformations that occurred also changed the nature of political economy. As you know, from the beginning of the XVII century. After reaching the "Treatise of Political Saving" by A.N. Monkereyne (1615) The essence of political economy was reduced by the conductors of the administrative (protectionist) solution to economic problems on the science of state economy. But by the end of the XVII century. And at the following time, the manufactory economy of the most developed European countries reached such a level that "advisers at the king" could no longer convince him about the ways to increase the country's wealth through "... work on gold, to contain the import and promotion of exports and about a thousand detailed orders to establish control over the economy »1.
The specified period marked the beginning of a truly new school of political economy, which is classical, primarily called, for the truly scientific character of many of its theories and methodological provisions underlying and at the heart of modern economic science. It is thanks to representatives of the classical political economy, the economic theory gained the status of scientific discipline, and so far, "When" Classical School "says, they mean a school that remains faithful principles, visiting the first teachers of economic science, and tries to prove them, develop And even corrected, but without changing in them what constitutes their being "2.
As a result of the decomposition of mercantilism and enhancing the increasing trend of restriction of direct state control over the economic activity of "pre-industrial conditions" has lost their former significance, and "free private entrepreneurship" prevailed. The last one, according to P. Samuelson, led "to the conditions of complete Laissez Faire (i.e., the absolute non-interference of the state in a business life), the events began to take another turn", and only "... from the end of the XIX century. Almost all countries there was a steady expansion of the economic functions of the state "3.
In fact, the principle of "full Laissez Faire" became the main motto of the new direction of economic thought - classical political economy, and its representatives distinguished mercantilism and the protectionist policies promoted by them in the economy, putting forward an alternative concept of economic liberalism. At the same time, the classics have enriched economic science with many fundamental provisions, in many respects who did not lose their relevance and by present.
It should be noted that for the first time the term "classical political economy" used one of its trips to Marks in order to show its specific place in the "bourgeois political economy".
1.2 Stages of the evolution of classical political economyand
According to a generally accepted assessment, classical political economy originated at the end of the XVII - early XVIII century. In the works of U.Petti (England) and P. Baagilbera (France). The time of its completion is considered with two theoretical and methodological positions. One of them is Marxist - indicates the period of the first quarter of the XIX century., English scientists A. Smita and D. Ricardo are considered completes of the school. On the other, the most common in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the XIX century. Labor J.S. Mill.
Briefly the essence of these positions is such. According to Marxist theory, it is argued that the classical political economy ended at the beginning of the XIX century. And changed the "vulgar political economy" because the genericants of the latter - Zh.B. Say and T.Maltus - grabbed, according to K. Marx, "for the external visibility of phenomena and the opposite of the law of the phenomenon." At the same time, the main argument that substantiates a selected position, the author of "Capital" believes "open" them as "the law of surplus value". This "law", according to his thought, follows from the central judging of A. Smita and D.Rikardo - labor theory of value, refusing from which the Vulgar Economist is doomed to become an apologist of the bourgeoisie trying to hide the exploitative essence in the relationship of the assignment of capitalists created by the Working Class surplus value. The conclusion K. Marks is unequivocal: "Classical School" convincingly revealed the antagonistic contradictions of capitalism and led to the concept of a claimless socialist future.
In the development of classical political economy with a certain convention, four stages can be distinguished.
The first stage covers the period from the end of the XVII century. Before the second half of the XVIII century. This is a stage of a significant expansion of the scope of market relations, argued refutations of the ideas of mercantilism and its complete debate. The main representatives of the beginning of this stage, W.Petti and P. Baagilber, regardless of each other, first in the history of economic thought, put forward a labor theory of value, in accordance with which the source and measure of the cost is the amount of labor spent on the production of one or another commercial product or good. Condeming mercantilism and based on the causal dependence of economic phenomena, the basis of the wealth and welfare of the state, they saw not in the sphere of circulation, but in the sphere of production.
The first stage of the classical political economy has completed the so-called school of physiocrats, which is distributed in France in the middle and early two half of the XVIII century. The leading authors of this school F.Kene and A.Turgo in search of a source of pure product (national income), the land with difficulty gave the land. Criticizing mercantilism, physiocrats were even more delighted in the analysis of the spheres of production and market relations, although mainly in the field of agriculture, illegally moving away from the scope of treatment.
The second stage of the development of classical political economy covers the period of the last third of the XVIII century. And undoubtedly associated with the name and works of A. Smita - the central figure among all its representatives. Its "Economic Man" and the "invisible hand" of Providence convinced not one generation of economists about natural order and inevitability, regardless of the will and consciousness of people of the natural action of objective economic laws. Largely due to it up to the 30s. The XX century was considered an irrefutable Regulations on the complete non-interference of government prescriptions in free competition.
Next, we note that the laws of the division of labor and the growth of its productivity are considered to be classic. Also, modern concepts about the product and its properties, income (wages, profits), capital, productive and non-production work and others are also based on its theoretical surveys.
The third stage of the evolution of the classical school of political economy falls on the first half of the XIX century, when industrial coup ended in a number of developed countries. During this period, followers and including students of A. Smita (many of them called themselves) were subjected to in-depth study and rethinking the basic ideas and concepts of their idol, enriched the school with fundamentally new and significant theoretical provisions. Among the representatives of this stage should be especially allocated to the French, the Russians and F. Bastia, the British, D. Ricardo, T.Maltus and N. Senior, Americans, and others.
D. Ricardo more than other contemporaries pampered with A. Smita. But, dividing the fullest glands of the latter about the income of the "main classes of society", he first revealed a regularity of the trend of the norm of profit to a decrease, developed a complete theory about the forms of land rent. It is also necessary to include one of the best justifications of the pattern of changing the value of money as goods depending on their quantity in circulation.
The Triad of Classic Economists - followers of Smith political economy is legitimately along with D. Ricardo and Zh.B.Seem Rebuild T. Maltus. This scientist, in particular, in the development of the imperfect concept of A. Smita on the mechanism of public reproduction (on Marx, "Dogma Smith") put forward theoretical provision on the "third parties", in accordance with which the real participation in the creation and distribution of the cumulative social product was not Only productive, but also unproductive layers of society. T.Maltus also belongs not to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe impact on the welfare of the society and the rate of population growth, which testifies simultaneously on the interdependence of economic processes and natural phenomena.
The fourth final stage of the development of classical political economy covers the period of the second half of the XIX century, during which J.S. Mille and K.Mars also summarized the best achievements of the school: on the other hand, by this time already gained independent importance of new, more progressive directions of economic thought. who later received the name "Marginalism" (end of the XIX century) and "institutionalism" (beginning of the XX century). As for the innovation of the ideas of the Englishman J.S. Millya and K. Marks, who wrote his works in exile from his native Germany, then these authors of the classical school, being strictly committed to the provision on the effectiveness of pricing in the context of competition and condemning class tendentiousness and vulgar apologetics in economic thought still sympathized with the working class, they were addressed "to socialism and reforms" 14. Moreover, K. Marks, moreover, emphasized the increasing operation of labor with capital, which, exacerbating the class struggle, must, in his opinion, inevitably lead to the dictatorship of the proletariat, the "death of the state" and the equilibrium economy of classless society13.
1.3 Features of the subject and method of studying classical political economy
Continuing the overall characteristics of almost two hundred years of classical political economy, it is necessary to allocate its uniform signs, approaches and trends in the object and the study method and give them an appropriate assessment. They can be reduced to the following generalization.
First, the rejection of protectionism in the economic policy of the state and the preemptive analysis of the problems of production in the separation from the sphere of treatment, the development and use of progressive methodological methods of research, including causal (causal), deductive and inductive, logical abstraction. At the same time, an approach from class positions on the observed "production laws" and "productive work" was removed any doubts about the fact that the predictions obtained using logical abstraction and deduction should be exposed to experienced verification. As a result, the peculiarities of the production and circulation, productive and unproductive labor inherent in the classics, it became the reason for the underestimation of the pattern of economic entities of these areas ("human factor"), reverse influence on the sphere of monetary, credit and financial factors and other elements of the sphere of circulation.
Thus, adopting as a subject of study only the problems of the production of production, economists-classics, speaking by the words M. Blaug, "emphasized that the conclusions of economic science, ultimately, are based on postulates, equally handled from the observed" production laws "and Subjective introspection "16.
Moreover, classics in solving practical tasks answers to the main questions were given, setting these questions, as N. Kontrayev expressed, "Evaluly". For this reason, he believes "... Answers who have the nature of the estimated Maxim and Rules, namely: the system based on freedom of economic activity is the most perfect, freedom of trade is most favorable to the prosperity of the nation, etc.". This circumstance also did not contribute to the objectivity and sequence of economic analysis and theoretical generalization of the classical school of political economy.
Secondly, relying on the causal analysis, the calculations of the average and total values \u200b\u200bof economic indicators, classics (unlike mercantlers) tried to identify the mechanism of origin of the cost of goods and fluctuations in the price level on the market not in connection with the "natural nature" of money and their number in the country , and in connection with the costs of production or, on a different interpretation, the number of labor spent. Undoubtedly, since the time of classical political economy, there was no other economic problem in the past, and N. Kontrayev also indicated, which would attract "... such close attention of economists, the discussion of which would cause so many mental tension, logical tricks and polemicals, as a problem of value. And at the same time, it seems it is difficult to specify another problem, the main directions in the solution of which would remain so irreconcilable, as in the case of the problem of value, "18.
However, the costly principle of determining the price level of the classic school was not linked to another important aspect of market economic relations - product consumption (services) with a changing need of one or another good with the addition of this good one. Therefore, it is quite fair to N. Kontreyeva, who wrote: "The previous excursion convinces us that until the second half of the XIX century, there is no conscious and distinct separation and distinguishing of theoretical judgments or practical. As a rule, the authors are convinced that those judgments that are actually judgments are equally scientific and reasonable, as well as those that are judgments theoretical "19. Several decades later (1962), L. von Mises expressed manyly a similar judgment. "Public opinion," he writes, "still impressed by a scientific attempt by representatives of the classical economic theory to cope with the problem of value. Not being able to solve the obvious paradox of pricing, the classics could not trace the sequence of market transactions up to the end user, but were forced to begin their constructions with a businessman actions, for which consumer utility assessments are specified. "
Thirdly, the category "Cost" was recognized by the authors of the classic school the only initial category of economic analysis, from which other derivatives of the category are oppressed in the scheme of the genealogical tree (grow). In addition, this kind of simplification of analysis and systematization led a classic school to the fact that the economic study itself imitated the mechanical following the laws of physics, i.e. The search for the purely internal causes of economic well-being in society is excluding psychological, moral, legal and other social environmental factors.
These disadvantages, referring to M. Blug, partly could be explained by the inability to the social sciences of a fully controlled experiment, as a result of which "economists in order to discard any theory, much more facts need, than, say, physicists" 22. M. Blaug himself, however, clarifies: "If the conclusions from the theorems of economic theory were amenable to unambiguous verification, no one would have heard the unrealistic prerequisites. But the theorems of economic theory cannot be unambiguously verified because all predictions have probabilistic character here. " And yet, if you do not avoid condescensions, you can agree with L. Mises that "many epigions of economists-classics have seen the task of economic science in the study of invalid events, but only those forces that some not quite understandably predetermined The emergence of real phenomena. "
Fourth, exploring the issues of economic growth and improving the welfare of the people, the classics did not simply proceed (again, unlike mercantlers) from the principle of achieving an active trade balance (positive balance), and they tried to substantiate the dynamism and equilibrium of the country's economy. However, as it is known, they were without serious mathematical analysis, the use of methods of mathematical modeling of economic problems that allow you to choose the best (alternative) option from a certain number of states of the economic situation. Moreover, the classic school. Achieving equilibrium in the economy considered automatically possible, dividing the "Law of Markets" mentioned above Z.SEI.
Finally, fifthly, money, has long been and traditionally considered by the artificial invention, during the period of classical political economy, spontaneously elected goods in the commodity world, which cannot be "canceled" by any agreements between people were recognized. Among the classics is the only one who demanded the abolition of money was P. Bagilber. At the same time, many authors of the classic school right up to middle of the XIX century. Did a variety of money functions were not given valued, allocating one - the function of the treatment tool, i.e. Taking money product as a thing as a technical tool, convenient for sharing. The underestimation of other functions of money was due to the misunderstanding of the opposite effect on the sphere of monetary factors.
Among the adherents of the skill of A. Smita in the postmanifact period, i.e. In the first half of the XIX century, in the history of economic thought, first of all, the names of D. Ricardo, J.B. Say, T.Maltus, N. Senior, F. Bastia and some other economists mention. Their work bears the imprint of the "new" time, which showed that economic science should be made again in comprehendment of the people achieved in the "wealth of peoples" in many economic categories and theories.
2. Economic teachings of representatives of the classic school
2.1 Economic Teaching Adam Smith
Adam Smith was born on June 5, 1723. The second half of 18 in England there were favorable conditions for the take-off of economic thought. His higher development, classical political economy reached in the works of British scientists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Like their predecessors, the founders of the classical school considered economic science as the doctrine of wealth and ways to increase it.
The main labor of Adam Smith on political economy is fundamental work - "Study of the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples." Smith's book consists of five parts. In the first, he analyzes the issues of value and income, in the second - nature of capital and its accumulation. In them, he outlined the foundations of his teaching. In other parts, he considers the development of Europe's economy in the era of feudalism and the formation of capitalism, the history of economic thoughts and government finances.
Adam Smith explains that the main theme of his work is economic development: the forces acting temporarily and manage the wealth of peoples.
"Study of the nature and causes of wealth" is the first in economic science of full-fledged work, sets out the general basis of science - the theory of production and distribution. Then an analysis of the action of these abstract principles on historical material and, finally, a number of examples of their application in economic policies. Moreover, all this work will penetrate the high idea of \u200b\u200bthe "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", to which, as he seemed to Adam Smith, the whole world goes. The central motive is the soul of the "wealth of peoples" - this is the action of the "invisible hand"; We get our bread not by the grace of the baker, but from its selfish interest. Smith managed to guess the fruitful idea that under certain social conditions, which we are described by the term "working competition" today, private interests can really be harmoniously combined with the interests of society. A market economy, not managed by collective will, not subordinate to a single plan, nevertheless, follows the strict rules of conduct. The impact on the market situation of the actions of one individual person, one of the set, may be imperceptibly. And in fact, he pays those prices that are requested from it, and can choose the amount of goods at these prices, based on its greatest benefit. But the totality of these individuals establishes prices; Each individual buyer is subject to prices, and the prices themselves are subject to the totality of all individual reactions. Thus, the "invisible hand" of the market provides a result that does not depend on the will and intention of the individual.
Moreover, this market automatism may well in a certain sense to optimize the distribution of resources. Smith removed the burden of evidence and created the postulate: decentralized, and atomistic competition in a certain sense ensures "maximum satisfaction of needs". Undoubtedly, Smith gave a deep meaning of his doctrine "maximum satisfaction of needs". He showed that:
Free competition to strive to equate prices to production costs, optimizing the distribution of resources within these industries;
Free competition in the markets of production factors seeks to equalize the net advantages of these factors in all sectors and thereby establishes the optimal allocation of resources between the industries.
He did not say that various factors will be in the optimal proportions to be combined in production or that the goods will be optimally distributed among consumers. He did not say that saving from the scale and side effects of production are often interfere with the achievement of a competitive optimum, although the being of this phenomenon is reflected in his arguments about public works. But he really took the first step towards the theory of optimal distribution of these resources in the context of competing.
For the sake of fairness, it should be noted that his own faith in the advantage of the "invisible hand" is less related to considerations about the effectiveness of resource allocation in the static conditions of perfect competition. The decentralized price system, he considered desired because it gives results in dynamics: expands the scale of the market, multiplies the benefits associated with the division of labor - in one word, works like a powerful motor that provides capital accumulation and income growth.
Smith was not satisfied with the declaration that the free market economy provides the best life of life. It pays a lot of attention to the exact definition of the institutional structure, which would guarantee the best work of market forces.
He understands that:
personal interests may equally impede, and contribute to the growth of the welfare of society;
the market mechanism will establish harmony only when it is included in the relevant legal and institutional framework.
2.2 Economic doctrine D. Ricardo
David Ricardo (1772--1823) is one of the bright personalities of the classical political economy of England, the follower and at the same time an active opponent of the individual theoretical provisions of the heritage of the Great A. Smita. The whole economic system of Ricardo arose as a continuation, development and criticism of Smith's theory. In the time of Ricardo, the industrial coup was in the initial stage, the essence of capitalism was not fully manifested. Therefore, the doctrine of Ricardo continues the ascending line for the development of the classical school.
The peculiarity of the position of Ricardo is that the subject of political economy has the study of the distribution. In its main theoretical work, the "start of political economy and tax case", Ricardo writes, bearing in mind the distribution of a social product: "Determine the laws that manage this distribution is the main task of political economy." It may impress that in this question, Ricardo takes a step back compared to A. Smith, since he puts forward a distribution area as a subject of political economy. However, in reality it is not at all. First of all, Ricardo will not at all exclude from the object of its analysis the scope of production. At the same time, the emphasis, which makes Ricardo on the distribution sphere, is aimed at identifying the social form of production as its own subject of political economy. And although the problem is not brought by Ricardo to its complete scientific decision, the importance of such a formulation in the works of the end of the classical school is difficult to overestimate.
In the works of Ricardo, it is in fact an attempt to allocate people's production relations, unlike the productive forces of society and declare these attitudes with their own subject of political economy. Ricardo actually identifies the entire set of production relations with distribution relations, thereby significantly limiting the framework of political economy. Nevertheless, Ricardo gave a deep interpretation of the subject of political economy, closely approached the secrets of the social mechanism of the capitalist economy. For the first time in the history of political savings, it was the basis of the economic theory of capitalism for the first time, the labor theory of value, which reflects the universal, the most typical relations for capitalism, namely the commodity relationship.
That is new that Ricardo has been submitted to the labor theory of value, due to the change in the historical situation, the transition of manufacturing capitalism to the capitalism of the machine stage. An important merit of Ricardo is that he, relying on the labor theory of value, he approached an understanding of the unified basis of all capitalist income - profits, land rent, percentage. Although he did not open the surplus value and the law of surplus value, however, Ricardo clearly saw that labor represents the only source of value and, consequently, the income of classes and social groups that do not participate in production are actually the result of the assignment of someone else's unpaid labor.
The theory of profit Ricardo is inherent in two most important contradictions:
Contradiction between the law of value and the law of surplus value, which was expressed in the inability of Ricardo to explain the origin of the surplus value in terms of the law of value;
The contradiction between the law of value and the law of average profits, which was expressed in the fact that he failed to explain the average profit and the price of production from the position of the theory of labor value.
The main disadvantage of the theory of D. Ricardo is the identification of labor to them as a product with its function - labor. Thus, it leaves the problem of clarifying the essence and mechanism of capitalist exploitation. But, nevertheless, Ricardo is quite closely suitable for the correct quantitative determination of the labor price, actually the cost of labor. The distinctive natural and market prices of labor, he believes that under the influence of supply and supply, the natural price of labor is reduced to the value of a certain amount of vitality necessary not only for the content of workers and continue their kind, but also to a certain extent for development. Consequently, the natural price of labor is the cost category.
By Ricardo, the market price of labor fluctuates around natural under the influence of the natural movement of the working population. In case of exceeding the market price of labor over the natural, the number of workers increases significantly, the proposal of labor increases, at a certain stage increases the demand for it. For these circumstances, unemployment arises, the market value of occupation is beginning to fall. Its fall continues until the number of the working population begins to decrease, the proposal of labor will not decrease in accordance with the value of demand for it. In this case, the market labor price is reduced in relation to natural. Thus, the interpretation of the natural product of labor in D. Ricardo is quite contradictory.
David Ricardo was the end of the bourgeois political economy precisely because the scientific truths revealed to them became increasingly socially dangerous for the political and economic positions of the dominant class.
2.3 Economic teaching T. Malthus
Thomas Robert Maltus (1766-1834) is a prominent representative of the classical political economy of England. The creativity of this scientist was formed mainly in the first quarter of the XIX century, but the results of his scientific research are valuable for modern economic theory.
A bright, peculiar contribution to economic science was made by the representative of the classical school Englishman T. Malthus. TRAKTAT T. Malthus "Experience on the Law of Population", published in 1798, produced and produces such a powerful impression on the reading public that discussions about this work are being conducted to the present. The range of ratings in these discussions is extremely wide: from the "brilliant foresight" to- "anti-science nonsense".
T. Malthus was not the first who wrote about demographic problems, but, perhaps, was the first one who tried to offer the theory describing the patterns of changes in population numbers. As for its system of evidence and statistical illustrations, they have already been presented to them in those days. In the XVIII-XIX centuries, T. Malthus, T. Malthus became known mainly due to the fact that her the author first proposed the refutation of the widespread thesis that the human society could be improved by social reform. For the economic science, TRAKTAT T. Malthus is valuable by the analytical conclusions that were subsequently used by other theoretics of classical and some other schools.
As we know, A. Smith proceeded from the fact that the material wealth of society is the relationship between the volume of consumption items and the population. The main attention of the Classical School founder paid to the study of patterns and conditions for the growth of production volume, the questions related to the patterns of changes in the population of the population were practically not considered. This task took on T. Malthus.
From the point of view, T. Malthus, there is a contradiction between the "instinct of the continuation of the kind" and the limited lands suitable for agricultural production. Instincts force humanity to multiply with very high speed, "in geometric progression". In turn, agriculture, but only it produces foods necessary for people, can produce these products with a much lesser speed, "in arithmetic progression." Consequently, any increase in the production of food production will be previously or later absorbed by the increase in population. Thus, the cause of poverty is the ratio of the growth rate of the population and the growth rates of life benefits. Any attempt to improve the living conditions by social reform is subject to no increasing human mass.
Relatively low growth rate of food products T. Malthus associates with the action of the so-called law of decreasing soil fertility. The meaning of this law is that the number of land facilities suitable for agricultural production is limited. The volume of production can grow only due to extensive factors, and each next land plot is included in the economic turnover, everything with a large amount of costs, the natural fertility of each of the next land plot is lower than the previous one, and therefore the overall level of fertility of the entire land fund as a whole tends to reducing . Progress in the field of agricultural production technology is generally very slow and is not able to compensate for the decrease in fertility.
Thus, hanging people with the ability to limitless reproduction, nature through economic processes imposes human limiters to the genus, which regulate the increase in numbers. Among these limiters, T. Malthus allocates: a moral limiter and a weakness of health that lead to a decrease in fertility, as well as vicious life and poverty, which lead to the increase in mortality. The decline in the birth rate and the increase in mortality is ultimately determined by the limitation of livelihood.
Of this formulation, the problem in principle can make completely different conclusions. Some commentators and interpreters T. Malthus saw in his theory of a manon-nurseful doctrine, which justifies poverty and calls for wars as the method of eliminating the unnecessary population. Others believe that T. Malthus laid the theoretical foundations of the Policy "Family Planning", which is widely used in the last thirty years in many countries of the world. T. Malthus himself only in every way emphasized only one thing - it is necessary to take care of himself and fully responsible for his inadvertime.
2.4 Economic Teaching J. S. Mill
John Stewart Mill (1806-1873) is one of the completes of classical political economy. John Stewart Mill is one of the completes of classical political economy and "recognized authority in scientific circles whose research go beyond the technical economy."
The first "experiments" on political economy J.S. Mill published when he was 23 years old, i.e. In 1829, in 1843 his philosophical work "Logic System" appeared, which brought him fame. The main work (in five books, like A. Smita) entitled "The foundations of political economy and some aspects of their application to social philosophy" was published in 1848
J.S. Mill adopted a Ricardian view on the subject of political economy, putting forward to the fore "laws of production" and "distribution laws".
To the theory of the value of J.S. Mille considered the concept of "exchange value", "consumer value", "cost" and some others, he draws attention to the fact that the cost (value) cannot increase in all goods at the same time, since the cost represents The concept is relative.
The wealth, according to Mill, consists of goods with exchange costs as a characteristic property. "The thing for which nothing can be obtained instead, no matter how helpful or necessary, it is not wealth ... For example, air, although it is an absolute need for a person, no price has no price on the market, since it can be obtained practically free. " But as soon as the restriction becomes tangible, the thing immediately acquires the change value. The cash expression of the value of the goods is its price.
The cost of money is measured by the number of goods which you can buy them. "For other things being equal, the cost of money changes inversely proportional to the amount of money: any increase in the amount reduces their cost, and any decrease increases it in a completely identical proportion ... This is a specific property of money." We begin to understand the importance of money in the economy only when the monetary mechanism fails.
Directly prices are established by competition, which arises due to the fact that the buyer tries to buy cheaper, and sellers - sell more expensive. With free competition, the market price corresponds to equality of supply and demand. On the contrary, "the monopolist may, at its discretion, appoint any high price, if only she did not exceed the consumer, or does not want to pay; But this can not, only limit the proposal. "
On a long period of time, the price of goods cannot be lower than its production costs, since no one wants to produce himself at a loss. Therefore, the state of sustainable equilibrium between supply and supply "comes only when the items exchange each other commensurate their production costs."
Mill's capital calls the accumulated stock of labor products, resulting from savings and the existing "way of its constant reproduction." The savings themselves are understood as "abstaining from current consumption for the sake of future benefits." Therefore, savings are growing along with the rate of interest.
Production activities are limited by capital size. However, "every increase in capital conducts or can lead to a new increase in production, and without a certain limit ... If there are people and food capable of work for their feed, they can always be used in any production." This is one of the main provisions that distinguish the classical economic science from later.
Mille recognizes, however, that other restrictions are inherent in the development of capital. One of them is a reduction in capital income, which he explains the fall in the limit productivity of capital. Thus, increasing the volume of agricultural products "will never be achieved differently than by increasing labor costs in proportion that increases the volume in which the volume of agricultural products increases."
In general, when presenting a question about Mill's profits, seeks to adhere to Ricardo's views. The emergence of the average rate of profit leads to the fact that the profit becomes proportional to the capital used, and the prices are proportional costs. "That profit can be equal where costs are equal, i.e. Costs of production, things should exchange each other in proportion to the costs of their production: things whose costs of production are the same, must have the same cost, because only in this way the same costs will bring the same income. "
Mill's essence is analyzed, based on a simple quantitative theory of money and the theory of market percentage.
Mill's creativity meant the completion of the formation of classical economic science, the beginning of which was put by Adam Smith.
Z.Action
The classic school of political economy applies to the number of mature directions of economic thought that left a deep mark in the history of economic exercises. The economic ideas of the classical school did not lose their significance to the present day. The classical direction originated in the XVII century and bloomed in the XVIII and at the beginning of the XIX century. The greatest merit of classics is that they put in the center of the economy and economic research work as creative strength and cost as an embodiment of value, thereby putting the beginning of the labor theory of value. The classic school has become a proclaimer of economic freedom ideas, liberal directions in the economy. Representatives of the classical school developed a scientific idea of \u200b\u200bthe surplus value, profits, taxes, land rental. In the depths of the classic school, in fact, the economic science was originated.
The main ideas of classical political economy are:
1. A person is considered only as an "economic person", which has only one desire - the desire for its own benefit, to improving its position. Morality, culture, customs, etc. Not taken into account.
2. All parties participating in the economic transaction are free and equal to the law and in the sense of foresight and prudency.
3. Each economic entity is fully aware of prices, profits, wages and rent on any market both at the moment and in the future.
4. The market provides full resource mobility: labor and capital can instantly move to the right place.
5. Elasticity of wage workers no less than one. In other words, any increase in wages leads to an increase in the number of labor, and any decrease in wages to reduce the number of labor force.
6. The sole purpose of capitalist is to maximize the capital.
7. The scale of the labor market takes place the absolute flexibility of money wages (its value is determined only by the relationship between supply and demand in the labor market).
8. The main factor in the increase in wealth is the accumulation of capital.
9. Competition must be perfect, and the economy is free from excessive state intervention. In this case, the "invisible hand" of the market will provide the optimal distribution of resources.
LISTUsedLiterature
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3. Blag M. Economic thought in retrospect. M.: "Case LTD", 1994.
4. Yadgarov Ya.S. History of Economic Thought. M., 2000.
5. Galbreit J.K. Economic theories and goals of society. M.: Progress, 1979.
6. Flu Sh., Rist S. History of economic exercises. M.: Economy, 1995.
7. Kondratyev N.D. Election op. M.: Economics, 1993.
8. Negoshi T. History of economic theory. - M.: Aspect - Press, 1995.
Classical political economy is the economic teaching of the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries, designed to solve the problems of free private entrepreneurship.
The features of the classic political economy were:
The doctrine of the labor theory of the cost, on which the science "Political economy" was based;
The main principle is "Laissez Faire" ("Provide cases of going to your course"), that is, the complete non-interference of the state into the economy. It is in this case that the "invisible hand" of the market, according to Smith and its followers, will ensure optimal resource allocation;
The subject of study is mainly the disposal of production;
The price of goods is determined by the costs spent on its production;
A person is considered only as an "economic person", striving for his own advantage, to improving its position;
The purpose of capitalist's entrepreneurial activity is to obtain a profit maximum;
Morality, morality, cultural values \u200b\u200bare not taken into account;
Capital accumulation is the main factor in the increase in wealth;
Economic growth is achieved by producing labor in the field of material production;
Money is an instrument facilitating the process of the exchange of goods.
At the origins of the classical political economy stood W. Petit (England) and P. Buagilber (France), A. Smith and D. Riccardo.
At the heart of economic views A. Smith Lies the following idea: material production products are the wealth of the nation, and the magnitude of the latter depends:
- from the share of the population engaged in productive labor;
- labor productivity.
The main factor in increasing the level of productivity - division of labor, or specialization.
The result of the division of labor is:
- Saving work time;
- Improving work skills;
- invention of machines that facilitate manual labor.
Money, according to A. Smith, there is a special product that is an universal exchange. A. Smith believed that the costs of treatment should be minimal, and therefore preference to paper money.
In the theory of value, the inconsistency of A. Smith's views is pronounced. In their works, he gives three approaches to the concept "Cost":
1) the cost is determined by the cost of labor;
2) The cost is determined by the worked work, that is, the amount of labor to which this product can be purchased. This provision is true for simple commodity production, and in the conditions of capitalist production - no, since the commodity producer receives more than spent on the payment of labor;
3) The cost is determined by income, that is, the sources of income to which the scientist believed wages, profit and rent. This definition is called "Dogma Smith" and formed the basis of the theory of production factors.
Recognizing that the cost of a single product, in addition to income, also includes the cost of consumed means of production, Smith, however, argued that their cost is created by living labor in other industries, so ultimately the cost of the total social product comes down to the amount of income. Thus, it turns out that the cost of means of production created by the labor of past years has disappeared.
Salary is a "product of labor", fertile for work. The amount of wages depends on the economic situation in the country, since the demand for labor increases with increasing wealth.
Profit is "deduction from the product of labor", the difference between the value of the product produced and the wages of workers.
Land rent is also "deducting from the product of labor", which is created by the unpaid labor of workers.
Capital is a part of the reserves on which the capitalist expects income.
The main factor in the accumulation of capital, according to A. Smith, - thrift. A. Smith introduced the division of capital on the main and revisidant. Under the fundamental capital, he understood the capital that does not enter into the process of treatment, but under a turnover - capital, which changes the form in the production process.
The principle of complete non-interference of the state in the country's economy is a condition for wealth. State regulation is necessary in the event of a threat to a general good.
A. Smith formulated four tax rules:
- proportionality - citizens of the state are obliged to pay taxes in proportion to the funds obtained;
- minimality - each tax must be charged so that it removes from the population is less than the excess of what enters the state;
- certainty - the payment time, method and amount of tax should be clearly installed. This information must be available to any taxpayer;
- Ease of payer - time and method of paying tax must comply with the requirements of payers.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) - Economist of the Epoch of the Industrial Revolution - Born in the Family of the Exchange Macler in London. He studied at the Trade School.
D. Ricardo in the "Beginning" laid the basis of the model method in research of economic theory.
The main provisions of the research methodology D. Ricardo:
- the system of political economy is presented as unity, subordinate to the law of value;
- recognition of objective economic laws, that is, laws that do not depend on the will of the person;
- a quantitative approach to economic laws, that is, D. Ricardo, an attempt was made to find a quantitative relationship between such categories as the cost, wages, profit, rent, etc.;
- D. Ricardo sought to identify patterns, excluding random phenomena, that is, adhered to an abstract method.
The main task of political economy D. Ricardo saw in the definition of laws controlling the distribution of the product between classes
Marxism
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) - German economist, philosopher, founder of Marxism - the economic direction, which expressed the interests of the working class. Marxism is a peculiar option for the development of a classic economic school.
The main work is "Capital". Due to the significant financial support of his friend F. Engels K. Marx published in 1867 the first volume of "Capital". To complete the writing of the second and third volumes K. Marx was failed due to awareness of the unexplosion of work. March 14, 1883 he died. The refinement and preparation for the printing of the second and third volumes was carried out by F. Engels. The fourth volume was published after the death of F. Engels in 1905.
Methodology K. Marx takes the beginning of the following sources: Classical political economy of A. Smith and D. Ricardo - labor theory of value, labor productivity, etc German classical philosophy - dialectic and materialism; Utopic Socialism is sociological aspects, the concept of class struggle.
An individual feature of the methodology K. Marx is the idea base and add-in : Cumulative industrial relations of people, the economic structure of society - the basis for which the superstructure is located.
The cost of goods proceeds from the magnitude of the socially necessary labor costs spent on its production at the average level of intensity - law of value Formulated by K. Marx.
In his teaching K. Marx distinguished the consumer and exchange cost. Consumer cost - the ability of the goods to meet the needs. Exchange value - The ability of the thing to exchange to another product.
Surplus value, on Marx, there is the cost of the product of unpaid labor workers. The introduction of this concept made it possible to show how without a violation of the law of value, the worker receives only part of the payment of his work. The real wage, as a scientist believes, never grows in proportion to an increase in productive labor, that is, signs of operation manifest.
Objective - The ratio of surplus value to the size of alternating capital corresponding to the payment of labor.
Money is the goods, spontaneously allocated from all types of goods and playing the role of the universal equivalent, the expressive value of all goods. Money, according to K. Marx, are a universal payment and purchasing agent, but they cannot exist in the absence of trade exchange. K. Marx considered money the first form of capital existence.
Under capital they understood money bringing the surplus value.
Capital in the circuit runs three stages:
- from the monetary form goes into a productive, representative means of production and labor;
- in the second stage, production capital is involved in the production process, moving to the commodity form;
- By selling products, the product form of capital is transformed into monetary.
The change of stages is carried out consistently.
In the circuit capital, which simultaneously performs in three forms (monetary, productive and commodity), K. Marx identified as industrial capital .
The essence of the theory of cyclicity of economic development of capitalism is that the achievement of macroeconomic equilibrium and consistent economic growth is impossible as a result of the existence of economic crises. The cause of the crisis is the lack of automatic growth of efficient demand, when expanding production. Low wages lead to the absence of workers' ability to buy commodity products produced by them. Exit from the crisis and ensuring the reproduction of K. Marx saw in additional expenses from the capitalists and landowners.
The main stages of classical political economy.The first theoretical direction is the name of "classical political economy", originated in the second half of the XVII century. and existed until the end of the XIX century. The time of its existence can be divided into three stages. .
First stage (End of the XVII - the end of the XVII centuries) - silent stageHis representatives are predecessors of classical political economy. Mercantilism continued to be the dominant economic concept.
Second phase (end of the XVIII-mid-XIX centuries) - full domination of classical political economy. The point of reference can be considered the work of the English scientist A. Smita "Study of nature and the cause of the wealth of peoples" of 1776. The classical political economy was recognized as an independent science and began to teach it at universities as an independent discipline. J. Mile his work in 1848 "Basics of Political Economy" completed the second stage and outlined start of the third stage (middle and end of the XIX century). K. Marks his work in 1850 in the draft version presented the work "Capital" finally confirms that the third period of development of the classical political economy came, which can also be called transient.At this time, new directions of economic science emerge, which have become dominant in the XX B, - marginalism and institutionalism.
Subjectlearning classical political economy was sphere of production, considered the main, primary sphere of the economy. Accordingly, the wealth of the people began to be considered a product as a direct result of production. The emergence of a new subject of study of economic thoughts is due to the fact that the development of classical political economy was a reflection of the spread of capitalist relations in industry and agriculture.
First stageclassical political economy corresponds the period of development of manufactory production,passage of the transition period from economic thoughts to economic theory - mercantilism.(See lecture 4)
The second stage corresponds to the period of "industrial coup" In England and France.
Methodologythe classical political economy was different from the methodology of mercantilism, as they did not describe, but analyzed economic phenomena, applying the method of logical abstraction, and systematized theoretical categories obtained as a result of the analysis using the method of deduction, moving from a general theory to more private manifestations. General initial theory has become cost theory Defined costs for the production of goods. The theory of cost was based on theory prices, money, income, etc., that is the principle of systematization of classical political economy This is the principle of the original category through which all other economic categories are connected with each other. The impact of the methodology was influenced by philosophy, and on philosophy - natural sciences. Accuming by the XVII century, considerable experience and material, scientists and thinkers came to the development of the general theory of the world around. In classical political economy, such ideas were manifested in the Regulations on "Natural" (objective) economic laws in theories of F.Kene and A. Smita and the Smith category of "Economic Man", which is mechanically sent to maximum benefits. The economy as a whole was presented as the amount of "economic people", where economic entities act as screws and gear. Thus, in addition to the idea of \u200b\u200ban "economic person" for the classical political economy, the interpretation of economic relations as a relationship between classes was characterized.
The methodology of classical political economy is presented in the works of the prominent founders of this school: A. Smith ("Research on the nature and causes of wealth of peoples", 1776), D. Ricardo ("The beginning of political economy and taxation", 1817), N. Senior, J. Mill, and others. A. Smith considered the subject of economic science - the economic development and growth of the well-being of society, the development of the economy relies on the material resources of society. The main provisions of the Methodology of A. Smith are as follows:
The interests of individuals coincide with the interests of society;
- "Economic man" is a person endowed with egoism and striving for increasing accumulation of wealth;
An indispensable condition for economic laws is free competition;
Pursuit of profit and free trade is estimated as an activity that is advantageous to the whole society;
"Invisible hand" operates on the market, with the help of which free competition manages the actions of people through their interests and leads to a permit of social problems in the best way, which is most beneficial to both individuals and the whole society;
Recognition of the actions of objective economic laws;
A quantitative approach to economic laws (finding quantitative relations between such categories as cost, wages, profit, rent, percentage, etc.);
Use in the studies of the abstract method.
As a result, he made the conclusion that state regulation should be minimal.
A. Smith described his research method as a system of reasoning at which we first we ask "some principles, apparent or proven, based on these, we explain a number of phenomena by tying all the general logic of reasoning." A. Smith tied science with "surprise", it allows you to do unexpected discoveries and admire.
D. Ricardo believed that the main task of economic science is to identify economic laws that manage the distribution of the product between classes. He formulated the economic law - "The Law of the Fall of the Norm of Profit", created the theory of land rent. D. Ricardo considered economic theory of science not by virtue of the methods used by it, but due to the reliability of its conclusions.
N. Senior argued that economic science is based on "a few common prerequisites that arise from observations of the surrounding reality or common sense and who almost every person, barely heard them, would recognize fair because they coincide with his own observations."
N. Senior allocated the following prerequisites:
1) Each person seeks to maximize its welfare with the minimum effort;
2) the population is growing faster than the resources required for its feed;
3) work armed with machines can produce a positive clean product;
4) In agriculture, the rate of return decreases.
James Mill determined economic science as "mental". She is interested in human motives and ways of behavior of people in economic life. Mill has allocated the following motifs: the desire for wealth, thirst for free time, non-economic motifs (habits, customs). He considered political economy by abstract science, which uses a priori method, i.e. The method of philosophizing that does not have any attitude towards experience at all. A priori method is a way to reason, pushing out some of the hypothesis put forward. Since the hypothesis is a premise, it may not have the actual base, and in this sense it can be said that the conclusions of political economy, as well as the conclusions of the geometry, are correct only abstractly, i.e. With some assumptions. Thus, J. Mill under the political economy as science understood a deductive analysis based on some psychological prerequisites and abstracts from all economic aspects of human behavior. Deduction is a way of reasoning from general provisions for private, the withdrawal of private provisions from any general thought (opposite induction). Mill believed that economic laws act as trends.
The main methodological provisions of the classical political economy can be expressed in the following paragraphs:
1 Classical Political Economy is the theory of wealth. She studied the economy predominantly at the exit, from the material result of industrial activities - a social product, its structure and dynamics. The product theory of the classical school was used further in the studies of K. Marx, V.leontiev, and others, in economic statistics, in various growth theories. Its empirical base and methods - work with macroeconomic data;
2 Classic School is a school of political economy, not economics. She did not just conduct an analysis of economic phenomena, but tried to consider them in connection with political, cultural, legal and other relations in society. Theoretics of this school was inherent in a synthetic, integrating approach;
3 The classic school sought to create an extremely abstract picture of economic reality. This led to a large extent to the rupture between the theoretical and empirical basis in a scientific study and gave the soil to criticize this direction by K. Marks and the German Historical School (V.Oroshera, G. Shmoller, etc.);
4 The classical political economy in the advantage took to armared the qualitative methodology for the study of economic phenomena, which led to the presence of large errors in their conclusions and caused a subsequent wave of criticism from other areas.
A. Smita and D.Rikardo laid the beginning of the labor theory of value. A. Smita introduced into scientific turnover and delimited the consumer and exchange value of the goods: "The word cost has two different meanings: sometimes it means the usefulness of some object, and sometimes the possibility of acquiring other items that is given by this subject. The first can be called a consumer value, the second-exchange cost.
A. Smita begins his study from the division of labor playing an important role in increasing labor productivity and in the growth of national wealth. It is with the division of labor that he has an idea of \u200b\u200ban "economic person". This category underlies the cost analysis, exchange, money, production. The cost, by Smith, is determined by the difficult labor of one particular person, but the average necessary for this level of development of productive forces. D. Ricardo proved that the unified criterion for determining the cost is the work expended on the production of goods and measured by the cost of working time. He more clearly had the differences between the consumer value of the goods and its value and showed that in production, the cost of the goods was determined by the work spent.
1 History of economic exercises / Ed. V.S. Avtonovova, O.I. Ananin, N.A. Makashova - M., 2001.
2 History of economic exercises / Ed. A.G. Hoodocormov. - M., 1998.
3 Orekhov, A.M. Methods of economic research / A.M. Orekhov.- M., Infra-M, 2009.
4 Riccardo, D. Beginning of Political Savings and Tax Cover / D. Riccardo // Op.: In 3T., M.: Politicize, 1955.
5 Smith, A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples / A.Smit. - M.: Econs, 1991.- T.1, p.36-37.
Control questions
1 Describe the main provisions of A. Smita methodology.
2 Give the characteristic of the research method A. Smita.
3 What are the merits of D. Ricardo in the development of economic science.
4 Give the characteristic of the main methodological provisions of classical political economy.
Topics of abstracts
1 Methodology of classical political economy.
2 Methods for the study of economists of the classical school.
3 Characteristics of the main works of A. Smita.
4 Characteristics of the main works of D.Rikarto.
