Architectural order.

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All rules given in this section are set out according to the Giacomo Vignola system (unless specifically stated otherwise).

In ancient Greek architecture, three orders emerged: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Later, two more were created: Tuscan (simple) in Rome, and complex (composite) in the Renaissance.

What is an architectural order Architectural order

- this is the order of arrangement of the structural parts of a structure, in which the rational distribution and interaction of the carrying and load-bearing parts received a certain figurative expression (form) that corresponds to the practical (utilitarian) and artistic purpose of the structure.

The order arose on the material basis of the post-and-beam structure and became its artistic expression. The main elements of the order are the column and the architrave ceiling. They perform a practical function, providing shelter from rain and sun; they are structural elements that form a sustainable construction system, and finally. They perform an artistic function, creating one or another artistic image of the building.

That is, the order system is constructive and at the same time artistic.

Orders and order systems received their highest development in ancient Greece in the VI-III centuries. BC. in temples and public buildings built of stone. But elements of the order began to take shape in adobe-wood architecture that was more ancient than stone, which has not reached us. The structures and forms developed in wood were then turned into stone, modified under the influence of new materials and new ways of processing and designing them. In ancient Greece, three main orders were developed: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

Later, during the Renaissance, the architectural order began to be understood as a collection of rules formulated by Vitruvius in his treatise “On Architecture”. But since not a single drawing has survived and this work contains many gaps regarding the proportions of various parts of the order, several interpretations have arisen from different Renaissance authors.

The proportions of orders have never been a strict canon and have varied throughout the history of architecture. The proportions given here are taken from Vignola from the book of Augustus Garneri “Orders of Civil Architecture” and from the book by I.B. Mikhailovsky "Theory of classical architectural forms".

Limitation of the use of the order system

The canonical order systems, created by theoretician and practical architects and reflecting centuries-old construction experience, despite all their clarity and regularity, do not answer many questions and are to some extent abstract schemes that ignore many specific construction conditions.

In these systems, the real scale is almost not taken into account, the connection between the order and the building itself and its surroundings is not understood, and the material is not taken into account; assigning a specific intercolumnium size to each type of order is conditional and abstract.

But one must understand the true meaning of this system and the limits of its use. Classical architects did not consider the canonical order system as a collection of unchangeable rules and ready-made architectural forms and techniques that could only be borrowed and applied in practice. They believed that, based on the canonical system, order and order compositions need to be solved specifically, looking for their specific proportions and forms depending on the purpose of the building, compositional idea, scale, structures, environment, etc.

Articles

• Brief historical overview (Ikonnikov A.V.)

Development of the architectural order as an artistic and constructive system

Excerpt from the book: Ikonnikov A.V. “The artistic language of architecture” M.: Art, 1985, ill.

1 Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation State educational institution of higher professional education Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Department of design of buildings and structures CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS Guidelines for the discipline “Introduction to the specialty” for students of specialty 270114 “Building design” Voronezh 2010 2 UDC 72.014 (07 ) BBK 85.11 ya7 Compiled by F.M. Savchenko, T.V. Bogatova, E.E. Semenova Construction of architectural orders: method. instructions for the discipline “Introduction to the specialty” / Voronezh. state arch. - builds. University; comp.: F.M. Savchenko, T.V. Bogatova, E.E. Semenov. – Voronezh, 2010. – 28 p. The types of architectural orders are presented and the basic rules for their design are outlined. Concepts are given about the composition of the order, its proportions, types, construction in masses and details. Intended for students of specialty 270114 “Building Design”. Il. 19. Bibliography: 4 titles. UDC 72.014 (07) BBK 85.11 ya7 Published by decision of the editorial and publishing council of the Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering. Reviewer – D.A. Kazakov, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Construction Technology, Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering. 3 Introduction The course “Introduction to the Specialty” talks about the variety of architectural types of buildings and their details, gives an idea of ​​​​the emergence of structural elements. The purpose of teaching the course “Introduction to the Specialty” is to familiarize students with the historical development of architectural and construction business. The discipline includes a theoretical course and practical work, which allows you to study architectural orders and their construction in more detail. During the learning process, students must learn to evaluate design solutions, identify architectural elements and details of buildings. Studying the artistic and functional sides of architecture will provide a significant amount of constructive and technical information for creative work. In the future, students will be able to apply this knowledge in coursework and diploma design. 1. GENERAL INFORMATION The word order comes from the Latin word “ordo”, which means order. The order is the combination of a column, pedestal and entablature; the order may be complete or incomplete. The complete order contains an entablature, a column and a pedestal. An incomplete order does not have a pedestal. All parts of the order are in a certain ratio. For this purpose, a unit of measurement has been introduced - the module, which is equal to the lower radius of the column. Humanity has been searching for the relationship between column, entablature and pedestal for many centuries. In order for the column to make a good impression, the largest theorist of the 16th century. Vignola determined the ratio of its parts. The pedestal should be 1/3 of the column, the entablature should be 1/4, and the overall column is defined as 1/4 +1 + 1/3 = 19/12. Thus, if the height of a wall is given, which needs to be supplemented with a full order, then the entire height of the wall is divided into 19 parts. The top three parts will be the entablature, the bottom four will be the pedestal, and the middle twelve will be the column. If the order is incomplete, the height of the wall must be divided into 5 parts. The upper 1/5 part will be an entablature, the remaining four parts will be a column (Fig. 1, a - 1, b). All main parts of the order - pedestal, column, entablature - consist of three parts. The pedestal is a square pillar in plan, expanding upward and downward. The lower extension is called the base, the upper is the cornice, and the middle part is the body of the pedestal or chair. In a column, the middle part is called the trunk (fust), the upper extension is the capital, and the lower extension is the base. The entablature also consists of three parts. The lower wide strip is called an architrave, the middle equally wide strip is a frieze, the upper one is a cornice (Fig. 1, c). 4 Fig.1. Proportions and main parts of the order: a – incomplete order; b – full order; c - general view of the complete order. Roman architecture distinguishes five orders, which are called: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and complex. The height of a Tuscan column is determined in 14 modules, Doric - 16, Ionic - 18, Corinthian and complex - 20. For the convenience of measuring parts, the module is divided into smaller parts, called desks. The number of desks in the module is different for different columns. For the Tuscan and Doric order, the number of parts in the module is taken to be 12, for the Ionic, Corinthian and complex - 18. 2. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ORDER IN MASSES The study of orders usually begins with constructing them in masses, that is, a simplified schematic representation, when curvilinear forms are replaced by inclined straight lines . The basis for performing the exercise of drawing orders in masses is the task, which is determined by the last digit of the grade book (Table A.1). Four orders in masses with the dimensions of individual parts in modules are shown in Fig. 2. The construction of the cornice and base of the pedestal, as well as the base of the column, is clear from the figure. The height of the column base for all orders is equal to 1 module. Rice. 2. Construction of orders in masses 5 6 To determine the width of the pedestal chair, it is recommended to use a rule common to all orders. The column base plinth forms a square in plan, the diagonal of which is equal to 4 modules. Based on this, on the axis of the column, and therefore the pedestal, a line is drawn at an angle of 45° and on it, from the point of intersection with the axis, 2 modules are laid in each direction. Vertical lines are drawn through the obtained points, which determine the width of the base plinth of the column, as well as the width of the pedestal chair (Fig. 3). Rice. 3. Determination of the width of the chair of the pedestal of the architectural order: a - base (base); b – chair; c – pedestal cornice; d – column base The height of the capitals of Tuscan and Doric columns is 1 module. The capitals consist of three parts of equal height, 1/3 of each module. The upper square slab is called the abacus, below it the round part in plan is the echinus, below the echinus the continuation of the column rod is the neck. The radius of the neck corresponds to the upper radius of the column. For the Tuscan order, the radius is 4/5 modules, for other orders – 5/6 modules. The height of the Ionic capital is 2/3 of the module, as it is characterized by spiral curls (volutes) in the frontal planes and the absence of a column neck. The Corinthian capital has a height of 2 1/3 modules, including an abacus of 1/3 module, under which there is a bell 2 modules high. The bell is intricately worked with two tiers of leaves with curls, depicted in masses by slanted lines. The construction of the entablature and its components - the architrave, frieze and cornice - is shown in Fig. 2. In this case, the cornice consists of three parts - supporting, hanging and crowning. Column thinning. The column trunk at the bottom 1/3 of the height is built like a cylinder. The upper part, 2/3 of the height, gradually becomes thinner. In the Tuscan order - by 1/5 of the radius of the base of the column on each side, for other orders - by 1/6 of the radius (Fig. 4). The construction of column thinning can be done in two ways. The first method (Fig. 4, a). The height of the column is plotted from point M to point N. The radii of the lower (MA) and upper (NC) sections of the column are plotted from these points. At 1/3 of the height of the column from point B, a quarter circle with radius 0B is drawn, equal to the radius of the lower section. From point C, a vertical line is drawn until it intersects with horizontal lines 1, 2, 3, drawn from the points dividing the line. The parabolic outline of the column is drawn using the found points using a pattern. Rice. 4. Constructing a thinning of the column shaft The second method (Fig. 4, b). The same preliminary constructions were performed, with the same points AC and MN. Then, from point C, a notch is made with the radius of the lower section of the column AM. On the vertical NM, points K and C are connected by an inclined line until it intersects at point 0 with a horizontal line drawn 1/3 of the height from point B. Several inclined straight lines are drawn from point 0, for example 01, 02, 03, etc. On each inclined line from the vertical NM, segments m are plotted equal to the radius of the lower section of the column. The points obtained in this way will be the required points of the parabolic outline of the column. Extensions to parts of an order. All parts of the order have an extension downwards and upwards (see Fig. 2). The downward flare promotes stability. The need for upward expansion can be seen using the example of a cornice (Fig. 5). When constructing the main parts of orders, it is necessary to observe the non-hanging rule. It consists in ensuring that the upward extensions do not carry any load and, therefore, the upper parts of the architectural elements should not be wider than the lower ones. For example, the width of the architrave should be such that its edge is on the same vertical line with the upper diameter of the column trunk, and the width of the pedestal under the column should be equal to the width of the bottom of the column base. In any image of a corner column, the vertical line of the entablature angle must correspond to the continuation of the outline of the column trunk, that is, the supporting elements above and below must be in the same vertical plane (Fig. 6). Fig.5. Expansion upward using the example of a cornice: a – there is no cornice; b – cornice without teardrop; c - cornice with teardrop Fig. 6. Rule of weightlessness: a – the rule is not observed, the dash shows the zone of violation; b – the rule is followed 3. Drawing ORDERS IN DETAILS The basis for performing exercises on drawing architectural profiles (breakdowns) and architectural orders is the task. The guidelines contain tables in which, based on the last digit of the grade book, the student determines the type of order and the size of the module (Appendix 1). 3.1. Elements of profiles In order to consider orders in detail by replacing inclined lines with corresponding profiles, it is necessary to study what profiles there are. Elements of profiles are usually called breaks. As you know, there are two types of profiles - straight and curved. Straight profiles include a belt, a shelf, and a plinth. Curvilinear ones are divided into simple and complex. Simple profiles are built from one center, and complex ones from two centers. There are the following types of breaks (Fig. 7): 9 ● shelf - a profile in the form of a narrow strip protruding from the plane of the wall by no less than its width; Rice. 7. Architectural bummers. The size of the desk is 4.6 mm; ● quarter shaft – a profile having the outline of a quarter circle; ● fillet – a concave profile formed by a quarter circle; ● heel is a complex element that has two curvatures: at the top it forms a convexity, and at the bottom it forms a concavity; ● reverse heel – a complex element that has two curvatures: at the top it forms a concavity, and at the bottom it forms a convexity; ● jib – a profile that also has two curvatures: at the top it is concave, and at the bottom it is convex; ● reverse jib – a profile that has two curvatures: at the top it is convex, and at the bottom it is concave; 10 ● scotia – a concave profile with two curvatures; ● astragalus – a profile combining a shelf with a roller; ● semicircle – a profile that has the outline of a semicircle, but forms a concave profile; ● drain – a profile combining a reverse fillet with a shelf; ● roller and shaft – profiles that have the outline of a semicircle and differ in size; ● plinth – a profile of the lower part of the column base, looking like a low parallelepiped. Looking at these architectural fragments, you can see that the fillet and jib are light forms and unsuitable for supporting gravity. The quarter shaft and heel seem to be designed for this. The shaft is used mainly in bases. 3.2. Tuscan order in detail The Tuscan order is the simplest and heaviest in its proportions (Fig. 8). The height of the column is 7 diameters or 14 modules. The upper diameter of the column is 4/5 of the lower diameter. The column trunk ends at the top with an astragalus. The base, equal in height to the module, is divided into two equal parts: the lower one - a square plinth, and the upper one - a round shaft with a shelf. The transition from the column trunk to the shelf is made by means of a fillet. The module-high capital consists of three parts of the same height: a neck, which forms a continuation of the column; a quarter shaft with a shelf and an abacus in the form of a square slab in plan, which ends with a shelf. The architrave is equal in height to one module and ends with a shelf. Above the architrave there is a frieze 1 module high and 2 desks, without any decoration. The cornice, the upper part of the entablature in this order, is of the simplest form. Its height, equal to 1 module and 4 desks, is divided into three parts. This is the lower, supporting part, the middle part is the hanging part (tear stone or tear stone) and the upper part is the crowning part. The heel is the supporting part. There is a notch made on the lower part of the protruding teardrop (see section in Fig. 8), and the top of the teardrop is decorated with an astragalus. The crowning part is the quarter shaft. The pedestal has a base in the form of a plinth at the bottom with a shelf at the top and a heel-shaped cornice, also with a shelf. The height of both parts is 1/2 module. 3.3. Doric order in detail The Doric order consists of lighter and more developed forms than the Tuscan order. The general view and section of the order are shown in Fig. 9, and the profiles of the main parts of the order with dimensions in desks are given in Fig. 10. 11 The pedestal has a base at the bottom with a height of 5/6 modules or 10 desks. The base consists of two plinths, a reverse heel and a reverse astragalus. The construction of the height of these elements is shown in the section. The cornice of the pedestal is similar to the cornice of the Tuscan order. Rice. 8. Tuscan order: a – general view and section; b – cornice profile; c – profile of the column capital; d – profile of the column base and pedestal cornice; d – profile of the pedestal base with dimensions in desks. The size of the desk is 2 mm 12 Fig. 9. Doric order: general view and section It consists of a heel, a teardrop with a shelf and a quarter shaft with a shelf added on top. A teardropper at the bottom with a small notch. The height of the pedestal cornice is 1/2 module or 6 desks. The height of the column is eight of its diameters or 16 modules. The upper diameter of the column is equal to 5/6 of the lower diameter. The column trunk ends at the top with an astragalus. The side surface of the column trunk is sometimes decorated with longitudinal grooves called flutes. There are 20 flutes around the circumference of the column. The cannelures form semicircular depressions in plan. The radius of the flute is the leg of a right triangle, the hypotenuse of which is equal to the width of the flute. 13 Fig. 10. Profiles of the main parts of the Doric order with dimensions in desks: a – base of the pedestal; b – pedestal cornice; c – column base; g – column capital; d – architrave and frieze; e – cornice. The size of the desk is 3 mm. The base of the column consists of a plinth and a shaft. The shaft ends with a reverse astragalus, which serves as a transition to the column trunk. The height of the base is 1 module. The capital is also equal to 1 module. It is divided into three parts and consists of a neck, quarter shaft and abacus. The abacus is a square slab in plan. Under the 14th quarter shaft there are three narrow shelves arranged in ledges. The abacus ends with a shelf with a heel. The architrave is 1 module high and has a shelf at the top and a frieze 1 1/2 modules high. It is decorated above the center of each column with a triglyph 1 module wide. To form stripes, triglyphs are divided into 12 sections along the width. The strips are accepted to be 2 desks wide, and the bevels of the depressions are 1 desk wide. The spaces between the triglyphs on the frieze form metopes on which relief decorations can be placed. Under the triglyphs below the architrave shelf, six drops are suspended on a special narrow shelf, looking like truncated pyramids or truncated cones. They are located on the continuation of the lines separating the stripes from the depressions on the triglyph. Above the triglyphs and metopes there is a belt, which protrudes somewhat more above the triglyphs. The cornice is 1 1/2 modules high. Half of this value is occupied by the supporting part, which in turn is also divided into two parts. The lower part consists of the above-mentioned belt above the triglyphs and metopes and of a heel that supports the upper part, in the form of a shelf with teeth. On the middle part of the cornice - a teardrop, there is a heel with a shelf on top. There is a semicircular recess on the lower surface, then behind the narrow protruding shelf there is a second wide depression (see section Fig. 9). In this depression, just above the triglyphs, hang three rows of drops, six in a row. The crowning part of the cornice consists of a fillet with a small shelf. 3.4. Ionic order in detail The Ionic order is more perfect in its proportions than the Tuscan and Doric. The pedestal of this order has a base and a cornice 1/2 module high. Above the base plinth, which is square in plan, there is a reverse jib, enclosed between a reverse astragalus at the top and a shelf at the bottom. These parts are twice as high as the plinths. The cornice of the pedestal consists of a teardrop with a shelf and a heel on top and a quarter shaft supporting the teardrop with an astragal at the bottom. The general view, section and profiles of the cornice and base of the pedestal are shown in Fig. 11. A column of the Ionic order is equal in height to nine diameters or 18 modules. Its upper diameter is 5/6 of its lower diameter. The column trunk is decorated with 24 flutes. The flutes in plan form semicircular depressions, between which there are narrow paths. The flutes end in semicircles at the top and horizontally at the bottom. The column trunk at the bottom begins with a shelf with a fillet, and ends at the top with an astragalus. The column base is equal to 1 module and consists of three parts. The lower part is formed by a plinth, the upper by a shaft, and the middle by a special form consisting of two scotia and two astragalus. To determine the size of the shaft and scaffolds, another shelf of the column trunk is added. 15 The capital of an Ionic column does not have a neck. The height of the capital is 2/3 of the module or 12 desks. On an ordinary quarter shaft, placed above the astragalus of the column, rests a specially shaped abacus, consisting of two parts. Rice. 11. Ionic order: a – general view and section; b – profile of the pedestal cornice; c – profile of the pedestal base. The size of the desk is 4.3 mm. The upper part directly under the architrave is a square slab with a heel profile with a shelf. The lower part consists of two volutes in the form of spiral curls, ending in the center of the eyes - 16 rooms. The radius of the eye is equal to one desk. The centers of the eyes are located on the astragalus line of the column at a distance of 1 module from its axis. The greatest distance from the center to the top point of the volute is 9 parts. Through a quarter circle horizontally this distance is equal to 8 desks. The distance to the bottom point of the volute is measured in 7 parts. To the next point horizontally - 6 desks and to the vertical upwards - 5 desks. This distance is equal to the height of the quarter shaft of the capital, which is circular in plan and protrudes between the volutes. The plan of the capital shows how the curls of the volutes form rollers on the sides of the capital, the so-called balustrades, which are decorated with leaves. The profiles of the capital and column base are shown in Fig. 12. The volute spiral can be constructed approximately using points 1-12. The distances from the center of the volute eye to each point are taken in the following sequence: ● to point 1 – 9 desks; ● to point 2 – 8 desks; ● to point 3 – 7 desks; ● to point 4 – 6 desks; ● to point 5 – 5 desks; ● to point 6 – 4 desks; ● to point 7 – 3.7 desks; ● to point 8 – 3 desks; ● to point 9 – 2.4 desks; ● to point 10 – 2 desks; ● to point 11 – 1.6 desks; ● to point 12 – 1.3 desks. The exact construction of the volute of the capital of the Ionic order is given in Appendix 2. The Ionic order entablature has a height of 4 1/2 modules and is divided in the ratio 5:6:7 into an architrave (1 1/3 modules), a frieze (1 1/2 modules) and a cornice (1 3/4 modules). The architrave consists of stripes, and the width of each of them gradually increases in the ratio 5:6:7 and is successively equal from bottom to top to desks 5, 6 and 7. The architrave ends at the top with a heel with a shelf 1/4 module high (Fig. 13). In the cornice, the supporting part occupies half the height and consists of a heel, teeth and a quarter shaft, below which there is a small astragalus. The height of the cornice teardrop is equal to the crowning part. It ends with a shelf with a heel, and in the lower plane it has a wide but shallow recess. The crowning part of the cornice consists of a jib with a shelf (Fig. 14). 17 Fig. 12. Profiles of the capital and base of the column of the Ionic order with dimensions in desks. The size of the desk is 4.6 mm: a – column capital; b - column base 18 Fig. 13. Profiles of the architrave and frieze of the Ionic order with dimensions in desks. The size of the desk is 4.6 mm Fig. 14. Ionic order cornice profile with dimensions in desks. The size of the desk is 4.6 mm 19 20 3.5. Corinthian order in detail The Corinthian order is the lightest in proportions and the richest in decoration and decoration (Fig. 15-18). The pedestal has a base 5/6 module high and consists of a square plinth, a shaft, a reverse jib with a shelf at the bottom and a reverse astragalus at the top. The height of the pedestal cornice is, like the base, 5/6 of the module. The cornice consists of a neck (in the form of a small frieze), separated from the chair by an astragalus; a teardrop topped with a heel with a shelf, and a supporting part in the form of an astragalus with a jib going into the notch of the teardrop. The height of a Corinthian order column is equal to ten diameters or 20 modules. Its upper diameter is 5/6 of its lower diameter. The column trunk is decorated with 24 flutes of the same shape as in the Ionic column, with the only difference being that not only at the top, but also at the bottom they end in curves. The column trunk at the bottom has a shelf with a fillet, and at the top it ends with an astragalus. The base of the column, 1 module high, consists of four parts - a square plinth, a shaft, then a special shape consisting of two scotia and two astragals, and, finally, a second shaft. The division of the base height between these parts is shown in Fig. 15. The capital of a column of the Corinthian order is of a special type. The height of the entire capital is 2 1/3 modules, with 1/3 of the module (6 desks) being the height of the abacus. The abacus looks like a slab with a quarter shaft on top. The corners of this slab are slightly cut off in plan, perpendicular to the diagonals of the square, and the sides are slightly depressed (Fig. 16). Below the abacus there are four scrolls supporting its cut corners, and four smaller scrolls supporting the rosettes located on the depressed parts of the abacus. Under the scrolls in two tiers there are leaves of the capital. The entablature of the order, 5 modules high, consists of an architrave of 1 1/2 modules, a frieze of 1 1/2 modules and a cornice of 2 modules. The architrave in the ratio 5:6:7 is divided into three stripes with small profiles and topped with a heel with a shelf. A frieze in the form of a vertical plane is used for decoration with relief ornaments. And at the top of the frieze there will be a narrow astragalus. The outline of the cornice is very similar to that of the Ionic order. The supporting part, 2/3 of the height of the entire cornice, consists of a heel, a series of teeth and a quarter shaft with an astragal at the top. The teardrop cap is topped with a heel with a shelf. The crowning part consists of a jib and a shelf. In contrast to the Ionic order, on the lower plane of the teardrop there are modillions in the form of brackets, as if supporting the teardrop stone. The height of the cornice is divided to accommodate all these elements into 6 equal parts, each with 12 desks. A modillion is a board on which there is a curl, rounded in different directions. The length of the board is 12 desks, and the width is 7 desks. Modillions are placed above the axes of 21 columns and in the spaces between them at equal distances, not exceeding 1 1/2 modules. Fig. 15. Corinthian order: a - general view and section; b – profile of the pedestal base. Dimensions are given in desks 22 Fig. 16. Profiles of the base of the column and the cornice of the pedestal of the Corinthian order with dimensions in desks: a – base of the column; b – pedestal cornice. The size of the desk is 5 mm 23 Fig. 17. Capital of the Corinthian order: side view and bottom view. The module is 45 mm. Desk size 2.5 mm 24 Fig. 18. Profile of a Corinthian order entablature with dimensions in desks. The size of the desk is 2.5 mm, the size of the module is 45 mm 25 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 1. General history of architecture: in 12 volumes. Vol.2. Architecture of the ancient world (Greece and Rome) / ch. ed. N.V. Baranov. – M.: Stroyizdat, 1973. – 712 p. 2. Mikhailovsky, I.B. Theory of classical architectural forms / I.B. Mikhailovsky. – M.: Com Book, 2005. – 285 p. 3. Zvyagin, B.K. Handbook of construction drawings / B.K. Zvyagin. – L.: Gosstroyizdat, 1985. – 168 p. 4. Kryukova, M.N. Architectural orders / M.N. Kryukova. - M.: Stroyizdat, 1980. – 42 p. 5. Musatov, A.A. Architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Sketches for the exam on the General History of Architecture: textbook. manual for universities / A.A. Musatov. – M.: Architecture-S, 2006. – 140 p. 6. Vignola yes, Giacomo Barozzi. Rule of five orders of architecture / Giacomo Barozzi, Vignola da. - M., 2006 – 42 p. 7. Sinebryukhov, V.I. Architectural orders: textbook. manual / Moscow Institute of Agricultural Engineers (MNISP) / V.I. Sinebryukhov. – M., 1983. – 65 p. production 26 APPENDIX 1 TASKS FOR COMPLETING EXERCISES Table P1.1 Architectural orders in masses Height of the full Last digit of the order book number, mm 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 120 + 125 + 130 + 135 + 140 + 145 + 150 + 155 + 160 + 165 + Table A1.2 Desk size, mm 7 6.5 5 5.5 5 Architectural failures Last digit of the grade book number 0.1 2.3 4.5 6.7 8.9 + + + + + Table A1.3 Order type Corinthian Ionic Doric Tuscan Corinthian Ionic Doric Tuscan Corinthian Ionic Architectural orders in detail Size Last digit of the module grade book number, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 mm 24 + 22 + 20 + 18 + 22 + 20 + 22 + 20 + 20 + 24 9 + 27 APPENDIX 2 Exact construction of the volute of the Ionic order. The construction of the volute is shown in Fig. P2.1. As already indicated when describing the capital of the Ionic order, the radius of the eye of the volute is equal to 1 part, and the vertical distance to the point of the volute furthest from the center of the eye is equal to 9 parts. In the drawing, the radius is equal to 1/9 of the vertical part OA. An inscribed square is built inside the eye. The midpoints of opposite sides of the square are connected by straight lines 1-3 and 2-4. These lines are divided, each into six equal parts. The resulting points are connected by straight lines, as shown in the right figure of the enlarged drawing of the eye. Lines 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, etc. serve as their continuation as the boundaries of neighboring spiral arcs, and points from 1 to 12 are the centers of these arcs. The first arc of the volute A-I is drawn with a radius I-A from center 1, the second arc I-II is drawn with a radius 2-I from center 2, etc. to the last arc XI-XII, drawn with a radius of 12-XI from the center 12. To obtain the centers for constructing the second revolution of the volute, the distances between the centers used on lines 1-3 and 2-4 are divided into four equal parts. At 1/4 of the distance from point 12, point 13 is thus obtained, from which an arc ae is drawn with a radius of 13a to the intersection with line 14-13. Point 14 is taken at 1/4 of the distance from point 11. From point 14, an arc ef with a radius of 14e is drawn to a straight line 1415. Moreover, point 15 is taken at a distance of 1/4 from point 10. In a similar way, the construction continues to the end. Straight lines, shown in dash-and-dotted lines, serve as the boundaries of adjacent sections of the arcs of the second turn of the volute. In addition, the figure shows the following centers - points 15, 16, 17 and 18. Fig. P2.1. Construction of a volute 28 CONTENTS Introduction ……………………………………………………… 1. General information ……………………………………………………………… … 2. Building an order among the masses……………………………………. 3. Image of orders in detail…………………………….…….. 3.1. Profile elements……………………………………………. 3.2. Tuscan order in detail…………………………..………. 3.3. Doric order in detail……………………………..…… 3.4. Ionic order in detail……………………………..…… 3.5. Corinthian order in detail……………………………..…… Bibliographic list……………………………..…. Applications………………………………………………………. 3 3 4 8 8 10 10 14 20 25 26 CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS Guidelines for the discipline “Introduction to the Specialty” for students of specialty 270114 “Building Design” Compiled by: Ph.D., Assoc. Fedor Mironovich Savchenko Assoc. Tatyana Vasilievna Bogatova Ph.D., Assoc. Elvira Evgenievna Semenova Signed for printing on 11/19/10. Format 60x84 1/16. Academic ed. l.1.8. Condition-bake l. 1.9. Writing paper. Circulation 100 copies. Order No. Printed by: department of operational printing of the publishing house of educational literature and teaching aids of the Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering 394006. Voronezh, st. 20th anniversary of October, 84

Rule of the Five Orders of Architecture / Giacomo Barozzio da Vignola; Translation by A. G. Gabrichevsky; Comment by G. N. Emelyanov. - The publication is stereotypical. - Reprint from the 1939 edition (Moscow: Publishing House of the All-Union Academy of Architecture). - Moscow: Publishing House "Architecture-S", 2005. - 168 p., ill. - (Classics of architectural theory).

FROM THE PUBLISHER.

This edition is based on the first edition of Vignola’s treatise known to us, which most researchers date back to 1562 or 1563, based on a letter dated June 12, 1562 from Vignola’s son Giacinto, who, on behalf of his father, sent a copy of the “Rule” to Duke Ottavio Farnese in Parma, and under the privilege of Pope Pius IV, who reigned from 1559 to 1564. This edition, published without the name of the publisher and without indicating the place and year of publication, consists of 32 sheets engraved on copper, continuously numbered, including the title page (I), the papal privilege (II ) and dedication with an appeal to readers (III); the 1562 edition (based on a copy stored in the State Hermitage library) is reproduced in its entirety in this edition, occupying the title page, text introductory part and tables from IV to XXXII. However, the question of the first edition of Vignol’s treatise and its dating cannot yet be considered finally resolved. Indeed, the last paragraph of the preface to the readers, where Vignola promises to give explications on the tables of the most commonly used architectural terms, is engraved for lack of space in a smaller font and is undoubtedly a later postscript, as well as the explications themselves and the corresponding letters on the tables, engraved in smaller font. If we add to this the existing oral evidence about the existence of an earlier, wood-engraved edition, and also if we take into account the ornamentation of the title page, which speaks in favor of a later dating, we have to admit that we are still far from a final solution to the problem. The next edition, published presumably in the 70s, i.e., possibly during Vignola’s lifetime, and also without indicating the publisher, year and place, differs from the “first” in that it adds five tables: a comparison of the five orders - table III, portals of Caprarola - table. XXXIII and XXXIV, Cancelleria - table. XXXVI, door of Palazzo Farnese - plate. XXXV and fireplace - table. XXXVII. In subsequent editions (by Rossi and Orlandi in Rome, as well as in Venice - see Bibliography) the tables of the first two are reproduced, apparently from the same boards, with the addition of a number of tables depicting the buildings of Michelangelo, of which only the Porta is included in this edition del Popolo (Plate XXXVIII), since Vignola participated in its construction. Thus, the reader has before him the complete composition of the so-called “first” edition and all the most interesting additions of the subsequent ones, and the text of the treatise, arranged in tables, is given in Russian translation in front of the tables themselves.

The text of the treatise is accompanied by translations of biographical materials about Vignola from the 16th to the 18th centuries. In the first place are excerpts from the Lives of Vasari, a contemporary of Vignola, who did not devote a separate essay to the “description” of his works, as he did for the greatest masters who lived in his time, but limited himself to brief and rather discreet mentions of Vignola in a whole series biographies. In his reviews one can often feel a rival, as, for example, in attempts to belittle Vignola’s role in the construction of the villa of Pope Julius, the composition of which Vasari attributes entirely to himself. The main source for Vignola’s biography is the biography of Vasari, written by Ignazio Danti (1537-1586) and prefaced by Vignola’s “Two Rules of Applied Perspective,” which he published with extensive commentary after the death of the master in 1583. Ignazio Danti, a major mathematician and a geographer of his time, was the son of the architect Giulio Danti, who was Vignola’s assistant for a long time. The closeness of the Danti family to the Vignola family is for us a guarantee of the reliability of the information that Danti gives in his biography of the master. The following biography, borrowed from Baglione’s collection “Lives of Painters, Sculptors and Architects from 1572 to 1642,” dates back to the 17th century. and characterizes the universal recognition that Vignola’s work received in the Baroque era. And finally, the last biography of Milizia from his “Notes on the Most Famous Architects” is interesting for the critical assessments of its author, a practicing architect of the mid-18th century, a passionate champion of classicism, a strict adherent of the canons, ready to expose any “classicist” in error or liberty.

The commentary by the architect G.N. Emelyanov is the first attempt to provide a critical analysis of the Vignola canon. In numerous commented publications of the 17th and 18th centuries. for the most part this task is not even posed; usually the matter is limited to a detailed retelling and parallel comparison of Vignol's orders with the orders of other theorists. The commentary to this edition provides a critical analysis method Vignolas. In this regard, the author touches on a number of problems that are very little or not covered at all in the existing literature, namely Vignola’s attitude towards those ancient monuments that he mentions, his attitude towards the theorists who preceded him - Vitruvius, Alberti and Serlio, the degree of his dependence on them and , finally, the question of the connection between his canon and the buildings he carried out. Attached to the commentary is a brief chronological outline of Vignola’s life and work, which lists all reliable works attributed to him, indicating the main publications containing measurements or other images of these buildings. The editors considered it necessary to limit this part to brief reference material, bearing in mind that the publication of the treatise should not at all turn into a monograph on Vignolles as an architect. Compiling a bibliography presented particular difficulties. Not to mention the fact that the issue of the first editions of the treatise has not yet been resolved; only a small proportion of the countless reprints of the treatise are represented in the book depositories of the Union. This forced the editors to abandon an exhaustive and, what would have been highly desirable, an annotated bibliography.

The introductory article and chronological outline were compiled by A. G. Gabrichevsky, who also translated the text of the treatise. Biographical materials were translated from Italian by A. I. Venediktov. The commentary was compiled by G. N. Emelyanov, bibliography by A. L. Sacchetti.

VIGNOLLA'S TREATISE AND ITS HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE.

Vignola's "Rule of Five Orders" was first printed in Rome in 1562. Vignola's Treatise is the last document of the Renaissance in Rome; The Gesú Church, designed by Vignola, is the first Jesuit church, the first example of mature Baroque architecture. Vignola, as a theorist and practitioner, was brought up in the traditions of the art of the high Renaissance, in the traditions of the school of Bramante and Raphael; however, his activity as a mature master, dating back to the second and third quarter of the 16th century, already took place in an atmosphere of increasingly intensifying feudal and clerical reaction, during the years of the Council of Trent and the Jesuit Inquisition, during the years of the deep crisis of the realistic worldview, a crisis that found its direct expression in the forms of the early Roman Baroque. The work of Vignola, as a master of the transitional period, had an equally strong influence on both the creation of the architectural style of the Roman Counter-Reformation and the expansion of Renaissance classics beyond the borders of Rome and even Italy.

The defeat of Rome by imperial troops in 1527 greatly bled the artistic culture of the papal capital. Many masters emigrated: some to the north of Italy, like Giulio Romano and Sansovino, some to France, like Serlio and Primaticcio, who was followed for a time by Vignola. Of the major masters in Rome, only Michelangelo remained, whose bright individuality left its mark on the Roman art of subsequent generations. Vignola, who after his death in 1564 supervised the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter, did not escape his influence; Moreover, he, along with Michelangelo, was one of the creators of the Roman Baroque. However, having lost ground in Rome, the classical tradition of the high Renaissance did not die, but gradually and firmly conquered northern Italy (Giulio Romano in Mantua, Palladio and Sansovino in Venice, Sanmichele in Verona, Alessi in Genoa), then France, and finally the whole Europe, where this tradition, gradually degenerating, lives up to the eclecticism of the 19th century. In this process of expansion and rebirth of Roman classics, a significant role was played not only by the connection of individual masters with the traditions of antiquity or the Roman school, but also by architectural treatises, among which Vignola’s treatise occupies a very special place.

Thanks to its brevity, dogmatic presentation and simplicity of calculation methods, the “Rule of Five Orders” became the canonical textbook for almost all architectural schools that adopted the “classical” tradition of the Italian Renaissance, i.e., in other words, for almost all European architecture from the 17th to the mid-19th V. This is evidenced by countless editions and revisions of the treatise in all European languages**. With its elementaryity and practicality, this manual eclipsed Vitruvius, Serlio, Palladio, and Scamozzi, who were studied by individual specialists and major masters, but who never had and could not have the popularity and influence on everyday architectural practice that befell Vignolas. The popularity of Vignol's treatise therefore played a dual role in the history of European architecture: positive and negative. On the one hand, the “Rule of Five Orders” undoubtedly contributed to the rapid maturation and development of order architecture in various European countries, since it provided a publicly accessible key to the problems of the classical heritage***. However, on the other hand, it was precisely thanks to its elementary and dogmatic nature that the treatise became the gospel for all types of academic and eclectic formalism, especially in the 19th century. To understand the peculiar fate of this book, which, having arisen on the basis of truly classical art of the high Renaissance, turned into a dead academic “cheat sheet,” it is necessary to become somewhat more familiar with the history of its origin and the content of the treatise itself.

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* The exception is England, where Palladio was especially popular.

**See Bibliography at the end of the book.

*** This applies especially to France and, apparently, to Russia. Russian masters of the 18th century were undoubtedly familiar with Vignola, as evidenced by Russian editions of the treatise of that time. The question of Vignola's influence on the architectural practice of Russian classicism is a task for future research.

Even while he was in Bologna, young Vignola was apparently closely acquainted with such experts on antiquity as the architects Peruzzi and Serlio, the historian Guicciardini and the philologist Alessandro Manzuoli. In 1532, Vignola arrived in Rome, which had not yet recovered from the defeat of 1527. However, already under Paul III (Farnese), elected in 1534, cultural, construction and artistic activity began to gradually revive. Peruzzi, who returned to Rome, supervises the construction of the Vatican and takes Vignola as his assistant. Despite the reactionary policies of Paul III, under whom the Inquisition was already rampant and the Council of Trent was opened in 1535, the Counter-Reformation in the person of the pope is still tolerant of humanism, which finds many adherents among the nobility, writers and artists. The traditions of the “golden age” are still alive; moreover, the 30s and 40s were characterized by a tendency to summarize and canonize the great achievements of antiquity and the Renaissance. After the timelessness of the 20s, there is a new wave of archaeological research, a desire to understand the essence of the accomplished revival of antiquity, to understand its historical roots, and to formulate the laws of truly classical art. This tendency formed the basis of Vasari’s “Biographies,” the idea of ​​which arose in 1546 among those writers and artists who were patronized by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, Vignola’s constant patron and customer, who dedicated his treatise to him; this same tendency formed the basis of the Vitruvian Academy, in the depths of which, undoubtedly, the idea of ​​Vignol’s treatise matured. This academy, apparently founded in 1538, bore the loud name “Academy of Valor” (Academia della Virtú); its members included, among others, Alessandro Manzuoli from Bologna, Marcello Cervini (future Pope Marcellus II), Cardinal Maffei, philologist, The grammarian and critic Claudio Tolomei and the commentator Vitruvius Philander, as well as the architects Peruzzi and Vignola, who died in 1536, left a wealth of material on the theory and archeology of ancient architecture, which was largely used by Serlio in his treatise, the first books of which were published. already in 1537 the Academy did not exist for long; however, judging by the letter that has reached us from Claudio Tolomei to Count Agostino Landi dated November 14, 1543, the Vitruvians, following in the footsteps of Raphael, Fra Giocondo and Castiglione* set themselves grandiose tasks, which were briefly summarized to the following. Firstly, a new critical edition of Vitruvius’ text was planned, as well as a publication of the same text, presented in “good” Ciceronian Latin and equipped with drawings both illustrating the text itself and reproducing ancient buildings, indicating agreements with the Vitruvian canon and deviations. From him; in addition, an Italian translation, a dictionary of obscure expressions of the original, a dictionary of Latin and Greek technical terms, an explanatory dictionary of Italian terms and, finally, an index allowing one to find a particular term in the corresponding pictures were supposed. Secondly, a historical description of all - both preserved and destroyed - ancient buildings in Rome and beyond, was conceived, as well as a monumental publication of sketches and measurements of all ancient antiquities, down to medals and all kinds of tools, and each monument was supposed to have a historical and aesthetic commentary, and a special section was given to ancient orders and details.

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* Wed. “Masters of Art on Art”, vol. I, pp. 163-171. M. OGIZ, 1937.

This extensive program, which was designed to last three years, remained unimplemented, in all likelihood, due to the lack of financial support from some philanthropist, the need for whose involvement is clearly hinted at by Tolomei in his letter to Count Landi. However, the work of the academicians was not in vain. Apart from the fact that Barbaro and other later theorists and commentators could use the materials of the academy, Vignola undoubtedly took part in its research from 1536 (when, after the death of Peruzzi, he lost his position in the construction of the Vatican) until his departure to France in 1541. It is equally certain, finally, that the “Rule of Five Orders” is the fruit of Vignola’s work at the Vitruvian Academy.

But Vignola was no armchair scientist. Inundated with orders and absorbed in practical activities, only twenty years later he began publishing his manual, having at his disposal extensive measuring material. This happened, as he himself says in his preface to “Readers,” at the insistence of friends. There is no doubt that all the tables of the so-called “first” edition were made by Vignola himself. This is evidenced by his original drawings stored in the Uffizi (see Chronological outline), on which Vignola even wrote the entire text in the form in which it was reproduced in the engravings. Moreover, it is possible that Vignola is also the author of the engravings; In support of this assumption, we can cite the words of Vasari (see p. 61), who in the life of Marcantonio mentions Vignola as an engraver, referring to his treatise. In addition, we should not forget that just at this time, in the early 60s, the construction of Caprarola began, and it is possible that the architect wanted to acquaint the customer, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, with the elementary laws of his art; It is not for nothing that Vignola depicted the Caprarola cornice in his treatise as an example of a cornice. From the preface it is clear that Vignola did not want to limit himself to publishing a short manual, but intended to publish a whole series of studies on the theory of architecture**, of which only his “Perspective”, published in the posthumous edition of Danti in 1583, has reached us.

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** According to the testimony of Vasari (see p. 62), which in this case there is no reason not to trust, Vignola, in addition to his published works - that is, obviously, the treatise - “writes” other theoretical works (Vasari wrote about Vignola, when Vignola was 58 years old, i.e. in 1565. The second edition of the Lives, in which the author included information about his contemporaries, was published in 1568).

If other theoretical works of Vignola had been preserved, the fate of his treatise would probably have been different; it is possible that a dogmatic and formal summary manual would have received the fundamental and scientific justification it lacked, which would have paralyzed the negative influence it had on European architectural practice. And most importantly, we would certainly receive an answer to a whole series of perplexities and questions that arise in every architect and historian when carefully studying the “Rule of Five Orders.”

All these questions basically boil down to the following: how can we explain that Vignola, even in a short manual, considers the order as a completely abstract system, without connecting it in any way with problems of scale and absolute size? How can we explain that Vignola does not say a word about the mutual dependence of the height of the column, its narrowing and the size of the intercolumns, at least within the limits of what Vitruvius gives and which Vignola, of course, could not help but know? What is the average, optimal order height that Vignola based his system of proportions on? He could not believe that these proportions are suitable for any absolute value and that they can be mechanically increased or decreased without distorting their meaning, as apparently all those “classics” and eclectics who honestly built according to Vignola thought. To assume that the “Rule of Five Orders” is nothing more than a short guide for masons and sculptors is hardly possible, if you believe the author, who in the preface directly says that his canon is the fruit of many years of scientific research and was developed by him “exclusively to use it for my own needs." Finally, it is enough to at least approximately estimate Vignola’s “Rule” to his own buildings that have come down to us, and we will easily be convinced that Vignola the architect, with the possible exception of the cornice in Caprarola and the partially unpreserved and measured house of Letarui in Piazza Navona, not only “freely” applies his “Rule”, but most often he does not take it into account at all. There is no doubt that Vignola the artist in practice always proceeded from those large-scale patterns that Vignola the theorist did not utter a single word about.

True, one phrase in the preface sheds some light on this problem. Objecting to those who do not believe in the possibility of unshakable rules, they refer to Vitruvius, who argued that “in decorations we constantly have to increase or decrease the proportions of individual divisions in order, with the help of art, to compensate for what our vision is deceived for one or another random reason.” , Vignola replies: “In such cases, it is still necessary to know exactly what size our eye should see, and this will always be the firm rule that is considered necessary to observe *.” In addition, one must use certain and excellent rules of perspective...” Despite some vagueness of Vignola’s expressions, from this phrase we can conclude, firstly, that in Vignola’s time there were anti-classical, already baroque, movements in architectural theory and practice that used Vitruvius to deny the very possibility of a rational justification of the laws of architecture**, in secondly, that Vignola is precisely a supporter of this pattern, extending its actions to those optical corrections that Vitruvius speaks of and which relate to the field of perspective - a science, in his opinion, necessary for an architect no less than a painter. True, “Two Rules of Practical Perspective”, published after Vignola’s death, relate exclusively to descriptive perspective and do not give anything on the issue of taking into account perspective perception when creating architectural forms; nevertheless, we repeat, Vignola could not help but know about those laws of scale that about which he is silent in his treatise and which, undoubtedly, should have been covered in other treatises that were not written by him or that have not reached us. The question of why he did not consider it necessary to touch upon them in his short manual remains open. Without resorting to the unlikely hypothesis of professional secrecy in this case, we have to admit that Vignola was a very bad teacher, unaware of the harm that he would bring to many, many generations of architects.

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* I quote a very unclear Italian text of this phrase, the translation of which I do not at all feel confident in: “in questo caso esser in ogni modo necessario sapere quanto si vuole che appaia all'occhio nostro, il che sara sempre la regola ferma che altri si havera proposto di osservare."

It is not for nothing that Wölfflin (“Renaissance und Barock.” 3 Aufl., S. 11), apparently based on the same phrase, draws a diametrically opposite conclusion, with which, given our understanding of the text, it is impossible to agree: “In everything that goes beyond warrants, he considers himself not bound by anything. He doesn’t care about the spirit of antiquity.”

** Characteristically, the information that has reached us is that in 1541 the “Academy of Wrath” (Academia dello Sdegno) was founded in Rome to combat Vitruvianism and the Vitruvian Academy. Wed. Atangi, Lettere facete, 1601, pp. 374, 377, see Promis, Architetti ed architettura presso i Romani; p. 66 - Memorie della Reale Academia delle Scienze di Torino, Serie seconda, tomo 27, Torino 1873.

However, if the formalism and abstractness in the concept of the treatise do not give us any right to talk about the formalism of Vignola as a theorist in general, and even more so about the formalism of Vignola as an artist, nevertheless, in the very method of constructing his order canon, Vignola is still, in any case, an eclecticist in in comparison with Vitruvius and Alberti, as well as in comparison with Palladio and the northern Italian theorists of the 16th century, who adopted the realistic tradition of antiquity and the 15th century. This realistic tradition is characterized, on the one hand, by a concrete rather than abstract understanding of the order, the proportions of which are always established in connection with the actual dimensions of the building as a whole, its design features and the visual conditions of its perception; on the other hand, Italian theorists who adopted this tradition are characterized by a realistic attitude towards the ancient heritage; so, for example, both Alberti and Palladio are very liberal in relation to the canon, or rather, they do not so much establish a certain canon how much do they give samples, allowing countless options and countless deviations depending on the specific conditions that determine the structure of the artistic image; Moreover, Palladio, giving the normal proportions of a particular order, usually gives measurements specific ancient monument, as the most beautiful and satisfying example. That's not what Vignola does. If we do not have sufficient materials to completely accuse Vignola’s entire architectural aesthetics of formalism, especially since his artistic creativity does not allow us to do this, then with regard to his use of the ancient heritage in the construction of the order, we are dealing with a peculiar type of eclectic construction of a certain an abstract system that is created on the basis of Vitruvius and other theorists and by selecting and abstracting individual features from the entire set of ancient monuments. In this regard, Vignola’s “orders”, in the form in which they are presented in his treatise, essentially have little in common with specific examples of ancient art and, in any case, in spirit are incomparably further from antiquity than, for example, the examples of Palladio, although both rely on Vitruvius and approximately the same circle of Roman monuments. To be convinced of this, it is enough to carefully read the preface to “Readers”, where Vignola covers his method in detail. First of all, Vignola proceeds from the aesthetic axiom that those works that “have certain definitions and less complex numerical relationships and proportions” seem more beautiful, and those in which “every smallest division serves exactly as a unit of measurement for larger divisions,” i.e. i.e. those for whom the modular principle of integers is not only a method approximate numerical expression of quantities, but also the principle of real construction. In other words, Vignola deliberately simplifies and vulgarizes all the richness and variety of often irrational relationships observed in most ancient works. Further, Vignola, composing his canonical samples, however, selects, in his words, some specific concrete example, but subjects it to a peculiar treatment of a purely eclectic order: “If any smallest division is not entirely subordinate to the proportions of numbers (which is very often the case in the work of stonemasons or stems from any other accidents that are of great importance for such trifles), I level this out in my rule, without, however, allowing any significant deviations, but relying in such small liberties on the authority of other buildings.” This is how we get purely abstract, prepared “ideas” of the five orders.

So, the Vignolian canon has, in essence, very little in common with antiquity; it is rather a canon of the late Roman Renaissance, a canon created in connection with the tendency to retroactively summarize and record the achievements of the “golden age”. We have already talked about this tendency - it is typical of the crisis of the realistic worldview that occurred in Rome on the basis of feudal and clerical reaction. At the same time, the assumption involuntarily arises that Vignola, although giving a rebuke to anti-classical tendencies in architecture, already has one foot on the soil of the Baroque, for which the order gradually loses its real constructive meaning and more and more acquires the character of an abstract and, essentially, already a decorative system.

The conclusions for the Soviet architect suggest themselves. Vignola's treatise is a highly interesting document, as a fragment of the extensive theoretical and archaeological research of the greatest master that has not reached us, and as an attempt to canonize the architectural forms of antiquity on the border between the Renaissance and the Baroque. It is possible to fully understand and appreciate Vignola’s experience only in connection with the general history of the development of theoretical thought and in connection with the study of Vignola’s work as an architect, which is the task of future research, after all the surviving buildings of the master have been examined and measured, and after how it will be established to what extent and how Vignola himself used the canon he established in his architectural practice. At the same time, the “Rule of Five Orders” in no case can and should not serve as either a teaching aid or a design guide; it should not at all bind our architect in his creative work, just as it did not bind Vignola himself in this regard. However, no architect can ignore Vignola if he wants to understand the history of the classical heritage in European architecture, from the Renaissance to the present day. At the same time, the study of Vignola can be of benefit to a student or architect only under the condition of a purely critical attitude towards him, under the condition of a preliminary study of specific examples of the classics and, finally, under the condition of a deep knowledge, at least according to Vitruvius and Palladio, of all those problems of classical architecture, about which Vignola is silent.

A. Gabrichevsky.

From the publisher... 5

Vignola's treatise and its historical significance - A. Gabrichevsky. 7

Vignola - Rule of five orders. Per. A. Gabrichevsky... 11

Vasari, Danti, Baglione, Milizia - Lives of Vignola. Per. A. Venediktova 59

K category: Plastering works

Architectural orders. building entasis

The architectural complete order (Fig. 1, a) consists of three parts: a pedestal - the lower part, a column - the middle part and an entablature - the upper part. An incomplete order (Fig. 1, b) does not have a pedestal.

The pedestal also consists of three parts: the base, the body of the pedestal, or chair, and the cornice. The base is the lower part of the pedestal in the form of a high shelf or slab, on which shelves, rollers, jibs, etc. are located, depending on the order. The body of the pedestal (chair) is located on the base. At the top, the pedestal is topped with a cornice of simple or complex shape.

The column rests on a pedestal and supports an entablature. The column also consists of three parts: the base, the core (body) of the column itself and the capital. The base is the lower part, usually consisting of a thick slab (shelf), on which architectural pieces of the desired shape are located. The body of the column, ending with a capital, is installed on the base.

The core of a column is usually cylindrical from the base to 1/3 of the height, and at the remaining 2/3 of the height it gradually becomes conical with slight thinning, but not in a straight line, but along a smooth curve called entasis. Sometimes columns become thinner not only at the top, but also at the bottom, i.e. have double thinning. For such columns, the greatest thickness is located 1/3 of the distance from the bottom of the column.

The entablature is located above the column and consists of three parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice (crowning).

The proportions of the complete order are as follows: if the height is divided into 19 equal parts, then the height of the pedestal will be four parts, the columns - 12 parts and the entablature - three parts. An incomplete order is divided into five parts: four parts - a column, one part - an entablature.

Depending on the form, architectural orders are distinguished: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The scale of all parts of the order is the radius of the column at its lower base. This radius is called a module and is designated by the letter M. In the Tuscan and Doric orders, the module is divided into 12 parts, and in the Ionic and Corinthian orders - into 18. These parts are called desks and are designated by the letter P. The cores of the columns of all orders are round.

The Tuscan order (Fig. 2, a) has massive parts.

Column smooth

Rice. 1. Full (a) and incomplete (b) orders

Rice. 2. Tuscan (a) and Doric (b) orders

Rice. 3. Ionic order

On the smooth frieze there are triglyphs - three even stripes separated by triangular notches. The depressions between triglyphs are called metopes. They can be smooth or with images made from various materials. Decorations in the form of cloves, crackers or modules are made under the cornice. Such orders are either completely executed by plasterers, or triglyphs, crackers and modulons, and sometimes capitals are executed by sculptors.

The Ionic order (Fig. 3) also has a column tapering upward. In height it is equal to 9 diameters, or 18 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the trunk, deeper than those of a Doric column. They are separated by paths or ribbons. At the bottom, the flutes are cut at a right angle, and at the top as a semicircle. The capital is complex with scrolls or volutes and ions. The entablature of the order consists of a smooth architrave with three horizontal ledges. There is a shelf above the upper ledge, and below it there is a relief ornament. The frieze can be smooth or with relief images. The cornice is smooth and only under the shelf there are crackers with beads. The capital and all the ornamentation are done by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

The Corinthian order (Fig. 4) has a complex capital and pedestal. The column rod is equal to 10 diameters, or 20 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the column, separated by paths that end in semicircles at the top and bottom. The capital consists of 16 volutes supported by two rows of acanthus leaves. The entablature has modules, which are located under the teardrop at some distance from each other. The frieze of the order is a smooth plane above which the ornament is located. The crowning cornice is similar to the Ionic one. All relief parts of the order are made by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

Instead of round columns, square, even, or tapering columns are often installed. Such columns are made with or without a capital. Pilasters (half a column protruding from the wall) most often have a capital at the top. Pilasters are either smooth or fluted. Sometimes they make rusticated columns, i.e. with imitation stonework.

Depending on the shape and finish, the columns are plastered, leveling the solution with a rule, a trowel or a trowel with entasis, or pulled out, especially if flutes run along the column trunk.

Building entasis. There is a column with a radius (module) of the lower base of 360 mm. The module of the Tuscan and Doric orders is equal to 12 desks (the desk is 30 mm), and the module of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is 18 desks (the desk is 20 mm). The lower diameter for all orders is equal to two modules. The columns of the Tuscan and Doric orders have a height of 14 and 16 modules. The upper diameter is equal to 1 module 8 desks, the thinning for the entire length of the column is 120 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 60 mm.

For a column of the Ionic and Corinthian orders with a height of 18 and 20 modules, the upper diameter is 1 module 12 desks, the thinning on the upper diameter for the entire column is 140 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 70 mm. Knowing this data, we begin to build entasis.

On a wide board, draw a column to scale and draw its axis in the center (Fig. 5, a). On one third of the column, i.e. where thinning begins, arc AB is drawn with the lower radius of the column from the center O. Then, from points B and D, which determine the upper diameter of the column, draw lines until they intersect with arc AB, where they form points marked with the number 7. Dividing A1 and 1B into an arbitrary number of identical parts, in this case four (1, 2, 3, 4), divide the remaining 2/3 of the columns into the same number of parts and draw horizontal lines perpendicular to the axis along the division points.

Rice. 5. Corinthian order

To make the rule-pattern, take a planed board. It should be 50-100 mm wider than the thinning of the entire column. The length of the board is equal to 2/3 of the height of the column. A piece of plywood is nailed to one end of the board, after which the difference between the radii of the lower and upper parts of the column (in the case being disassembled, 60 mm) is measured on the board from the evenly planed edge and a line is drawn parallel to the edge of the board. The point of intersection of the lines is marked with the letter A. The legs of the compass are moved apart to the size of the desired radius (in this case 360 ​​mm), one leg is placed at point A, and the other on the plywood (nailed on the other side of the board) and an arc is drawn.

Rice. 6. Construction of entasis and production of a rule-pattern in two ways (a, b) for a column with a 360 mm module

Rice. 7. Hanging columns even (a) and with entasis (b)

This arc is divided into an arbitrary number of identical parts. Divide the length of the board into the same number of parts, draw all the necessary lines, find the points and connect them with a curved line. Then the plywood is removed, the unnecessary part of the board is selected or cut out, and the edge of the remaining pattern is cleaned. Sometimes the edge is bound with steel.

The rule can be made in another way (Fig. 6, b). Plane a square cross-section of non-knotted wood with a length equal to the height of the column. Then they take a board equal to the height of the column, draw a straight line on it for the entire length and measure point B from above this line at a distance equal to the thinning of the column by its radius. For example, the column is thinned by 120 mm, which means a radius of 60 mm. A straight line on the board is divided into three parts. One lower part is straight, and two thirds are tapered.

The lath is nailed to the bottom straight line with two or three nails, and then the remaining 2/3 of the lath is bent to point B and nailed. The curve formed by the curved lath is entasis. A line is drawn with a pencil along this strip on the board. The lath is removed, a cut is made along a curve, it is cleaned and a rule-pattern is obtained.

- Architectural orders. building entasis

The sizes and ratios of the various parts of the orders in the masses are sufficient for the transition to their depiction in detail by replacing straight and inclined lines with corresponding profiles.

When drawing out the details of individual orders, it is necessary to pay attention to some parts that are designed very complexly. They are cornices, Ionic and Corinthian capitals.

To ensure stability from tipping over the overhanging part of the cornice, release stones called MODULES are placed in the part supporting it. Their dimensions are usually the following: width along the facade - 1 module; free overhang - slightly larger than the module; the distance between modules is about 1 and 1/2 modules.

Sometimes, instead of strongly protruding and relatively large modules, a number of small parallelepipeds are used in the supporting part of the cornice, located close to each other and called TEETHS and CRUSKS.

Depending on the presence of teeth or modulons in the supporting part of the cornice, the Doric order has two varieties: with teeth and with modulons. In the Ionic order, in the supporting part of the cornice there are only teeth, and in the Corinthian order there are both teeth and modules in the form of brackets.

Architectural order profiles are made up of individual elements called BLOCKS. Breaks can be straight or curved. Straight-line breaks include: belt, shelf and plinth. Curvilinear breaks can be simple, described from one center, or complex, described from two centers. Simple breaks include: straight and reverse shafts, quarter shafts, straight and reverse fillets. Complex ones include straight and reverse jib, straight and reverse heel, scotia. Sometimes there are combinations of two elements that have their own names. So, a roller with a shelf is called an astragalus.

The construction of the breaks is shown in Fig. 6.

In all orders there is a noticeable desire to avoid monotony, placing parts side by side that are identical in shape, size and meaning. The main elements alternate with secondary ones, wide ones with narrow ones, rectilinear ones with curvilinear ones. This is one of the basic rules of profiling.

The principles for constructing Greek order databases are the same. The construction of details can be considered using the example of an Attic base for the Corinthian order. When building this base in masses, we will divide the height of the base, which is always equal to one module, into three parts, destining the lower part for the plinth, and the upper two for further development (Fig. 7, 8).

The removal of the plinth is determined in a way already known to us. The part of the base above the plinth consists of three parts - two shafts and a scotia, so we divide this height into three equal parts, of which the lower one determines the height of the lower shaft, the next one above it corresponds to the scotia with two narrow shelves above and below, and the upper part determines the second shaft with a shelf above it. Thus, of the two shafts, the lower one naturally turns out to be somewhat heavier than the upper one, which is quite logical. Due to the fact that parts of very small sizes are introduced into the further processing of this base, it is useful to slightly increase the height of the base. To do this, it is better to relate the top shelf of the base to the core of the column, making it from the same piece, while the base itself can even be made of a different material; Thus, for some increase in the parts of the base, we can consider its height to be 1 module, without taking into account the top shelf. The height of the plinth in this case will be, as before, equal to 1/3 of the module; to distribute the remaining parts, you can continue the construction that was indicated above (Fig. 7).

Fig.7 Construction of the Attic base for the Corinthian order

With large order sizes, the scotia appears as a large, somewhat monotonous notch. In this case, it can be divided into two equal parts, each of which contains much smaller scotia and astragalus. Thus, instead of one scotia, we get two adjacent ones and two astragalus - direct and reverse. By this construction, the base of the Corinthian order is obtained.

The Ionic base is a simplification of the Corinthian, achieved by destroying the lower shaft; yet the remaining parts of the Corinthian base remain.

So, to build an ionic base, we divide its height into three equal parts, occupying one of them with a plinth. The upper part contains the shaft and scotia, that is, two divisions, so we divide the upper part together with the upper shelf in half. The upper half is occupied by the shaft, and the lower half by scotia.

In Fig. 9 shows one of the simplest ways to build an ENTHASIS column. To do this, a semicircle is drawn at a height of one third of it. A straight line descends from the top edge of the column until it meets a semicircle. The arc enclosed between the verticals of the upper and lower edges of the column is divided into an arbitrary number of identical parts. The part of the column located above is divided by the same number. The intersection of the designed division points allows you to obtain a smooth curve using a pattern.

Fig.8 Construction of bases, capitals and flutes

Fig.9 Construction of entasis

Doric order. The main parts of the Doric orders are shown in Figures 10-14.

The barrel of a Doric order column has a series of longitudinal grooves called FLUTE. Flutes help to better reveal the roundness of the column and enliven it with light reflexes. There are 20 flutes around the entire circumference of the Doric column. Their curvature is constructed using an equilateral or right triangle, as shown in Fig. 8. The frieze of the Doric order is arranged in a unique way. In it, above the axes of all columns and above the spaces between the columns there are TRIGLYPHS. These are thin plates superimposed on the plane of the frieze, having beveled recesses, like three strips put together (Fig. 10). The width of the triglyph is 1 module, the height is 1 and 1/2 modules. All stripes and bevels are easily distributed in the required sizes if the width of the triglyph is divided into 12 parts (12 parts).

The Doric architrave is topped with a shelf supporting six drops in the form of truncated cones. To distribute these drops across the facade at equal distances, it is recommended to use the lines defining the depressions and stripes of the triglyph, as shown in Fig. 10.

The spaces between the triglyphs are filled with special slabs with sculptural relief. They are called METOPES.

For a clear idea of ​​the processing of the lower part of the teardrop stone, Fig. 14 shows the SOFFIT or PLAFOND of the Doric order - a plan of the entablature with a bottom-up view. As can be seen, the wide depression on the lower part of the teardrop is divided into separate rectangles, corresponding to the arrangement of triglyphs and metopes. In places located above the triglyphs, there are groups of drops in three rows in the form of truncated cones, six pieces in each row. Metopes correspond to division by narrow shelves into separate parts in the form of rhombuses, triangles and narrow transverse rectangles. Distinctive features of the Doric order with modulons: the architrave consists of two stepped stripes; in the supporting part of the cornice above the triglyphs there are massive modules, on the underside of which there are 36 drops (6 rows of 6 drops).

Fig. 10 Details of the triglyph

Fig. 11 Doric order with teeth

Fig. 12 Doric order with modulons

Fig. 13 Base and pedestal of the Doric order

Fig. 14 Doric order lampshades with teeth and modulons

The Ionic order is more elegant in its proportions. The main parts of this order are shown in Figures 15-18.

The trunk of the column of the Ionic order is dissected by 24 flutes, which have the shape of a semicircle in plan, and between the flutes there are narrow spaces left - PATHWAYS the width of the first desk.

The construction of flutes is shown in Fig. 8.

Constructing the base of the Ionic order is not difficult and can be done according to the drawing in Fig. 16.

In the capitals of the Ionic order (Fig. 17), as mentioned earlier, there is no neck, and therefore its height is small - 2/3 of the module. Here the abacus is of a completely unusual shape and consists of two parts. The upper abacus is directly raised under the architrave, and the lower one is twisted on two opposite sides in the form of spiral curls or volutes.

Volutes have a smooth field with a protruding shelf that makes three full spiral turns and ends with a small circle in the center - the EYE of the volute. To achieve smooth spiral turns there are a number of practicalities; recommendations for drawing volutes. One of them is given by Prof. Mikhailovsky I.B. and is as follows (Fig. 18). First, the centers of the volute's eyes are located. They lie at a distance of I module from the axis of the column and coincide with the vertical tangent to the outline of the astragalus ridge of the column. The eye of the volute is drawn with a radius of the first part. In the circle, vertical and horizontal diameters are drawn, the ends of which are connected to form a square inscribed in the circle. Perpendiculars (apothems) are lowered from the center of the circle to the sides of the square. The intersection points of the apothems and the sides of the square are designated by the numbers 1, 2, 3,4. Dividing each of the apothems into 3 parts, we get, starting from the apothem going from the center to point 1 - point 5, from the center to point 2 - point 6 and similarly points 7-13. The last point falls in the center of the eye. All points indicated by numbers will serve as the centers of each quarter of the spiral curl of the volute. First, place the leg of the compass at point 1 and describe 1/4 of a circle with a size of 1/2 module until it meets the continuation of the horizontal line 1-2. Then move the leg of the compass to point 2 and continue the spiral curve in 1/4 of the circle until it meets the continuation of straight line 2-3. Next, move the leg of the compass to point 3 and proceed in the same way. From point 4, an arc is described that is slightly larger than 1/4 of a circle so that the curve stops at the continuation of straight line 4-5, etc. This requires correct and accurate drawing. Using points 1-12, we obtain the outer spiral of the volute. To build another internal spiral, it is necessary to determine the position of its centers again. To do this, divide the distance between points 1 and 5 into four parts and mark the first division point, closest to point 1. Do the same with all other gaps between the previous centers and connect the division points so that you get a broken line of the centers of the second spiral and, using new points as centers, a smooth internal turn of the volute is obtained.

The curls of the volutes form two peculiar rollers on the sides of the capital, which are called BALUSTERS. The Ionic order architrave has a height of 1 and 1/4 modules, is topped with a shelf with a heel and consists of three parts.

The Corinthian order is the richest in decoration and light in proportions (Fig. 19, 20). The trunk of the column, just like the Ionic order, is decorated with 24 flutes of the same shape. A distinctive feature of the architrave is the introduction of curvilinear profiles in the indentations. In the supporting part of the cornice, under the tear stone, there are modules in the form of recumbent brackets, and below there is a row of teeth. The dimensions of the modules and the distances between them are consistent with the axes of the columns and the teeth.

The design of the soffit is shown in Fig. 21.

The capital of the Corinthian order has a height of 2 and 1/3 modules - 2 modules are on the main part of the capital, decorated with leaves and curls, 1/3 module is on the abacus. The structural basis of the capital is a special drum or bell, which is a round body with a radius of 5/6 of the module and in profile has the appearance of a highly elongated jib, in the lower part recessed by the size of a flute. Under the abacus there are volute-shaped curls, and under the curls there are two tiers of leaves.

The construction of the Corinthian capital is shown in Fig. 22. It must be borne in mind that some parts of the capital are viewed in a distorted form (foreshortened), therefore, to draw it correctly, two images should be made: a façade and a diagonal.

Fig. 15 Ionic order

Fig. 16 Asia Minor base and pedestal of the Ionic order

Fig. 17 Capital of the Ionic order. Construction of a volute

Fig. 18 Construction of the volute of the Ionic order

Fig. 19 Corinthian order (façade projection)

Fig.20 Base and pedestal of the Corinthian order

Fig.21 Corinthian order lampshade

Fig. 22 Construction of the Corinthian capital (diagonal projection)

To draw an abacus from the center of the columns with a radius of 2 modules, describe a circle whose diameter corresponds to the diagonal of the abacus. A square inscribed in a circle is drawn along the diagonals. The side of this square is taken as the radius to determine the center of the curved concave part of the abacus using serifs. Then a natural profile of the abacus is drawn on a diagonal view, which can then be depicted in plan and on the facade. The next stage is to find 8 points in the plan - three-quarter rollers, which are bunches of leaf stems and volute curls emerging from them, as if supporting the corners of the abacus and rosettes on the depressed parts of the abacus. On the façade of a capital, the corner scrolls are visible in foreshortening, so they are first correctly depicted in a diagonal view, then projected onto the plan, and then the façade projection is performed.

The limits within which the curls are located are preliminarily determined. To do this, the height of the capital in 2 modules is divided into three parts: a lower row of acanthus leaves, an upper row of acanthus leaves and a row of scrolls supported by their leaves. Moreover, the curls account for 2/3 of the upper third of the capital. Then a line is drawn tangent to the astragalus shaft and the abacus quarter shaft. The curls and leaves on the diagonal view of the capital should not extend beyond this tangent. Within these limits are angular curls. Leaves are also first depicted on a diagonal projection, then on a plan, and only then are transferred to the façade projection of the capital.

A complex or composite order is presented in detail in Fig. 23. A detailed description of it is not given due to the fact that after considering the basic principles of constructing other types of orders, identifying the features of this order does not present any significant difficulties.

The arrangement of columns on the facade is determined by INTERCOLUMN. Intercolumnium is the distance between the lower parts of the columns.

In conclusion, in Fig. 24 shows cuttings - ornaments characteristic of broken pieces. The cutting pattern repeats the outline of the break and reveals its shape. This can be noted in the ionics with which the quarter shaft was decorated, in the acanthus leaves on the gooseneck and heel, in the beads on the bolster, etc.

Fig.23 Composite order

Rice. 24 Drawings characteristic of architectural fragments